Concentration of Ores

 Some important ores of some metals are given in the following table.

Metal Occurrence

1. Bauxite, Al2O3. x H2O

Aluminium
2. Cryolite, Na3AlF6

1. Haematite, Fe2O3
Iron
2. Magnetite, Fe3O4

1. Copper pyrites, CuFeS2

2. Copper glance, Cu2S
Copper 3. Malachite,
CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
4. Cuprite, Cu2O

1. Zinc blende or
Sphalerite, ZnS
Zinc
2. Calamine, ZnCO3
3. Zincite, ZnO

Concentration (or Dressing or Benefaction) of ores

 Removal of unwanted materials such as sand and clay from ores
Some Important Procedures
 Hydraulic washing
o Based on gravity differences between the ore and the gangue particles
o In one such process, the lighter gangue particles are washed away by a stream of
water, leaving behind the heavier ore.

 Magnetic separation
o Based on differences in magnetic properties between the ore and the gangue particles
o Magnetic field is applied to separate magnetically attractive particles from magnetically
non-attractive particles.
o Schematic diagram of magnetic separation is as follows:
 Froth-Floatation method
o Applied to remove gangue from sulphide ores
o Mineral and gangue particles are separated by first wetting the mineral particles with
oil, and gangue particles with water, and then the mineral particles are carried out by
forming froth.
o Sometimes, depressants are used for separating two sulphide ores by selectively
preventing one ore from forming froth. For example, NaCN is used as a depressant for
separating two sulphide ores, ZnS and PbS.
 Leaching
Used if the ore is soluble in some suitable solvent
o Leaching of alumina from bauxite:

o Leaching of some other ores:

Ores of metals like Ag and Au are leached with a dilute solution of NaCN and KCN in
the presence of air.
Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore &
Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy
Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore
 Two steps −
o Conversion of concentrated ore into oxide
o Reduction of the oxide to metal

 Ores are converted into oxides because it is easier to reduce oxides

 Conversion into oxide
o Calcination
It involves the conversion of hydroxide and carbonate ores into oxides by heating the
ores either in the absence or in a limited supply of air, at a temperature below the
melting point of the metal.

This process causes the volatile matter to escape, thereby leaving behind the metal
oxide.

o Roasting
It involves the conversion of sulphide ores into oxides by heating the ores in a regular
supply of air, at a temperature below the melting point of the metal.

If the ore contains iron, then it slags off as iron silicate.

 Reduction of the oxide to metal

o It involves heating the oxide with reducing agents such as C, CO and some metals
o
o Some metal oxides require heating as they are difficult to be reduced.

Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy

 ΔG = ΔH − TΔS
Where,
ΔG = Change in Gibbs energy
ΔH = Change in enthalpy
T = Temperature
ΔS = Change in entropy

Where,
= Change in Gibbs energy in standard condition
R = Gas constant
T = Temerature
K = Equilibrium constant
 Reaction will proceed only when ΔG = − ve, i.e., ΔG < 0
When ΔS > 0 and T is large, TΔS > ΔH
And then, ΔH − TΔS < 0
⇒ ΔG < 0

Ellingham Diagram
 Graphical representation of Gibbs energy
 Useful for predicting the feasibility of thermal reduction of ores
 Limitations:
 It predicts whether a reaction is feasible or not.
It does not give an idea about the kinetics of the reactions
 The interpretation of is based on ( ). It is presumed that the
reactants and the products are in equilibrium. But this is not always true as the
reactant or the product may be solid.

 When a metal oxide is reduced, the oxygen lost by it is taken away by the reducing agent and
as a result, the reducing agent gets converted into its oxide as follows:

These reactions describe the actual reduction of the metal oxide M xO. The values for

these reactions can be calculated from values, and from this, it can be predicted whether
a reaction is feasible or not. A selection of suitable reducing agent and appropriate
temperature is required for the reduction of a metal oxide.
Applications of Thermodynamic Principles
Extraction of Iron from Its Oxide
 One of the main steps in the reduction of iron oxide is

It is a combination of two simpler reactions.

Net Gibbs energy change

The result reaction will take place when is negative.

 The following figure is a plot of Gibbs energy vs T for the formation of some oxides
(Ellingham diagram).

 An element can reduce the oxide of another element if the standard free energy of formation

of the oxide of the former is more negative than the latter.

o It can be observed from the given graph that above 1073 K (approx.),

. So, coke will reduce FeO, and will itself be oxidised to CO.
 During the extraction of iron, the reduction of iron oxides takes place in a blast furnace. In this
process, hot air is blown from the bottom of the furnace and coke is burnt to raise the
temperature up to 2200 K in the lower portion itself. The temperature is lower in the upper
part. Thus, it is the lower part where the reduction of iron oxides (Fe 2O3 and Fe3O4) takes
place.
o The reactions taking place in the lower temperature range (500 − 800 K) are:

o The reactions taking place in the higher temperature range (900 − 1500 K) are:

o The silicate impurity of the ore is removed as slag by calcium oxide (CaO), which is
formed by the decomposition of limestone (CaCO3).

