TO CAUSE TO MAKE DIVINE THROUGH SMOKE:

ANCIENT EGYPTIAN INCENSE AND PERFUME.

AN INTER- AND TRANSDISCIPLINARY RE-EVALUATION
OF AROMATIC BIOTIC MATERIALS USED BY THE
ANCIENT EGYPTIANS
Renata TATOMIR

Introduction
Since the earliest antiquity fragrances have marked the human society. While attempting to mask
or enhance their own odor people have remarked the prominent influence of the scented substances
on their own bodies as well as on the environment. e perfume or fragrance of flowers, fruits, scented
plants, resins, gums, spices, etc. emulates nature's pleasant smells. During the history of both Eastern
and Western cultures and civilizations it has marked the societal values and customs related not only
to the everyday life but also to the rituals for gods and for guiding the deceased to the aerlife, as
smoking odor of divine or deified bodies. In the civilizations of antiquity, from Egypt to Greece, their
perfume was presented as an oering to them because it was believed to sublimate the body and make
it more god-like. e presence of fragrance functioned as a vital element in the correlation of perfumed
air as the life-giving breath that defied the stench of death. In the Western culture there are two terms
defining the way the ancient peoples have used the fragrance of scented substances both in the profane
and the sacred life: perfume and incense. e first word, perfume, comes from the Latin per fumus
which means literally through/by smoke. e other word, incense, the one which actually is used as
generic modern term to translate its ancient Egyptian counterparts comes also from a Latin word,
incnsum, the neuter past participle of incendere, that is to set on fire, derived from the Proto-Indo-
European root *kand-. In Latin, other derivations from incendere are incendium and incensus, while
in other languages are: Italian incendere, Italian incendivo, Portuguese encender, Portuguese incender,
Romanian ncinge, Spanish encender. us, both terms perfume and incense are synonymous1 and
refer to aromatic biotic material mainly resin(s) - which releases fragrant smoke when burned. e
two words dier however one another essentially because they translate two parts of the process of
energy conversion, that is the process of changing one form of energy to another. In physics, the term
energy describes the capacity to produce certain changes within a system, without regard to limitations
in transformation imposed by Entropy. erefore while incense refers to the material itself (the solid
state), perfume applies when it comes to the aroma that the material produces through smoke (a solid
aerosol2), the product of combustion reactions.

1 2
Lucas (1930, 47) explains that both incense and perfume have Contrary to general belief, smoke is not a purely gaseous state.
the same literal meaning, therefore incense, therefore, should Smoke consists of tiny (microscopic or even smaller) particles
be included in any description of ancient Egyptian perfumes. of solid suspended in the air. So it is really a two phase system:
solid and gas. As such, it is properly called a solid aerosol.
684 RENATA TATOMIR

