School HVAC

The following article was published in ASHRAE Journal, May 2007. ©Copyright 2007 American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc. It is presented for educational purposes only. This article may not be copied and/or distributed electronically or in
paper form without permission of ASHRAE.

This school in Georgia was part of a research investigation emphasizing humidity control, energy efficiency and indoor air quality.

High-Performance Schools
High Marks for Energy Efficiency, Humidity Control, Indoor Air Quality & First Cost
By John Fischer, Member ASHRAE; Kirk Mescher, P.E., Member ASHRAE; Ben Elkin, P.E., Member ASHRAE;
Stephen M. McCune, AIA; and Jack Gresham

T
 his article demonstrates how school facilities can be designed and A May 2003 ASHRAE Journal article4
summarized findings of a comprehensive
operated to comply with ASHRAE’s ventilation, energy and thermal indoor environmental research investiga-
comfort standards1,2,3 while remaining energy efficient and cost ef- tion conducted for school facilities. Spon-
sored by the U.S. Department of Energy
fective. Research findings from a DOE-sponsored demonstration site (DOE) and completed in cooperation
with the Georgia Tech Research Institute
show systems that actively control temperature, space humidity and (GTRI) and Georgia State University, the
investigation monitored the indoor en-
ventilation can perform beyond the standards’ requirements. Novel vironment in 10 Georgia schools over a
engineering solutions and equipment designs proved to substantially
About the Authors
increase operating efficiency, and meet point requirements for LEED John Fischer is director of research and devel-
opment for SEMCO Inc., Columbia, Mo. Kirk
certification. The construction cost of this advanced HVAC system Mescher, P.E., is a principal with C&M Engineering,
Columbia, Mo. Ben Elkin, P.E., is an energy consul-
was comparable to that of conventional HVAC systems that consume tant to the Floyd County Board of Education, Rome,
Ga. Stephen M. McCune, AIA, is vice president
more energy and have been shown to be less effective at controlling of architecture for Southern A&E, Atlanta. Jack
Gresham is the executive director of facilities,
humidity and ensuring proper ventilation. Floyd County Board of Education, Rome, Ga.

30 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

period of two years. Among other observations, the researchers designed to be energy efficient, comfortable, and operated to
concluded that the schools equipped with conventional pack- maintain a high level of indoor air quality. This project built
aged HVAC equipment could not be operated with sufficient upon the knowledge base provided by the DOE schools IAQ
ventilation air to satisfy the recommendations of ANSI/ASHRAE investigation and IADR development program.
Standard 62-2001, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Qual-
ity. The study found the outdoor air had either been shut off or Site Description and Design Scheme
significantly reduced in each school in an attempt to improve Pepperell High School is located near Rome, Ga., approxi-
humidity and address comfort complaints, including poor indoor mately 50 miles (80 km) northwest of Atlanta. This 200,000 ft2
air quality. It concluded that school designers needed an energy- (18 580 m2) facility, designed for 1,200 students includes three
efficient, packaged HVAC system that could control temperature main classroom wings, a media center, an administrative area,
and humidity while continuously delivering a minimum of 15 a cafeteria, a large performing arts center and a gymnasium.
cfm (7 L/s) of outdoor air per student.4 – 10,14 Figure 2 provides a breakdown of the various school depart-
That research provided the basis for the development of a ments and associated HVAC details.
novel integrated active desiccant—vapor compression hy- When planning for the construction of the new Pepperell
brid rooftop (IADR) packaged unit specifically designed High School, the design team was instruct-
to meet this need. DOE, through the Oak Ridge National ed to integrate progressive technologies
Laboratory (ORNL) cofunded the development of the like premium efficiency lighting with
system. motion detectors, LED exit signs, and
The IADR system integrates the benefits of ac- waterless urinals. Because the greatest
tive desiccant dehumidification with an advanced energy consumer within a school facil-
vapor compression heat pump cycle into a com- ity is the HVAC system, it was given
pact, hybrid packaged unit. It is designed to the highest priority.
accommodate any percentage of outdoor air, and Key HVAC design priorities included:
will deliver air much drier than vapor compres- • Outdoor air ventilation in accordance
sion alone. As shown in Figure 1, the system with Standard 62-2001 (consistently de-
brings outdoor (1) (or return [2]) air through livered);
a fan and DX cooling coil (3). Some of • Cooling season space relative humidity of
this air is passed through an active desic- 50% at 75°F (24°C)14 and avoid saturated air
cant wheel (4) while the remainder is in ductwork;
bypassed (5) to provide supply air (6) • Use packaged direct expansion equipment (no
having the desired sensible heat ratio. chillers or boilers were desired);
A small amount of outdoor air (7) • Minimize HVAC operating costs according
is heated to regenerate the active to ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA Standard 90.1-1999,
desiccant wheel, picking up the Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise
adsorbed moisture and venting Residential Buildings (low demand/consumption);
it outdoors (8). • Minimize classroom noise to satisfy the ANSI
An IADR was installed to S12.60-2002 sound criteria limit of 35 dbA;
condition the ORNL Combined Figure 1: Flow schematic of the IADR. • Minimize maintenance costs and optimize remote
Heating and Power Laboratory where it has been instru- monitoring support;
mented and continuously monitored over the past two years. • Maximize usable net interior floor area and architectural
ORNL testing confirmed the low dew point capability and high appeal of the final structure; and
operating efficiency. Specifically, EER performance at part load • Minimize any first cost premium over traditional HVAC
conditions was measured as 42% higher than conventional pack- designs.
aged equipment (18 versus 12.7). The principal reasons for this The HVAC design used for the Pepperell project (referred to
improvement included the use of variable speed compressors from this point forward as the advanced design) allowed these
combined with optimized control algorithms.11 – 13 priorities to be met.
Based on the success of the ORNL research and the es-
tablished need to improve HVAC designs applied to school Advanced DOAS Design
facilities, DOE cofunded an installation in a newly constructed Two design decisions impacting the main classroom wings
high school to demonstrate that schools can be economically proved to be instrumental in accomplishing the stated goals.