Extraction of Copper from Cuprous Oxide (Cu2O)

 Coke will reduce Cu2O as

(From Ellingham diagram)
 The sulphide ores are roasted/smelted to give oxides

 Then, coke can be used for reducing the oxide metallic copper

 In the actual process, the ore is mixed with silica and heated in a reverberatory furnace.
 In the furnace, iron slags off as iron silicate, and copper is formed as copper matte (containing
Cu2S and FeS).

 Copper matte is put in a silica-lined convertor to remove the remaining FeO and FeS present
in the matte as slag (FeSiO3). Also, the same silica is added to the silica-lined convertor. Then,
a hot air blast is blown. As a result, the remaining FeS and FeO are converted into iron silicate
(FeSiO3), and Cu2S is converted into metallic copper.

 Copper is obtained as blister copper.

Extraction of Zinc from Zinc Oxide
 Coke is used for reducing zinc oxide.

 The obtained metal is distilled off and collected by rapid chilling.

Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy

 Metals can be obtained by the reduction of metal ions in solution or molten state.
 The reduction can be carried out by electrolysis, in which, the metal is reduced by a more
reactive metal.

 Highly reactive metals such as Na and K are difficult to reduce by this method.
 During electrolysis, the Mn+ ions are discharged at the cathode and get deposited there.
 For the electrodes, suitable materials are selected, considering the reactivity of the metal
produced.
 Sometimes, a flux is added to the electrolyte for making the molar mass more conducting.
Metallurgy of Aluminium
 Electrolytic cell for the extraction of aluminium
 Na3AlF6 or CaF2 is added to alumina to lower the melting point, and to increase the
conductivity of the electrolyte.
 The overall reaction is

 This electrolytic process is known as Hall−Heroult process.

 The oxygen liberated at the anode reacts with the carbon of the anode to produce CO and CO 2.
 The cell reactions are

At Cathode:
At Anode:

Extraction of Copper from Low-grade Ores and Scraps

 From low-grade ores, copper is extracted by hydrometallurgy.
 The ore is leached out using acid or bacteria.
 Then, Cu2+ ion is reduced by treating Cu2+ solution with scrap iron or H2.

Oxidation : Reduction
Extraction of Chlorine from Brine
 Involves oxidation reaction

 For this reaction,

 Applying the relation we have

 This reaction naturally requires an external emf greater than 2.2 V. But the electrolysis
requires an excess potential to overcome some other hindering reactions.
 Electrolysis of molten NaCl is also carried out, which produces Na metal in the place of NaOH.
Extraction of Gold and Silver

In the extraction of gold and silver, the metal is leached with NaCN or KCN, which is an
oxidation reaction.

During the process, Ag is oxidised to Ag+ and Au is oxidised to Au+

Refining
Distillation
 Involves evaporation of pure metal
 Used for metals having low boiling points, such as Zn, Hg
Liquation
 Involves flowing of low melting metal like tin on a sloping surface so that higher melting
impurities are left behind
Electrolytic Refining
 Impure metal is refined using electricity.
 The impure metal is made the anode, and a strip of pure metal is made the cathode.
 A solution of a soluble salt of the same metal is taken as the electrolyte.
 Impurities get collected below the anode and are known as anode mud.
 At anode:

 At cathode:

 Anode mud of blister copper contains antimony, selenium, tellurium, silver, gold and platinum.
Zone Refining
 Principle − Impurities are more soluble in the molten state of metal (the melt) than in the
solid state.
 In this process, a circular heater is fixed at one end of a rod of impure metal.

 As the heater moves, the molten zone of the rod also moves along with it
 As a result, pure metal crystallises out of the melt, and the impurities pass to the adjacent
molten zone.
 This process is repeated several times, which leads to the segregation of impurities at one end
of the rod. Then, the end with the impurities is cut off.
Vapour Phase Refining
 In this process, the impure metal is converted into its volatile compound, which is
decomposed to obtain the pure metal.
 To carry out this process −
o The metal should form a volatile compound with an available reagent
o The volatile compound should be easily decomposable so that the metal can
be easily recovered
 Nickel, zirconium and titanium are refined using this process
 Mond process for refining nickel

 van Arkel Method for refining zirconium or titanium

o All the oxygen and nitrogen present as impurity are removed.
o Crude metal is heated with iodine in an evacuated vessel.

o Metal iodide is decomposed on a tungsten filament, electrically heated to

about 1800 K to give the pure metal.

Chromatographic Methods
 Principle − Different components of a mixture are differently adsorbed on an
adsorbent.
 Some chromatographic techniques are −
o Column chromatography
o Paper chromatography
o Gas chromatography

 There are two phases in chromatography: mobile phase and stationary phase.
 Column chromatography is useful for the purification of elements available in minute
quantities. It is also used for removing the impurities that are not very different in
chemical properties from the element to be purified.
 Adsorbed components are removed (eluted) using suitable solvents (eluents).
 Schematic diagrams of column chromatography in industrial and laboratory methods
are as follows:

MAZHAR SIR
(M.Sc. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY)
CONTACT NO. 7878114456