1. Fragrance, the sign of the divine presence

It is generally admitted that all living organisms produce odorous materials for a wide variety of
reasons. One important question is how do they generate them? All plants and animals produce a
variety of chemicals through the biosynthesis process. e materials thus produced can be classified
into two major groups of metabolites: primary and secondary. e first group includes those that are
common to all species and can be subdivided into proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
e secondary metabolites include the materials used as perfume ingredients which are mostly of this
type though a few are derived from primary metabolites by degradative processes. e four categories
of secondary metabolites, in decreasing order of importance as sources of perfume ingredients, are:
terpenoids, shikimic acid derivatives, polyketides and alkaloids. However, many odorous chemicals in
nature are produced for properties other than their odour. For instance, many plants, when damaged,
exude resinous materials as a defence mechanism. e shrub Commiphora abyssinica, for example,
produces a resin, which contains a number of antibacterial and antifungal compounds. e role of the
resin is to seal the wound and prevent bacteria and fungi from entering and damaging the plant. e
resin has a pleasant odour and so was put to use by man as a perfumery ingredient. It is known as
myrrh. Because of its antimicrobial properties, myrrh was also used in ancient times as an antiseptic
and preservative material in the embalming of corpses. Likewise, frankincense has been used in
religious rites for thousands of years. us it it well-known the famous New Teastament episode of the
gis brought by the magi to Jesus the Child. Two of the three gis were perfume ingredients. Knowledge
of perfumery thus helps us understand not only the bio-chemical mechanism of odoriferous materials,
but also the symbolism involved in events of spiritual or religious nature. In this case, gold, frankincense
and myrrh represent, king, priest and sacrifice, respectively3. Actually, a myriad of fragmented clues
hint of ancient olfactory indulgence. For example, in the ruins of the Indus civilisation, famous to trade
with both Egypt and Mesopotamia, have been unearthed incense statuettes thousands of years old; in
China, around 500 BC, Confucius was proclaiming that both incense and perfume mitigate bad smells.
Herbs, spices and flowers were used to ward o evil spirits, while in Iraq have been discovered flower-
strewn graves over 5000 years old. According to legend, in Japan, the burning of incense attracted the
Jiki-Ko-Ki spirits which eat smoke. In the ancient Near East fragrant wood was used to build temples
and the fine smelling essences of cedarwood, myrtle and calamus reeds (sweet flag) were oered up
for the pleasure of the Gods. It was in Mesopotamia that the classic techniques of pressing, maceration
and enfleurage were developed. In supplication to the God Marduk, king of Chaldea, Nebuchadnezzar
II, announced: I anoint myself everyday with oil, burn perfumes and use cosmetics that make me
worthier of worshipping thee4.
Ancient Egyptian civilization epitomized the function of the scent or perfume as a powerful
symbol of authority and divine sanction. erefore aromatics played a prominent and already well-
known role in their magic, religion and medicine. e functions of the pharaoh were enforced due to
the stabilizing force of the autochtonous category of the scholarly priests. ey were the main
responsibles for knowing the properties of the natural fragrant substances and materials and
manufacturing herbal and resinous products destined to gods, temples and tombs. e kings functions
were asserted through his exclusive access to the ingredients and formulations of these divine
emanations of scent. erefore, scent represented one of the most venerable symbols of authority and
divine approval that the pharaoh could obtain through the vital endorsement and exclusive allocation
of the aromatic substances by the priests. e association between the origins of perfume and the
divine in ancient Egypt revealed their inextricable bond. Egyptologist Lise Manniche, a specialist in
ancient Egyptian aromatics among others, pointed out that scents were believed to originate from
the gods in the first place, to have sprung from their eyes or their bones, in particular the eye of the
sun-god Re5. us, for the ancient Egyptians perfume represented the very fragrant essence of the
3 4
Sell 2006, 26. Sell 2006, 5.
TO CAUSE TO MAKE DIVINE THROUGH SMOKE: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN INCENSE AND PERFUME 685

gods. erefore, it was believed that perfumes do not have just a mere natural origin, but were in fact
derived from the sacred essence of gods, from their particular manifestations. It is an action that does
not need to be understood necessarily with the final purpose of oering to gods. Burning scented
resins on charcoal infers something much deeper; the melting resinous material and the dispelling of
the fragrant smoke are identified with two distinct manifestations of the deity. e former is an
indication of the exudation of the god (the crystallized melting resinous tears), the latter, of his
fragrance (the aroma emitted by smoke). at means the resinous material is not burnt with the
intention to be transformed into food for the gods. Using the terminology based on current science,
the meaning of this action might be rather that of an adjuvant given to provoke (and that implies an
action-forcing mechanism) the manifestation of a deity. In this respect the king and the priests would
burn throughout the day several resinous materials such as myrrh, frankincense, gums, or other kinds
of organic materials (spices, aromatic herbs), or the famous kyphi composite to permeate the wooden
representations of gods that resided in the temples with the life-breathing aroma6 (the gods were
pleased when they inhaled sweet smoke7), and as such, by means of both the melt aromatic resins and
their scented smoke, to force the deities manifest themselves in a visible form perceived by the human
senses8. Beside the religious rituals and ceremonies however in ancient Egypt were born also the main
modern sciences, in their pre-scientific aspect. erefore the science of perfumery along with that of
pharmacy have been developed in temples since the earliest antiquity and were also the appanage of
the ancient Egyptian priestly experts9. Taking all these into account we can identify two main levels
of analysis: a) the level of the religious ritual and b) the scientific level which may be equated to the
sacred and the profane levels of reality.