May 2007 ASHRAE Journal 31

The first decision was to “decouple” Supply Outdoor VAV Equipment Used
School Area Served Area (ft2)
all latent loads from the main VAV (cfm) (cfm) (yes/no)
air handling unit. By dehumidifying Classroom Wing A 41,835 45,764 12,000 Y 2 DOAH,* 4 VAV AHUs,
(North and South) 4 VS Condensing units†
the outdoor air volume to a low dew
point, the IADR system, operating Classroom Wing B 18,250 18,000 4,950 Y 2 TC Hybrid units,‡ VAV
(North and South)
as a dedicated outdoor air system
Classroom Wing C 41,835 54,470 11,175 Y 2 DOAH,* 4 VAV AHUs,
(DOAS), was able to remove the (North and South) 4 VS Condensing units†
latent loads from both the outdoor
Media Center Wing B 7,350 6,000 900 N DOAS,‡ VAV AHU,
and indoor airstreams. The control VS Condensing unit†
system measured the dew point Administration/ 7,650 5,000 420 Y DOAS,‡ VAV AHU,
of the return air entering the main Reception Wing B VS Condensing unit†
VAV system. Based on that value, Atrium Wing B 5,875 5,200 930 N DOAS,‡ VAV AHU,
the supply air dew point leaving VS Condensing unit†
the IADR was modulated (down to Cafeteria and Kitchen 12,445 10,700 3,750 N TC Hybrid unit,§ 1 RTU**
as low as a 38°F [3°C] dew point), Band and Choral 9,550 5,450 1,650 Y TC Hybrid unit,§ VAV
to ensure the space humidity did Performing Arts Center 16,450 18,200 7,500 N TC Hybrid unit,§ 1 RTU
not rise above a 55°F (13°C) dew Gymnasium and 35,500 27,920 16,120 N 2 TC Hybrid units,§
point. The many benefits offered by Locker Rooms multiple RTUs
this dedicated outdoor air system Total 196,740 196,704 59,395
approach have been extensively *Active desiccant – vapor compression hybrid system operated as a dedicated outdoor air system (DOAH). Includes total energy
recovery, variable speed compressors and other enhancements for energy efficiency (Figure 1).
7 6
reported by Fischer, Bayer, Mum- †VAV air-handling units served by remote condensing units with heat pump integration using variable speed compressor option.
ma16 and others. ‡Total recovery – passive desiccant dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS) preconditioning to three AHUs served by remote condens-
ing units with heat pump integration and variable speed compressor option..
This allows the supply air tem- §Active desiccant – vapor compression hybrid system operated as a variable volume system to handle all outdoor and space loads.
perature leaving the VAV unit to Includes total energy recovery, variable speed compressors, etc., as shown in Figure 12 (Advanced Design 2).
**RTU refers to conventional rooftop unit. In most cases, the RTUs are staged with the IADR systems and used only at times of
be modulated to meet the sensible peak occupancy.
load requirements of the individual Figure 2: Site summary with brief mechanical description.
classrooms—rather than being dic-
tated by the need for dehumidification. Removing all of the Accurate Load Modeling
humidity loads with the dedicated outdoor air system avoids Data summarized in Figure 3 was used to calculate the actual
the “over-cooling and reheat” approach common to most VAV sensible and latent loads for one classroom zone at Pepperell
systems, greatly improving the overall system efficiency. It High School. These actual loads were compared to those cal-
also complies with Standard 90.1-1999, which recommends culated for the classroom areas using ASHRAE recommended
against using reheat from new energy sources for humidity guidelines discussed in chapters 29 and 30 of the 2001 ASHRAE
control purposes. A contrast in energy use between the Pepperell Handbook—Fundamentals.17 These calculations reflected a
HVAC design shown as Figure 3 (advanced design) and the well constructed, tight facility using high efficiency lighting. A
baseline (conventional) approach shown as Figure 5 highlights value of 200 Btu/person (211 kJ/person) was used to estimate
the importance of following 90.1 recommendations. the latent load associated with the occupants, reflecting moder-
The second critical design decision was to use the IADR ate activity as recommended by the DOE-sponsored indoor air
dedicated outdoor air systems with total energy recovery quality research findings.4,6
modules to measure and deliver a constant supply of precondi- The results of this analysis are summarized in Figure 4. As
tioned outdoor air to the VAV air-handling units. This approach shown, the calculated loads agree quite well with the actual
ensures that even as the airflow supplied by each main VAV loads that existed. This confirms that following recommenda-
air-handling unit varies from its high of approximately 10,000 tions of the ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals allows an
scfm (4718 L/s) (during peak cooling) to a low of 4,300 (peak accurate estimate of building loads.
heating), the amount of outdoor air delivered to the occupied Some commercially available modeling programs do not
spaces complies with Standard 62-2001 recommendations. accurately reflect the internal latent loads associated with oc-
During unoccupied times, the outdoor air intake is reduced cupants and infiltration. Without careful user input, the resultant
and return air is conditioned by the IADR, using primarily the HVAC designs may result in schools having the high humidity
active desiccant wheel to maintain an upper limit to the space conditions and low ventilation rates reported in Reference 4.
humidity level. These loads confirm the high latent load fractions (low SHR)
Figure 3 provides a simplified flow schematic of the advanced that challenge designers of school facilities, necessitating the
HVAC design used for the main classroom areas. Measured use of “over-cooling” with costly zone reheat to control space
data is presented for four operating state points throughout the humidity with conventional HVAC systems. The alternative is
system. Cooling and heating season data is provided at peak to accept high space humidity levels and/or reduce ventilation,
and part load conditions. sacrificing IAQ in an attempt to reach comfort. This common

