FUNDAMENTALS OF LIQUID MEASUREMENT – PART 1

Class Number 2160

Ralph S. Papesh
BP Pipelines (North America) Inc.
28100 Torch Parkway
Warrenville, IL 60555

The petroleum industry has adopted standards of

Accurate liquid measurement is an important aspect volume to correct for the effects of thermal
of the petroleum industry. With regard to commerce, expansion/contraction. The standard volume in the
it is the basis of custody transfer between producers, United States is the barrel, which contains 42 US
pipelines, refineries, petrochemical plants, utility gallons measured at the standard temperature of
plants, products marketing and the transportation 60°F. In Europe, and many other parts of the world,
industry. As it pertains to process control, it is the standard volume is the liter, which is measured
needed to maintain specific flow rates, pressures at the standard temperature of 15°C. Tables of
and levels to ensure precise quality and Volume Correction Factors (VCF) for correcting
environmental control. volumes, measured at any temperature, to the
equivalent volume at standard temperature are
In either custody transfer or process control, daily available from the American Petroleum Institute
small percentage volumetric measurement errors (API) and the International Standards Organization
can accumulate to large volumetric errors over a (ISO).
long period of time. These errors can have an
adverse impact on the profitability of a company. Tank temperature measurements are obtained with
a mercury thermometer, a new environmentally safe
In order to help minimize liquid petroleum glass thermometer, or with an electronic
measurement inaccuracies, a fundamental thermometer. While a mid-level temperature reading
understanding of the physical laws that affect is necessary on small tanks, readings are normally
measurement are necessary. Therefore, while taken at the upper, middle, and lower levels on large
knowledge of measurement equipment principles tanks to determine the average temperature.
and applications are necessary to design or Custody transfer metering system temperatures are
maintain an accurate system, it is equally important measured dynamically with in-line thermometers
to understand the hydrocarbon physical properties and/or electronic transmitters. These devices
that affect volume, oil quality, the method of should be located immediately downstream of the
measurement, and consequently, the price of oil. meter tube to obtain a temperature representative of
These physical properties include: Temperature, flow measurement conditions. Batch temperature
Density (or relative density, or API gravity), measurements should be flow weight averaged.
Compressibility, Sediment and water (S&W), Vapor
Pressure (RVP or TVP), and Viscosity. Density or Gravity

Temperature Density is defined as the mass of fluid per unit

volume at a given temperature. Examples are
grams per cubic centimeter (gm/cc), pounds per
Temperature measurement normally plays a
cubic foot (lb./cu. ft.) and kilograms per cubic meter
relatively significant role in volumetric measurement,
(kg/cu. m.).
compared to the other physical properties, since
petroleum liquids expand readily when heated and
Relative Density is the ratio of the density of a liquid
contract when cooled. The amount it expands or
at a given temperature to the density of pure water
contracts not only depends on the temperature, but
also on the density of the liquid. For example, crude at a standard temperature, which is either 60°F or
oil does not expand or contract the same amount as 15°C. The temperature of the liquid and the
gasoline, given the same deviation in temperature, temperature of water are shown as 70°F/60°F, for
because crude oil has a higher density. So when a example, and must be included with the density
barrel of oil is bought or sold by either meter or tank statement.
measurement, the temperature and density must
also be measured simultaneously. Density and relative density are most commonly
used for light liquid hydrocarbons (e.g., LPG, NGL,
etc.), petrochemicals and, sometimes, refined
products. Relative density is also used for contents of the tube have stabilized at the bath
determining VCF for crude oils and other temperature.
hydrocarbon mixtures when API correction Tables 5
and 6 cannot be used. For liquids that are so volatile that they would boil at
atmospheric pressure, such as LPG or LNG, density
API Gravity is a special gravity scale commonly is measured with a pycnometer. This device is a
used in the petroleum industry. API gravity is most glass or stainless steel container with an accurately
often measured with a hydrometer, which is a sealed known internal volume. The pycnometer is totally
graduated cylinder with a weight in the bottom. The filled with liquid at the same pressure as the system
hydrometer scale can be graduated in relative that custody transfer measurement or meter proving
density (specific gravity) or API gravity. API gravity is is conducted. The filled pycnometer is then weighed
related to relative density and the density of water and the density calculated from the weight and
(which is defined as 10°API) by the following volume. This is done after correcting for the
formula: pycnometer tare weight and the buoyancy effect of
air during weighing.