2. Perfume, incense, smoke, smell

Although the aromatic smoke influence mainly one of the human senses, i.e. smell, its implications
are even much broader than one might think. Since the earliest times people have had a very special
relationship not only with scent or perfume, but mainly with smell the most elusive of the senses. Smell
is the one sense whose exact mechanism remains a mystery but which we do know is plugged directly
into the part of the brain that is responsible for memory and emotion. As Barill pointed out: e magic
of fragrance comes from the relationship between man and nature. Despite civilisation, the magic
remains today. Fragrance is a sensory pleasure and it takes part in a particular form of communication10.
Currently researchers agree that many odorous substances activate not only the olfactory system but
also the somatosensory system11 - the nerve endings in our noses which are sensitive to temperature,

5
Manniche 1999, 34. of oth and Osiris, the back of Horus, the divine limbs,
6
Manniche 1999, 32. the spittle, and the bone of the gods. e Egyptians
7
Clark et al. 2013, 20394 (3). worshipped several patrons of fragrance, including Merehet,
8
e funerary inventory revealed also the great importance goddess of unguents; Chesmou, deity of perfume production;
perfume had in the Egyptian burial customs. Remains of and Nefertum, the lion-headed god of incense described as
unguents have been discovered in burials, notably that of the lotus in the nostril of Re. See Wise 2009, 69.
9
Tutrrnkharnun. It has been estimated that sorne 350 liters of In this regard, among other important discoveries,
fragrant material were buried with the king when he died at excavations in Egypt have revealed perfume vases and the
the age of 17 or 18 around 1339 BC. Sorne of this rnaterial first pallet makeup schist dating 4000 years BC.
10
was analyzed in the 1920s. e results showed thatt it Harman 2006, 1-2.
11
contained about 90% animal fat and I0% resin. Specimens of For instance, in a study testing anosmics ability to perceive
even older scent (ca. 2000 BC) were found to contain gum odorous substances, it was found that many so-called odours
resin with splinters of aromatic wood. See Chapman and are in fact aecting the pain- and temperature-sensitive
Plenderleith 1926, 2614-2619; Lucas 1962, 88. Some texts nerveendings, rather than the olfactory receptors. Out of 47
identify deities with specific scents or types of incense. Secret odorous substances, anosmics could detect 45. Some smells
recipes for incense carved onto the walls of the temple of do more than just induce dierent psychological states in
Horus at Edfu explain that the finest myrrh springs from the people, they actually cause them pain or pleasure Fox 1997-
eye of Ra, while other grades of myrrh come from the eyes 2012, 2-3.
686 RENATA TATOMIR