32 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

Advertisement formerly in this space.
13 To Remote Condenser/Heat Pump
compromise has been reported by
To Integrated Condenser/Heat Pump
Fischer, Bayer, Downing and oth-
1 2
ers.(4,5,6,7,9,10,15,18,19) 3 4
Total Energy 6 Upper Level VAV AHU 8
Recovery Module 5 To Remote Condenser/Heat Pump
Comparison with Conventional 14
9 11
7
Baseline System 10
Active Desiccant – 
To compare costs and benefits of 12
Vapor Compression Hybrid
DOAS Lower Level VAV AHU With Typical Classroom Wing With
the advanced system, the authors Remote Heat Pump Remote Heat Pump Condenser* VAV Boxes and Electric Reheat
Condenser for VAV AHUs
modeled the behavior of a conven-
tional VAV system with terminal Weather Conditions Evaluated
reheat. Energy data is provided for System State Point
88°F/132 gr. 77°F/109 gr. 62°F/82 gr.†,‡ 34°F/24 gr.‡
this approach with and without the
(Psychrometrics/Airflow) (°F/grains) (°F/grains) (°F/grains) (°F/grains)
addition of total energy recovery
1 Outdoor Air 88°F/132 gr. 77°F/109 gr. 62°F/82 gr. 34°F/24 gr.
preconditioning (Figure 6).
5,035 cfm 5,035 cfm 5,035 cfm 5,035 cfm
Comparisons with other non-
conventional systems that offer an 2 After Recovery Wheel 78.6°F/87 gr. 75.5°F/80 gr. 69.2°F/71 gr. 61°F/33 gr.

opportunity for considerable energy 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm
savings over the baseline system cho- 3 After Hybrid DOAS Coil 52.6°F/57 gr. 53.5°F/60 gr. 57.6°F/70 gr. 61°F/33 gr.
sen have been made, but are beyond 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm
the scope of this article. After careful 4 Hybrid DOAS Bypass 52.6°F/57 gr. 53.5°F/60 gr. 57.6°F/70 gr. 61°F/33 gr.
consideration, the traditional VAV 2,363 cfm 3,185 cfm 3,065 cfm 4,020 cfm
approach was chosen as the baseline 5 After Desiccant Wheel 86°F/24 gr. 99°F/13 gr. 106°F/16 gr. 61°F/33 gr.
system since it is commonly seen in 2,362 cfm 1,540 cfm 1,665 cfm 705 cfm
school facilities, it is considered to be
6 Preconditioned Outdoor Air 69.3°F/41 gr. 68.3°F/45 gr. 74.4°F/51 gr. 61°F/33 gr.
energy efficient, and it has the abil-
4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm 4,725 cfm
ity to control space humidity while
7 Outdoor Air to VAV AHU 69.3°F/41 gr. 68.3°F/45 gr. 74.4°F/51 gr. 61°F/33 gr.
delivering the outdoor air quantities
2,925 cfm 2,925 cfm 2,925 cfm 2,925 cfm
recommended by Standard 62-2001.
It is difficult to design a functional 8 Return Air from Zones 75.2°F/68 gr. 75°F/67 gr. 72.1°F/66 gr. 70.7°F/38 gr.

VAV system using direct expan- 8,861 cfm 7,447 cfm 5,542 cfm 3,948 cfm
sion18,19 without the use of variable 9 Return Air to AHU 75.2°F/68 gr. 75°F/67 gr. 72.1°F/66 gr. 70.7°F/38 gr.
speed capacity control like that built 6,225 cfm 4,810 cfm 2,905 cfm 1,311 cfm
into the advanced system approach. 10 Mixed Air to AHU Coil 73.3°F/59 gr. 72.5°F/59 gr. 73.2°F/58 gr. 64°F/34 gr.
For the purpose of comparison, we 9,150 cfm 7,735 cfm 5,830 cfm 4,236 cfm
have assumed that the cooling capac- 11 VAV AHU Supply Air 62°F/59 gr. 66°F/59 gr. 78.2°F/58 gr. 92°F/34 gr.
ity of the conventional DX approach 9,150 cfm 7,735 cfm 5,830 cfm 4,236 cfm
analyzed can be modulated similar to
12 VAV Box Supply Air§ 62°F/59 gr. 66°F/59 gr. 78.2°F/58 gr. 92°F/34 gr.
that of a chilled water system.
1,830 cfm 1,520 cfm 1,105 cfm 912 cfm
Figure 5 includes a schematic
13 Exhaust to Recovery Wheel 75.2°F/68 gr. 75°F/67 gr. 72.1°F/66 gr. 70.7°F/38 gr.
describing this conventional VAV
system and provides the perfor- 4,253 cfm 4,253 cfm 4,253 cfm 4,253 cfm

mance state points associated with 14 Desiccant Regeneration 198°F/132 gr. 173°F/109 gr. 168°F/82 gr. NA
operating this system to satisfy the 1,223 cfm 1,223 cfm 1,223 cfm 0
same ventilation and humidity con- *Data shown for the AHU (Points 7-11) serving the lower floor of the northern half of Wing A. The total wing is approximately
20,000ft2 and includes 18 classrooms..
trol requirements delivered by the †These conditions reflects data collected during morning warm-up following night setback, thermal storage of building mass
advanced approach shown in Figure evident in sensible load.
‡Very windy day likely resulting in higher infiltration rates than modeled for sensible and latent loads.
3. This schematic shows the addition §Electric reheat energy minimized through the control algorithm which uses the AHU heat pump capability as much as possible.
of a hot water boiler and heating coil Data presented reflects actual airflow and psychrometric conditions measured at the site via real-time trended instrumentation.
to preheat the combined return and Figure 3: Advanced design with active desiccant hybrid dedicated outdoor air system precon-
ditioning.