°API @ 60°F = ______141.5_______ - 131 5
Rel. Den. 60°F/ 60°F Density can affect equipment performance. The
length of time that a thermometer must be
API gravity is inversely related to relative density. suspended in a tank to determine the temperature of
Therefore, liquids that are commonly called “heavier” the tank contents increases relative to an increase in
have low API gravities and high densities or relative density of the contents. Also, the rangibility of a
densities. Also, liquids that are commonly called turbine meter is affected by changes in density.
“lighter” have high API gravities and low densities or
relative densities. API gravity or relative density is also essential to the
conversion of a volume measured at operating or
The following table shows some typical density ambient temperature to equivalent standard volume
ranges for various types of petroleum liquids. Crude at standard temperature. The equivalent volume at
oils are almost always priced at a given API gravity standard temperature is obtained by multiplying the
or for an API gravity range. volume measured at operating temperature by a
Volume Correction Factor (VCF) that may be
Petroleum Relative API Gravity obtained for most crude oils and refined products
Liquid Density Range from API Table 6. The operating temperature and
Crude Oils 1.000 - 0.780 API gravity are required for this. Table 6A is for
10° - 50°
crude oils, and Table 6B is for refined products. A
Fuel Oils, Jet Fuel 0.875 - 0.780 30° - 50° portion of Table 6A is shown below:
Gasolines 0.780 - 0.685 50° - 75°
Butanes, Propane 0.685 - 0.505 75° - 115°
TABLE 6A, GENERALIZED CRUDE OILS
The procedure for measuring density, relative VOLUME CORRECTION TO 6O F
density or API gravity by hydrometer is described is
TEMP API GRAVITY AT 60 F
API MPMS Chapter 9.1 (ASTM D 1298). This
F 45.0 45.5 46.0 46.5 47.0
method requires a separate thermometer to 75.0 0.9920 0.9920 0.9919 0.9919 0.9918
measure the temperature of the liquid at the time of 75.5 0.9917 0.9917 0.9916 0.9916 0.9915
the density measurement. Alternatively, a 76.0 0.9915 0.9914 0.9914 0.9913 0.9913
thermohydrometer may be used, which is similar to
a conventional hydrometer, but has a small glass To use Table 6, round both temperature and API
thermometer built into it, making it possible to read gravity to the nearest 0.5° and enter the table. This
both measurements with one device. Volatile liquids table is not to be interpolated for intermediate
that evaporate readily at ambient temperature must values. Therefore, the VCF for a 45.8°API crude at
use a pressure hydrometer device as described in
75.6°F would be 0.9916.
API MPMS Chapter 9.2. This is a clear glass or
plastic cylinder with sealable end caps with a
In some applications, notably meter proving, VCF is
hydrometer and thermometer inside the tube. The
called CTL or the Correction for Temperature of the
tube is filled with liquid, carefully bled down to
Liquid.