34 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

Advertisement formerly in this space.
Actual Zone Loads (Measured Data) Versus Modeled Zone Loads
Outdoor Conditions 88°F/132 grains 77°F/109 grains 62°F/82 grains‡,§ 34°F/24 grains‡
Actual* Modeled† Actual Modeled Actual Modeled Actual Modeled
Internal Loads
Net Sensible 234,796 228,471 135,331 137,065 –69,138 4,176 –175,401 –192,776
Net Latent 102,279 98,106 76,866 78,957 57,932 56,326 10,368 30,214
Outdoor Loads
Sensible 65,318 10,206 –63,593 –187,280
Latent 205,632 134,946 51,410 –28,917
Total Loads
Net Sensible 300,114 293,789 145,537 147,271 –132,731 –59,417 –362,681 –380,056
Net Latent 307,911 303,738 211,812 213,903 109,342 107,736 –18,549 1,297
Sensible Heat Ratio 0.49 0.49 0.41 0.41
*Actual loads reflect measured values based on airflows and psychrometric conditions at the site and shown in Figure 3.
†Modeled loads based on building design characteristics and ASHRAE recommendations (2001 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals, Chapters 29 and 30).
‡Reflects data collected during morning warm-up following night setback, thermal storage of building mass evident in actual sensible load.
§Windy day resulting in higher infiltration rates than modeled for sensible and latent loads.
· All values shown are for one zone consisting of the upper and lower level of the northern half of Wing A, 18 classrooms approximately 21,000 ft2.
· Load modeling assumes 250 Btu/person sensible and 200 Btu/person latent4 using a total of 212 occupants for each zone.
· Infiltration assumes a very tight building, 0.1 cfm/ft2 of exposed wall area. Low wind condition. Lighting load reflects the actual use of 1.125 W/ft2.

Figure 4: Load analysis—actual documented loads vs. modeled loads.

outdoor airstreams to 55°F (13°C) during the heating season for the conventional approach suggests that during the cooling
since a conventional heat pump approach, especially without mode, a substantial reheat load exists at the VAV boxes. Since
total recovery precondition would not produce the heating the minimum box airflow setting must be high enough to deliver
capacity needed. A careful review of the state points shown the required outdoor air volume and the leaving coil temperature

Advertisement formerly in this space.

36 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

must be low enough to satisfy the space constantly polls the VAV boxes to deter- reduces the risk of condensation forming
internal latent load (Figure 4), many mine the highest temperature supply air on poorly insulated ductwork.
spaces would be overcooled without this that can adequately cool the space with In contrast, the conventional system
reheat capability. the greatest sensible load. Aside from the must expend additional energy to cool the
energy benefit, this warmer supply air combined outdoor and return airstream
Operational, Performance Advantages temperature ensures that the supply air- to 55°F (13°C) to achieve the desired
The advanced design offers many flow to each box is high enough to deliver space humidity control. The air must then
important operational and performance the outdoor air needed by each space to be reheated before entering the zones to
advantages over the conventional VAV satisfy the indoor air quality needs. It also avoid over-cooling. Supply air through
system. A brief summary of these ad-
vantages are provided for each of the
state points evaluated. Observations
made reflect actual data that was trended
and collected by the onsite direct digital
control system designed to serve as an
effective data acquisition site. This ap-
proach has been successfully employed
on numerous DOE-sponsored research
sites, allowing for third-party verification
of performance.

Peak Cooling Condition:

88°F/132 grains (31°C/18.9 g/kg)
At the peak ambient humidity condi- Advertisement formerly in this space.
tion, outdoor air at a 42°F (5.5°C) dew
point (41 grains [5.9 gm/kg] ) is delivered
by the IADR in order to maintain the
desired space humidity level. By using
a moderate 53°F (12°C) leaving coil
temperature (Figure 3) to produce a 42°F
(5.5°C) dew point, a high refrigeration
efficiency is maintained with the active
desiccant wheel producing the necessary
dew-point depression. Figure 7, high-
lights this advantage showing the modest
amount of IADR refrigeration required
to deliver cool, very dry outdoor air to
the main VAV air-handling unit.
This dehumidified outdoor airstream
also enables the VAV system to operate
with sensible-only dry cooling coils.
These coils are designed with fewer
rows than commonly used, lowering the
system pressure loss and significantly re-
ducing fan energy. Likewise, the relative
humidity levels throughout the ductwork
are maintained below 70%, an ASHRAE
recommendation to avoid potential fun-
gal contamination.
The 62°F (17°C) supply air tempera-
ture from the advanced system reflects
the field-measured sensible load within
the occupied spaces (Figures 3 and 4).
This air temperature is reset upwards by
the energy management system, which

May 2007 ASHRAE Journal 37

the ductwork remains near satura- To Remote Condenser To Boiler
tion with this approach.

Part Load Cooling Condition: Glycol Boiler for VAV AHU

Heating 7
77°F/109 grains (25°C/15.6 g/kg) Upper Level VAV AHU
At this part-load condition, there To Remote Condenser
2
To Boiler

is less latent load (infiltration) and

1 5
sensible load (heat gain and infil- 3 4
tration) within the occupied space. 6
Airflow
Figure 3 shows the IADR system Remote Condenser Station Lower Level VAV AHU With
for VAV AHUs Typical Classroom Wing With
responds by delivering the precon- Remote Condenser VAV Boxes and Electric Reheat
ditioned outdoor air at a slightly System State Point Weather Conditions Evaluated
higher humidity level (45 grains 88°F/132 gr. 77°F/109 gr. 62°F/82 gr. 34°F/24 gr.
[3 g]) than required at peak load
(Psychrometrics/Airflow) (°F/grains) (°F/grains) (°F/grains) (°F/grains)
conditions, while still maintaining
the desired 55°F (13°C) space dew 1 Outdoor Air 88°F/132 gr. 77°F/109 gr. 62°F/82 gr. 34°F/24 gr.
point. Less cooling capacity and 2,925 cfm 2,925 cfm 2,925 cfm 2,925 cfm
regeneration energy is used by the 2 Return Air to AHU 75.2°F/68 gr. 75°F/67 gr. 72.1°F/66 gr. 70.7°F/38 gr.
IADR at this more frequent, part- 6,225 cfm 4,810 cfm 2,905 cfm 1,311 cfm
load condition. 3 Mixed Air to AHU Coils 79.3°F/89 gr. 75.8°F/83 gr. 67°F/74 gr. 45.4°F/28 gr.
The supply air temperature leav-
9,150 cfm 7,735 cfm 5,830 cfm 4,236 cfm
ing the main VAV air-handling unit
is increased (to 66°F [19°C]) while 4 Air to AHU Heating Coil 54°F/59 gr. 54°F/59 gr. 54°F/58 gr. 45.4°F/28 gr.
the airflow is decreased, cutting the 9,150 cfm 7,735 cfm 5,830 cfm 4,236 cfm
energy consumed in response to 5 VAV AHU Supply Air 56°F/59 gr. 56°F/59 gr. 56°F/58 gr. 56°F/28 gr.
the reduction in the space sensible 9,150 cfm 7,735 cfm 5,830 cfm 4,236 cfm
cooling load. The moderate outdoor
6 VAV Box Supply Air* 62°F/59 gr. 66°F/59 gr. 78.2°F/58 gr. 92°F/34 gr.
temperature and humidity content
1,830 cfm 1,520 cfm 1,105 cfm 912 cfm
increases both the operating ef-
ficiency and cooling output of the 7 Relief Air 75.2°F/68 gr. 75°F/67 gr. 72.1°F/66 gr. 70.7°F/38 gr.
vapor compression cooling systems, *Data presented reflects the airflow and psychrometric state points required to maintain space conditions comparable to the
advanced system (Figure 3).
especially where the variable speed · These conditions reflects data collected during morning warm-up following night-setback, thermal storage of building mass
compressor technology is used. evident in sensible load.
· To minimize reheat requirements, this analysis allows the space temperature to be maintained at 72°F rather than the goal of
The conventional system sees a 75°F (same dew point used).
modest reduction in cooling input, · Data shown for the AHU (points 7-11) serving the lower floor of the northern half of Wing A. The total wing is approximately
20,000 ft2 and includes 18 classrooms.
but the leaving air temperature off
the cooling coil must remain the Figure 5: Baseline design with conventional VAV AHU and no outdoor air preconditioning.*
same for dehumidification pur-
poses. The parasitic reheat energy increases due to the lower Actual Outdoor Humidity Level
space sensible load. 140 Actual Space Humidity Level (Classroom Wing A)
Actual IADR Supply Humidity Level to Wing A

Part Load Heating Condition: 62°F/82 grains (16.7°C/11.7 g/kg)

120
This data was collected during the common (yet frequently
ignored) condition in which the outdoor air is cool, but its dew 70°F Dew Point

point is higher than desired. Conventional systems often attempt 100

to use temperature-driven economizers at these conditions, but 65°F Dew Point
the end result is an uncomfortable, cold-clammy space.
80
Figure 3 shows how the advanced design approach accom- 60°F Dew Point
modates these conditions. The outdoor air is both heated and
55°F Dew Point
dehumidified by the IADR to maintain the desired indoor 60
conditions. This is particularly important during the morn-
ing warm-up cycle shown, which can be energy intensive, 45°F Dew Point
especially if electric reheat is used to heat up a large structure 40
School Week in August Sample Collection—Wing A, 75°F Space Temperature
that has been allowed to cool during unoccupied periods. The
advanced system consumes only a small fraction of the energy Figure 6: Actual humidity data recorded at peak condition.

38 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

Advertisement formerly in this space.
Advanced Design: Actual Energy (kW) Consumed by Individual System Component*
Outdoor Conditions 88°F/132 grains 77°F/109 grains 62°F/82 grains 34°F/24 grains
Total Recovery Module Exhaust Fan‡ 1.33 1.33 1.33 1.33
DOAS Hybrid System Supply Fan 4.10 2.90 1.70 1.70
Compressors 15.60 9.80 3.50 0.00
Condenser Fans 2.10 1.50 1.10 0.00
Regeneration Fan 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24
Regeneration 121,517 Btu/h 106,060 Btu/h 117,000 Btu/h 000 Btu/h
Energy
VAV Air Handling Units Supply Fans 13.4 9.4 4.80 2.4
Compressors 13.3 5.5 3.30 13.5
Condenser Fans 2.0 0.9 0.90 2.6
VAV Boxes§ Electric Reheat 0 0 0 16
Total Electrical Energy 52.15 kW 31.57 kW 16.88 kW 37.73 kW
Regeneration Energy§ 121,517 Btu/h 106,060 Btu/h 117,000 Btu/h 000 Btu/h
Conventional Design: Modeled Energy (kW) Consumed by Individual System Component†
VAV Air Handling Units Supply Fans 20.20 13.60 6.20 2.6
Condensing Units 80.20 56.3 25.30 0.0
Exhaust Fans‡ 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.5
Hot Water Heat 0.00 0.00 0.00 96,987 Btu/h
Coils‡
VAV Boxes§,** Electric Reheat 8.70 17.13 81.89 96.50
Total Electrical Energy 109.58 kW 87.51 kW 113.87 kW 99.56 kW
Hot Water Heat Energy 96,987 Btu/h
Conventional Design: Modeled Energy (kW) Using Total Energy Recovery†
Total Electrical Energy†† 83.26 kW 73.90 kW 111.97 kW 69.30 kW
Hot Water Heat Energy 0 Btu/h
*Loads shown reflect actual measured data via Modbus communications and data trending.
†Loads shown reflect estimated energy consumed by conventional approach to satisfy the loads shown in Figures 4 and 5.
‡Fan energy shown includes the desiccant wheels drive motors for the advanced design, relief air only for the conventional design.
§Electric reheat energy monitored (advanced) or estimated (conventional) reflects a total of 18 boxes located in the A north upper and lower wing.
**Assumes maintaining the space temperature at 72°F as shown in Figure 5 to minimize the amount of cooling season electric reheat
††Values shown above are for one upper and one lower level of the northern half of wing A, 18 classrooms approximately 21,000 ft2.