atmospheric pressure, and placed in a constant
While the above tables are convenient to use, the
temperature bath maintained at standard
preferred method for obtaining VCF is with an
temperature. The hydrometer is read after the
algorithm. An algorithm was developed by API from
data on refined products and a large variety of crude Compressibility
oils from around the world. The API algorithm,
which relates densities, VCF, and temperatures is: Compressibility is another factor that must be
considered. Liquids expand when pressure is
VCF = ρt/ρ60 = EXP[-α60∆t(1+0.8α60∆t)] reduced and shrink in volume when pressure is
increased. The effects of compressibility are less
In which: than those due to temperature, but are not
VCF = Volume Correction Factor negligible. Correction factors for compressibility
ρt = density at temperature t (CPL) are given in API MPMS Chapter 11.2. The
ρ60 = density at 60°F equation is:
α60 = thermal coefficient of expansion for
that type of liquid at 60°F CPL = 1/ [1-(P-Pe)*F]
∆t = t - 60.0
In which:
As previously stated, liquids expand and contract P = the operating pressure in psig
with temperature changes. Likewise, liquid volume Pe = the equilibrium vapor pressure at
change occurs because of variations in density or operating pressure (or zero for liquids with
API gravity. These changes are relatively small, vapor pressures less than atmospheric)
compared to temperature changes, but are not F = the compressibility factor determined in
negligible. Therefore, the API gravity of crude oil accordance with API MPMS Chapter 11.2.1
measured at some temperature, other than standard or Chapter 11.2.2. A portion of API MPMS
temperature, must be corrected to the equivalent 11.2.1 is shown below.
API gravity at 60°F by using API Table 5. Table 5A COMPRESSIBILITY FACTORS PER POUNDS SQ. IN.
is for crude oils and Table 5B is for refined products. (DIVIDE ALL NUMBERS BY 100000)
A portion of Table 5A is shown below.
TEMP API GRAVITY AT 60 DEG. F
TABLE 5A, GENERALIZED CRUDE OILS Deg F 18.0 18.5 19.0 19.5 20.0
99.0 0.434 0.437 0.440 0.444 0.447
TEMP API GRAVITY AT OBSERVED TEMPERATURE 99.5 0.434 0.437 0.441 0.444 0.448
F 35.0 35.5 36.0 36.5 37.0 37.5 100.0 0.435 0.438 0.441 0.445 0.448
51.5 35.7 36.2 36.7 37.2 37.7 38.2
52.0 35.6 36.1 36.6 37.1 37.6 38.1 This table is not interpolated. Note that the numbers
52.5 35.6 36.1 36.6 37.1 37.6 38.1
in the table must be divided by 100000. The table
was made this way to save space by not including a
This table is to be interpolated. Therefore, a crude bunch of leading zeros for each value of “F”. By way
oil that measures 36.3°API at 52.0°F, the standard of example, calculate the volume of 1000 bbls of a
gravity at 60°F would be 36.9°API. The calculation 19.9°API (at 60°F) fuel oil metered at a pressure of
for this is: 500 psi and a temperature of 100°F. The
compressibility factor (F) from the table is
36.6+[(36.3-36.0)x(37.1-36.6)]/(36.5-36.0)=36.9 0.00000448, and CPL is:
API/ASTM/GPA TP-25 – Tables 23E and 24E CPL=1/[1-(500-0)*0.00000448]=1.0023
should be used for Light Hydrocarbons. This
standard was published in 1998 and replaces The equivalent volume at atmospheric pressure is:
ASTM-IP Technical Publication Tables 23 and 24 –
1952, and GPA Technical Publication TP-16, which (1000 bbls)*(1.0023)=1002 bbls.
were previously used for volumetric measurement of
LPG. S&W
API Table 6C is used for individual and special Sediment and Water (S&W) is a collective term for
applications where the volume is corrected to 60º F non-hydrocarbon materials that are contained in
against thermal expansion coefficients at 60º F. crude oil. Crude oils may contain large amounts of
S&W as they come from the oil wells, and are treated
on-site to reduce S&W to a concentration, typically
1.0% or less, which is set by the pipeline, marine
carrier, or other transportation service which
transports the crude oil from the field to a refinery.