Figure 7: Energy comparison: actual for advanced design vs. modeled conventional approach.

required by the conventional VAV approach at this condition, perature range is this supply deck temperature reduced. The
as highlighted by Figure 7. energy benefit offered by the advanced heat pump approach is
particularly pronounced during morning warm-up. When elec-
Peak Heating Condition: 34°F/24 grains (1.1°C/3.4 g/kg) tric reheat is used for this purpose, the electrical consumption
At this condition, the advantage of a high-efficiency heat and peak demand can be undesirably high.
pump cycle becomes evident. The remote heat pump/condens- The baseline conventional system and control algorithms
ing units designed for the Pepperell project use a generous use the hot water coil to preheat the supply air to 55°F (13°C)
outdoor air coil capacity along with the variable speed com- then reheat at the individual zones to control the heating season
pressors and outdoor fans to produce approximately 11,800 space temperature. If total recovery is not employed, the space
Btu (12 450 kJ) of heating output per kW of electrical input at relative humidity can become undesirably low, increasing the
this 34°F (1°C) condition. This equates to approximately 3.5 likelihood of infection with airborne bacteria or viruses.7,8
times that produced through the use of the electric resistance
heaters located in the individual VAV boxes. Energy Use Advantages
To take full advantage of this opportunity, a custom controls Figure 7 provides a summary of the energy actually consumed
algorithm was applied to deliver the warmest possible air from by the advanced design along with an estimate of the energy
the VAV air-handling unit and IADR combination to each zone. that would be consumed by the conventional design, shown
Only when one critical zone begins to exceed the desired tem- with and without the addition of total energy recovery. This

40 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

Energy Summary
Modbus 1 Supply Fan Modbus 2 Compressor Modbus 4 Outdoor Fan
(Heating Mode)

Supply Fan Run Status On Compressor Run Status On Outdoor Fan Run Status On Supply Fan kW 4.1

Supply Fan Fault Stat Off Compressor Fault Stat Off Outdoor Fan Fault Status Off Compressor kW 6.7

Supply Fan Freq Ref 53.6 Compressor Freq Ref 50 Outdoor Fan Freq Ref 25.78 Outdoor Fan kW 0.5

Supply Fan Freq Out 53.6 Compressor Freq Out 50 Outdoor Fan Freq Out 25.78

Supply Fan Amp 8.4 Compressor Amp 15.4 Outdoor Fan Amp 5.7

Supply Fan kW 4.1 Compressor kW 6.7 Outdoor Fan kW 0.5

Figure 8: Actual electrical consumption data provided by the IADR DDC system.

comparison highlights the reduction in energy consumption 7. This information should be of interest to facility managers
associated with the advanced design. It averages only 34% of and design engineers because few facilities are instrumented,
the energy estimated for the conventional approach and 44% trended and analyzed after construction to see how the HVAC
of the energy required by the conventional system with total designs actually perform. For example, the executive director of
recovery integration. facilities for the Floyd County School District was anxious to
Most of this reduction in energy use comes from compres- see the data resulting from this investigation so it could be used
sor load during the cooling season, and electric heating load to guide the direction of future HVAC designs. Figure 8 pro-
during the heating season. The regeneration energy used by vides an example of the electrical consumption data as reported
the IADR is low; less than $0.90/hour at the peak cooling state by the DDC system integrated into each IADR system.
point. Although desiccant regeneration of the main classroom
IADR units is accomplished using waste heat from the onsite Peak Electrical Demand Reduction
natural gas driven engine generator (see sidebar DOE Pilot To estimate the reduction in peak electrical demand offered by
System), this economic benefit is not reflected in the analyses the advanced system, the actual HVAC peak demand measured
discussed in this article. at the Pepperell project is compared against that estimated for
One of the most important contributions to this research the conventional system providing comparable performance. The
investigation is the level of system performance data provided peak cooling season electrical demand of the advanced approach
by the control/data acquisition system. Particularly useful is the is 49% of that estimated for the conventional approach.
energy-use monitoring provided by a Modbus communications Figure 9 shows the difference in peak electrical demand
network that reports the real-time electrical use of each indi- between the two HVAC system options. It also shows how the
vidual component of the HVAC system as summarized in Figure overall peak electrical demand is dominated by the HVAC system

Electric Reheat (194 kW) Lighting Load (224 kW)

Electric Reheat (20 kW)

Miscellaneous (56 kW)

Lighting Load (224 kW)

HVAC Cooling (371 kW)

HVAC Cooling (898 kW)
Miscellaneous (56 kW)

Actual Peak Cooling Demand Projected Peak Cooling Demand

Advanced Design Conventional Design
671 kW Total 1,372 kW Total

Actual peak demand for the month of August. School in full session based on early August start date; high-efficiency lighting is installed at the Pepperell site (1.125 W/ft2) and this light-
ing efficiency was used for both designs; actual HVAC power consumption from trended Modbus data (part of the on-site instrumentation); conventional baseline system design as per
Figure 5 (does not include total energy recovery addition).

Figure 9: Energy comparison total school peak consumption.

May 2007 ASHRAE Journal 41

when the conventional approach is used. This Peak kW (Total Facility)* Peak kW (HVAC Only)† HVAC Only
clearly conveys the fact that any desire to re- Season Decrease
Advanced Conventional Advanced Conventional
duce energy use within a school facility must
be accomplished by optimizing the HVAC Cooling 671 kW 989 kW 391 kW 695 kW 44%
design, especially if comfortable conditions Heating 951 kW 1,554 kW 671 kW 1,260 kW 47%
are to be maintained and the building codes *Actual measured total peak kW for both schools, conventional school normalized to same square footage as the
Pepperell advanced design school.
are to be followed. †HVAC peak demand estimated by subtracting base lighting load and estimated miscellaneous load. Conventional
Given the magnitude of peak energy re- school lighting is 6% less efficient.
duction summarized by Figure 9, an attempt · Both schools located within the same city in Georgia, both systems use heat pumps with backup resistance heat.
· Conventional design has one-third of the outdoor air as the advanced design and does not have active humidity
was made to obtain actual electrical demand control.
data from a school designed and operated Figure 10: Actual peak demand comparison (advanced vs. conventional school).
as modeled for the conventional design. A
high school complex having a similar size System Approach Cost/ft2 Operating Humidity
and located in Rome, Ga., but operated by a Cost/ft2 Control
different school district was identified. This Individual Rooftop Only $9.68 to $12.11 Poor Poor
school used vapor compression for cooling, (No Recovery)
a heat pump cycle for heating and electri- Individual Rooftop and ERV $11.72 to $14.56 Fair Fair
cal reheat as needed during the heating
WS Heat Pump and ERV $10.64 to $15.13 Good Good
season operation. The school was designed
to deliver approximately one-third of the WS Heat Pump and DOAS $11.80 to $16.05 Very Good Very Good
outdoor air volume used for Pepperell High VAV with ERV Preconditioning $9.86 to $19.50 Fair Good
School. As importantly, no active humidity VAV with IADR Preconditioning $10.20 to $11.64 Lowest Best
control was incorporated (i.e., no cooling Construction cost figures include all equipment, controls and equipment costs but do not reflect electrical credit for
season reheat). the more efficient systems. Cost are based on actual construction figures from approximately 14 projects, adjusted
to 2005 dollars to reflect inflation. All other system cost estimates were checked against the R.S. Means data book
Figure 10 shows the results of this com- for accuracy. The DOAS system is a dual wheel, total energy recovery system as per Reference 4. ERV is a single
parison. The conventional peak demand total energy wheel.