S&W is usually in the form of tiny droplets which are distillation flask, mixed with a large quantity of
suspended in the oil, and generally will not separate solvent, and heated to the boiling point. The vapors
from the oil phase when undisturbed. This is different that emanate from the flask contain water vapor and
from “Free Water” which is water that exists as a vapors of the lighter hydrocarbon components from
separate phase from the oil phase. Samples to be the oil sample. The vapors are cooled and
used for S&W measurement must not contain any condensed back to liquid in a water-cooled glass
free water. Most petroleum oils and refined products condenser, from which the condensate drips into a
may contain very small amounts of water in solution in slender glass receiver that has a cone-shaped
the hydrocarbon phase. In most areas, the maximum bottom. Liquid water, being heavier than the
acceptable total S&W is 1.0%. The maximum condensed liquid hydrocarbons, collects in the
acceptable free water is 0.3%. In Texas, New Mexico, bottom of the receiver where the quantity can be
and Louisiana, the total allowable S&W content is read from a milliliter scale etched on the side of the
1.0%. Also, you may have free water up to 1.0% if no glass receiver. This quantity of water is compared to
sediment is present. the original oil sample quantity and reported as
volume percent. The distillation method, even
The most common method for measuring S&W is the though very accurate, requires several hours to
centrifuge method, in which a measured (typically 50 perform in a laboratory environment.
ml) sample of crude oil is placed in a cone-shaped
glass centrifuge tube, mixed with an equal amount of Another method that measures both suspended and
solvent to reduce the density and viscosity of the oil, solution water is the Coulometric Karl Fischer
and then heated to 140°F (160°F for waxy crudes). Titration, as described in API MPMS Chapter 10.9
Several heated tubes and their contents are spun at (ASTM D 4928). An oil sample, typically 1 gm ±, is
high speed in a centrifuge for a specified amount of placed in a glass vessel that contains a specific set
time during which centrifugal force drives sediment, of chemicals called Karl Fischer Reagent. The
water and anything else heavier than the diluted oil to amount of sample injected into the analyzer can be
the bottom of the tubes. After centrifuging, the relative determined by weight or measured volumetrically
amount of S&W in the bottom of each tube is read with a syringe.
from a scale (usually calibrated in milliliters) that is
etched on the side of the tube. This quantity of S&W A chemical reaction between the water in the
is related to the original quantity of oil sample before sample and the Karl Fischer Reagent causes an
dilution and reported as percent S&W. The centrifuge electric current to flow between two electrodes
method measures suspended S&W, but does not inserted into the solution. This electric current is
measure solution water. measured and correlated to the amount of water that
was consumed and reported directly to a readout. It
There are two methods for determining S&W by can be read in either milliliters or grams, which can
centrifuge, the “Laboratory Method” described in API be converted to volume percent water or weight
MPMS Chapter 10.3 (ASTM D 4007) and the “Field percent water, depending on whether the original
Method” described in API MPMS Chapter 10.4. The sample was measured by volume or weight.
two methods use similar equipment, but differ
somewhat in detail. The laboratory equipment and The Coulometric Karl Fischer Titration is relatively
procedures are suitable only for a laboratory fast and simple to use and is considered in the
environment and are generally considered to be industry to be as accurate as the distillation method.
slightly more accurate. The equipment and The analyzer is available in units designed for
procedures for the Field Method are suitable for use laboratory use, or those that are portable and
by gaugers or operators who work out of the back of a suitable for field use.
pickup truck, and are accepted for custody transfer.
The Coulometric Karl Fischer Titration is a
Water content may be determined in the laboratory by modernized version of an older laboratory method
distillation as described in API MPMS Chapter 10.2 known as The Standard Test Method for Water in
(ASTM D 4006). This method is considered by API to Crude Oils by Karl Fischer Titration (API MPMS
be the “Referee Method” which is to be used when Chapter 10.7, ASTM D 4377). This is a
parties cannot agree on water content measurement conventional titration in which water is reacted with
by other methods. The distillation method measures excess Karl Fischer Reagent, and the excess
solution water as well as suspended water. It does not reagent is back titrated volumetrically. This
determine sediment content. procedure can be performed only in a laboratory by
An oil sample, measured either by volume (typically a trained technician, and has been largely replaced
100 ml ±) or by weight, is placed in a glass by the coulometric method.
Neither the distillation nor the Karl Fischer method density of the oil is either determined directly by
measures sediment content. In some crude oils density measurement or calculated from the
sediment is negligible and may be ignored. In measured API gravity. Oil volumes are corrected for
others, though, sediment content is significant. In S&W to give “net dry clean oil” which is the custody
such cases, the water measurement must be transfer quantity.
supplemented by a separate determination for
sediment. Calculating Net Oil Volumes

Sediment can be measured by several methods. Some important terms are:

One method for measuring sediment only is the
Sediment by Extraction Method (API MPMS Chapter GOV = Gross Observed Volume = the quantity as
10.1, ASTM D 473) in which a sample of crude oil is measured at operating temperature and pressure in
weighed into a special porous extraction thimble, a meter or in a tank. Gross volume includes the
continuously bathed with hot solvent until all soluble S&W contained in the oil.
hydrocarbons are washed out, then dried and
weighed to determine the amount of residual GSV = Gross Standard Volume = GOV corrected to
insoluble sediment. standard volume at 60°F with VCF or CTL and/or
CPL, as appropriate.
A second method for measuring sediment is the
Sediment by Membrane Filtration Method (API NSV = Net Standard Volume = net dry clean oil at
MPMS Chapter 10.8, ASTM D 4807) in which a 60°F = GSV minus S&W.
weighed sample of crude oil is placed on a micro-
pore membrane filter in a vacuum filtration device S&W may be calculated as bbls of S&W, then
and continuously washed with heated toluene until subtracted from GSV bbls to arrive at NSV bbls, or
all soluble hydrocarbon in washed out. The percent S&W may be converted to a correction
insoluble sediment remaining on the filter membrane factor and multiplied times GSV to arrive at NSV.
is dried and weighed, and reported as percent S&W correction factor (CSW) is [1 – (S&W %/100)],
sediment. and NSV = (GSV) x (CSW).

A third method is “Determination of Water and/or Vapor Pressure

Sediment in Crude Oil by the Centrifuge Method
(Field Procedure)” API MPMS draft standard Standard volume is defined as being at a standard
Chapter 10.4. This method permits the use of field temperature of either 60°F or 15°C. There is also a
centrifuges to measure sediment as an adjunct to pressure component of standard volume. For liquids
the portable Karl Fischer method for water with vapor pressures less than normal atmospheric
determination with the notation that “This method pressure at the measurement or proving
does not always produce the most accurate results, temperature, the standard pressure is called one
but it is considered the most practical method for standard atmosphere. For liquids that have vapor
field determination of water and/or sediment.” pressures greater than normal atmospheric
pressure, the definition of standard pressure is the
Sediment content and water content may be equilibrium vapor pressure of that liquid at the
reported separately, but many run tickets and oil temperature of measurement or proving.
accounting systems are designed to handle
combined S&W quantities. In such cases, The pressure referred to in this context is called the
separately measured water and sediment quantities True Vapor Pressure (TVP). The technical definition
must be combined into one value of volume percent. of TVP is the pressure at which the first bubble of
The centrifuge method measures sediment directly vapor forms in a liquid at a given temperature.
in volume percent, but the extraction and membrane There are a variety of laboratory methods that
filtration methods measure sediment on a weight measure vapor pressures that very nearly fit the
basis, and must be converted to volume percent. technical definition. TVP is often calculated from
For this purpose, the weights of the dried sediment laboratory distillation data, such as the ASTM D 86
and of the oil in the sample are corrected to distillation method. For some hydrocarbon mixtures,
equivalent volumes by their respective relative such as LPG, NGL, and EP mix, the TVP can be
densities. The relative density of the solid material calculated from a gas chromatograph compositional
is always assumed to be 2.0 (which is a analysis.