projection made in Figure 9 agrees well with Figure 11: Summary of results from installed cost comparison.
the actual cooling season conventional data
shown in Figure 10 once adjusted to reflect the reduced outdoor
airflow and lack of active humidity control or cooling season
reheat energy use. The analysis also suggests that the advanced
DOE Pilot System
A natural gas-driven engine generator was installed at
system can provide a significant reduction (44% and 47% for
Pepperell High School in Georgia to power four IADR
the cooling and heating seasons respectively) in peak HVAC
systems coupled with total recovery modules and oper-
electrical demand while simultaneously providing Standard
ated as dedicated outdoor air units. This DOE-sponsored
62-2001 ventilation and active humidity control.
pilot system combines an electrical efficiency of 33.4%
with a 37.2% thermal efficiency to provide a 70.5% over-
Indoor Environmental Advantages
all system efficiency, far higher than the 45% efficiency
Trended data collected over the first full cooling season, and
typical of a commercial distribution grid. Heat recovered
reflected by Figure 3 proved the advanced system capable of
from the engine jacket is used to regenerate the active
maintaining the desired space dew point of 55°F (13°C) over
desiccant wheels during the cooling season and for heating
a wide range of outdoor air conditions (Figure 6). As reported
the supply air during the winter months. As a result, peak
in an earlier ASHRAE Journal article,4 lower space humidity
electrical demand at the site is reduced by more than 100
produced comfort conditions at elevated space temperature
kW. Cooling and heating season energy costs for the four
setpoints (i.e., 75°F [24°C]).4,5,15
IADR systems will be reduced by approximately 21% and
29% respectively based on an electric cost of $0.075/kWh
Indoor Air Quality (TVOC and CO2 testing)
and gas costing $0.75/therm. Neither the cost nor energy
To benchmark the indoor air quality maintained within Pep-
savings associated with the engine demonstration are re-
perell High School, air quality samples were collected from
flected in this article.
all three main classroom areas using adsorbent-filled retention
tubes and analyzed by Georgia Tech Research Institute. The
results of this total volatile organic compound (TVOC) testing LEED® and Outdoor Environmental Advantages
showed the air quality in the school to be excellent, averaging Although the construction budgeting priorities did not allow for
less than 200 µg/m3, better than the best of those reported on in formal LEED certification of Pepperell High School, an informal
Reference 4. Similar results were found for CO2 data collected analysis completed by a LEED-accredited professional confirmed
at the site coincident with the TVOC testing. that the facility would have been eligible for approximately 43

42 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

Advertisement formerly in this space.
75°F
67 gr.
2,200 cfm
75°F
67 gr.
6,500 cfm To Integrated Condenser/Heat Pump

88°F 79°F
132 gr. 87.5 gr. 53°F 53°F
56 gr. 56 gr. 59°F 59°F
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Variable Volume Active Desiccant—Vapor 59°F
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Total Conditioning Configuration
Typical Classroom Wing with VAV Boxes and
Data presented reflects actual airflow and psychrometric conditions measured at the site via real-time trended instrumentation; Electric Reheat
Values shown above are for one upper and one lower level of the northern half of wing B, 20 classrooms approximately 9100
ft2. Active desiccant – vapor compression hybrid operated as a VAV system processing both outdoor and return airstreams.
Hybrid system integrates variable speed compressor for capacity control and heat pump option.

Figure 12: IADR operated as an integrated total conditioning system.

points, 23 of which provided by the HVAC system efficiency and at carbon emissions since the local utility is powered by coal.
ASHRAE compliance (only 26 total points are required for certifica- The advanced design is projected to produce approximately
tion), qualifying the facility for a LEED Gold level rating. 850 fewer tons (770 Mg) of carbon emissions annually than
An analysis of electrical use at the site was extended to look the conventional design.

Advertisement formerly in this space.