compromise value between that of dry sand and
lighter sedimentary materials), and the relative
Another form of vapor pressure is the Reid Vapor Other viscosity units are used for specific
Pressure (RVP). It is determined in accordance with applications. Saybolt Universal Seconds (SSU) and
the ASTM D 323 method. A small chamber of fixed Saybolt Furol Seconds (SSF) are examples that are
dimensions is filled with the liquid to be tested, then reported as the number of seconds required for 60
connected to an empty (but not evacuated) vapor cc of liquid sample to flow through orifices of
chamber of fixed dimensions. The assembled specified dimensions at specified temperatures.
apparatus is immersed in a constant temperature These viscosity units are commonly used for
bath at 100°F until the pressure in the apparatus industrial oils, lubricating oils and fuel oils, because
stabilizes at a constant pressure as indicated by a the tests are relatively quick and easy to run.
calibrated pressure gauge on the top of the vapor
chamber. This pressure is recorded as the RVP, Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature. For
psia at 100°F. For certain petroleum stocks, TVP example, a product with a normally high viscosity,
may be estimated from RVP by the use of charts. such as gas oil, will have difficulty flowing through a
pipeline at cold temperatures, but will flow readily
RVP is used to set safe operating specifications for when heated. Pressure normally has little effect on
the transportation of crude oil or petroleum products. viscosity, but may become significant at pressures
Normally, they may be accepted for transportation greater than 1,000 psig. where an increase in
only if their RVP is less than 10 psia. This helps to pressure will increase viscosity noticeably.
prevent excessive losses due to evaporation,
damage to tanks or marine vessel compartments The effect of viscosity is well known in the operation
due to excessive pressure or boiling, or inaccurate of pumps and pipelines. Increases in viscosity
measurement due to flashing in meters. Vapor increase horsepower required to operate pumps and
pressure, even when less than atmospheric, causes to overcome friction loss as liquids flow through
evaporation loss of petroleum liquids from tanks and pipes. As it pertains to measurement equipment, the
vessels that are not fitted with evaporation loss viscosity of oil has an effect on slippage in both
prevention and/or recovery systems. positive displacement and turbine meters, thereby,
affecting the meter factor. High viscosity oil reduces
Viscosity slippage in positive displacement meters, which
results in lower meter factors. Turbine meters are
Viscosity is the characteristic of a fluid that causes it particularly susceptible to the effects of viscosity.
to resist flow. Viscosity is measured in several ways, Higher viscosity tends to reduce the linearity of
and is reported in a variety of units. The turbine meters and may significantly increase the
fundamental unit of absolute viscosity is the poise, minimum flow rate rating. Since viscosity changes
which is the force in dynes to effect a tangential noticeably with temperature, relatively small
displacement over one square centimeter in one changes in temperature may markedly affect the
second. Kinematic viscosity is defined as absolute performance of a turbine meter in high viscosity
viscosity divided by density in consistent units. liquid service.
Kinematic viscosity is measured in Stokes and is
more useful in predicting the effect of viscosity on Conclusion
meters, pumps, pipe friction loss, etc. Both poise
and Stokes are too large for most practical Accurate liquid measurement is necessary in order
applications, so the centipoise (cp), which is 0.01 to economically compete in the petroleum industry
poise, and the centistoke (cs), which is 0.01 Stoke, today. Therefore, it is essential to obtain an
are commonly used. understanding of hydrocarbon physical properties
These viscosities are commonly measured either and how they affect measurement equipment and
with small glass capillary tubes of specified methods.
dimensions and viscosity determined by the time for
a liquid sample to flow through the capillary, or with Reference
mechanical viscometers which actually measure
shear forces in a liquid sample. The higher the Poynter, Wesley G., “Fundamentals of Liquid
numerical value of viscosity, the greater the Measurement – Part 1”, International School Of
resistance the fluid offers to flow. The viscosity of Hydrocarbon Measurement –2002
many common petroleum products range from about
0.5 cp to about 2 cp, whereas viscosity of crude oils
range from a few hundred cp to thousands of cp.