44 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

Had the conventional design used partner. This has allowed for effective
chilled water as opposed to a high-ef- overall systems optimization during the
ficiency vapor compression approach, commissioning process and beyond.
an estimated 5 million gallons of water Since the equipment can be positioned
would have been required by the cooling outdoors, it is easily accessible, simplify-
towers annually. ing any maintenance function. This also
resulted in architectural enhancements
Background Classroom Noise including freeing up several mechanical
Another important factor in maintaining rooms for usable floor space.
a desirable teaching environment is con-
trolling background noise in classroom Construction Cost Analysis
areas. Much industry controversy has Few would argue that school facilities
surrounded a new ANSI standard (ANSI/ should be built and operated in accor-
ASA Standard S12.60-2002) requiring dance with ASHRAE recommendations
background noise levels to be maintained and the building codes. They should be
below 35 decibels. Many commonly comfortable, free from humidity prob-
used HVAC designs will not allow the lems, microbial concerns and well ven-
background noise to approach this level. tilated. An inefficient school will remain
Testing was conducted in 10 representative so for the life of the structure, which is
usually in excess of 30 years. Energy Advertisement formerly in this space.
Pepperell classrooms using a Brüel and
Kjær sound meter reporting sound power efficiency should be a top priority. The
levels as dBA. The average background question is can all of these criteria be
noise level within the unoccupied rooms satisfied in a cost effective manner?
measured was 34.5 dBA. The maximum The mechanical construction cost for
level measured was 39.5 dBA and the the advanced HVAC design applied to
minimum was 29.7 dBA. the Pepperell project totaled $11.64/ft2.
This project cost includes an unusually
Maintenance Concerns high level of controls, programming and
The advanced system introduces ad- instrumentation, customized remote
ditional components. Some of which are heat pump condensing units and other
unfamiliar to the maintenance staff, and premium components.
the system complexity is increased over Figure 11 summarizes the installed
a more conventional system. However, construction cost estimate for various
important advantages are provided that more conventional systems commonly
may outweigh any initial concerns. used for school facilities. This analysis
Advantages include the soft-start on all shows the advanced approach to be sur-
fans and most compressors, the elimina- prisingly competitive with other design
tion of belts on the IADR fans, the elimina- schemes that are less efficient and do
tion of most condensate in the main AHUs, not actively control humidity. Designers
improved defrost cycles and full refrigera- will have to complete their own analyses
tion monitoring with built-in safeties. to determine actual costs for any given
The most important maintenance benefit project but the results of this analysis
may be the comprehensive monitoring in- provide solid support for considering the
tegrated into the control system. Automatic advanced system for school facilities.
monitoring of the system alerts the service
department when a system is not function- Smaller Schools or Zones
ing correctly, is not achieving setpoint or Smaller schools or zones, like the B
in need of service or adjustment. Project wing classroom areas of this Pepperell
history has shown that most problems can site can be designed with the IADR sys-
be addressed remotely or automatically. tem operated to process all of the systems
This remote monitoring is accessible to airflow needs and operated as a VAV
the IADR equipment manufacturer. If the system. In this way, the system integrates
service department has a question, the the dedicated outdoor air system and the
problem can be quickly addressed with the main VAV system into a single system.
equipment supplier acting as a long-term Figure 12 shows actual performance data

May 2007 ASHRAE Journal 45

from the B Wing IADR system during the The mechanical equipment and installa- between humidity and indoor air quality
peak cooling mode. tion was found to be cost competitive with in schools.” Proceedings of Indoor Air
2002, International Academy of Indoor
This same total conditioning approach more conventional designs that consume Air Sciences II:818 – 823.
was applied to serve the Pepperell band and more energy and are less capable of control- 7. Fischer, J., 1996. “Optimizing IAQ, humid-
choral area, the auditorium, the gymnasium ling space humidity. The operating cost of ity control, and energy efficiency in school
and the cafeteria. This design option is the Pepperell High School is low compared environments through the application of
well suited to retrofitting existing school to more conventional systems. The 20-year desiccant-based total energy recovery
systems.” Proceedings of ASHRAE IAQ
facilities since existing packaged equip- life-cycle analysis comparing the advanced ’96 pp. 188 – 203. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
ment can be easily replaced using a custom and baseline system was completed using 8. Bayer, C.W., S.A. Crow and J.C. Fischer.
curb adapter. Retrofit IADR systems have the ASHRAE-recommended procedure and 2000. “Causes of Indoor Air Quality
since been installed in this manner at two assumed a 2% annual increase in energy Problems in Schools: Summary of Sci-
additional Floyd County schools. cost from the current levels of $0.055/kWh entific Research.” Oak Ridge National
Laboratories, ORNL/Sub/94-SV044/1.
and $0.75/therm. The analysis projected 9. Bayer, C.W. and C.C. Downing. 1992
Conclusions and Recommendations $2,647,000 in energy savings over 20 years “Indoor conditions in schools with insuf-
The advanced design approach de- with the advanced approach and a net cash ficient humidity control.” Proceedings of
tailed in this article suggests an effective present value of $1,054,000. IAQ ’92. Atlanta: ASHRAE.
roadmap for constructing and operating Less quantifiable benefits include 10. Downing, C. and C.W. Bayer. 1993.
“Classroom indoor air quality versus
comfortable, healthy, energy-efficient increased performance and reduced ventilation rate.” ASHRAE Transactions
and cost-effective schools that follow absenteeism associated with improved 99:1099 – 1103.
current ASHRAE recommendations and indoor air quality, more state funding 11. Sand, J.R. and J. Fischer. 2006. Air Condi-
meet all code requirements. resulting from higher attendance and a tioning and Heat Pump Efficiencies—How
Decoupling the latent load from the reduction in costs associated with poor Efficient Can We Make It. Oak Ridge,
Tenn.: Oak Ridge National Laboratories.
main VAV system, applying a dedicated humidity control. 12. Petrov, AY., et al. 2005. “Performance analy-
outdoor air system with low dew-point sis of integrated active desiccant rooftop
References
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ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-2001, Venti-
compression—heat pump systems and ing mode.” Proceedings of IMECE-2005.
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2006, “SEMCO Integrated Active Desic-
measurable improvements when com- 1999, Energy Standard for Buildings cant Rooftop’s Low Dew Point Capa-
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Based upon analyses completed, the 3. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, National Laboratories.
Thermal Environmental Conditions for 14. Kats, G. 2006. “Greening America’s
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E Report. www.cap-e.com/ewebeditpro/
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51% (671 kW vs. 1,372 kW) and an- 5. Fischer, J. and J.R. Sand. 2005. “Field ity.” ASHRAE Journal 40(8):35 – 41.
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2 2 grated Active Desiccant Rooftop Hybrid outdoor air systems.” ASHRAE Journal
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when compared to the baseline system National Laboratories, ORNL/Sub-01- 17. 2001 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamen-
operated without total energy recovery 4000025209. tals.
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19. Khattar, M., N. Ramanan and M. Swami.
Advertisement formerly in this space. 1985. “Fan cycling effects on air condi-
tioner moisture removal performance in
warm, humid climates.” International
Symposium on Moisture and Humidity.

Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge contribution
made by the Environmental Monitoring
Branch of the Georgia Tech Research Insti-
tute who provided IAQ air sample analyses
and comments for this article.

46 ASHRAE Journal a s h r a e . o r g May 2007

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