pain etc. Smell is one of our most primal and deeply rooted senses and functions as our chemical alert
system12. It is hardwired to perceive whether the molecules around our bodies are beneficial or
dangerous, a determination of fundamental importance to the survival of all forms of life. When a person
smells something, the odor receptors produce an immediate, instinctive reaction13. With all of the other
senses, you think before you respond, but with scent, your brain responds before you think, says Pam
Scholder Ellen, a Georgia State University marketing professor14. e sense of smell is also considered
to be the most closely related to emotional reactions. e olfactory bulb is directly connected to the
limbic system in the brain, which is the system related to immediate emotion in humans15. 75% of
emotions are generated by smell16. Consequently, smell represents a direct line to feelings of happiness
and hunger and is a sensory bandwidth that cannot be turned o17. Since the earlier times fragrance
was developed both as an art and a science. Bringing the fragrant messages out from natures aromatic
materials was always depending on the cra of the technicians, i.e., the perfumer and the chemist. In
the ancient times, these two were high skilled professionals having a pre-scientific knowledge. Due to
the important role scent had both in everyday life (for hygene and health) and in religious, magic, and
funerary rituals, and because of the variety and specificity of the aromatic ingredients (of which many
species were non-native), in ancient Egypt perfume was a luxury item and a commodity traded in the
Mediterranean. Scent was released in various ways: as incense or fat-based. Sources of information for
perfume and/or incense range from funerary and religious spells (e.g., the Pyramid Texts, on temple
walls Edfu, Philae, etc.) to prescriptions included in medical papyri (e.g. Papyrus Ebers, Papyrus
Harris), or quoted by classical authors (e.g. eophrastus, Pliny, Galen, Dioscorides, etc.); from
representations of activities related to scent manufacture on tomb walls to scent containers or their
representations on temple walls; remnants of surviving raw materials or residous substances. Echoes of
the ancient Egyptian perfumery art can be found in Islamic and modern practices18.
Strictly speaking, perfume refers to the volatile components distilled from various scented parts
of plants (flowers, leaves, bark, etc.). Although Lucas remarked that distillation was practiced only
from Greco-Roman times19, this is still speculative, because it would seem that no true perfumes could
have been produce until then20. In Egypt, composite scented materials, oil and fat based, and used as
cosmetics, unguents and ointments have been made mostly from imported resins. Widely
manufactured in Egypt, perfume and cosmetic industries were also active in Mesopotamia, Crete and
mainland Greece and imported pottery vessels did reach Egypt from the Aegean21. e fragrances
seem to be linked to the set of representations of secretions, fluids, liquids and other materials emitted
by the divine bodies. ose materials could even spread across Egypt and turn into relics signifying
a privileged link between a deity and a particular region22. In the temple of Repit at Athribis a room
west of the nave, called by Petrie the Punt Chamber, is dedicated to the oerings to the gods of the
temple, gods of plants and aromas of the Land of god. e lower register represents two series of
aromatic trees coming from dierent lands: the myrrh trees from Punt, on the East wall; incenses
belonging to species (kA-mAA) more dicult to identify from e Land of god, on the West wall.
ere one can read an explanatory text for each tree [...] that gives color, scent, density, the tear shape
of each resin; each of these elements, carefully described, is placed in relation to the mythological
derivation of the dierent parts of the bodies of various deities. A certain type of taxonomy
constituting a secret alphabet of a larger cosmic design23. A mix of fragrant substances and oils or
fats formed the basis of Egyptian perfumes24. To this it was added a fragrant fruit paste made

12 19
Bradford and Desrochers 2009, 144. Lucas 1962, 85-86.
13 20
Zaltman 2003; Vlahos 2007. Serpico, White 2000a, 460-461.
14 21
Vlahos 2007. Serpico, White 2000a, 461.
15 22
Wilkie 1995; Vlahos 2007. Hornung 1992, 119-120; Meeks, Favard-Meeks 1993, 92,
16
Bell, Bell 2007. 108-110.
17 23
Wilkie 1995; Vlahos 2007. Betr 1997, 461-472; Borgeaud 2005, 596.
18 24
Manniche 2009, 1. See also Germer 1982, 910-911.
TO CAUSE TO MAKE DIVINE THROUGH SMOKE: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN INCENSE AND PERFUME 687

particularly from raisins or sycamore figs. Just like in the religious ceremonies, solid pefumes were
intended to be burnt on charcoal as incense or even to be chewed or taken internally25. e main
ingredients were cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, frankincense, cardamom, and other various resins, but the
proportions varied from case to case. ey became so popular that when quoting Egyptian recipes for
perfumes and incense, classical authors make frequent mention of them. All of these would themselves
have been imported by the Egyptians. Pliny26 wrote that the Roman perfumers of his day thought that
gum or resin added to a cosmetic fixed the perfume, and it seems possible that the solid matter referred
to may have been not a fragrant resin or gum-resin added to perfume the fat, but a non-odoriferous
gum or resin used to fix a perfume obtained from some other source. erefore Lucas27 suggests it is
likely that the Egyptian perfumers knew and practiced the same technique. He points out that five
specimens of material, all very much alike, from dierent compartments of a toilet box of unknown date
examined by Gowland gave results from which he concluded that the material consisted of beeswax
mixed with an aromatic resin and a small proportion of vegetable oil28. Moreover, eight specimens of
materials of unknown date where thought to be perfumes and examined by Reutter. On his opinion
these materials consisted generally of a mixture of all or most of the following-named substances, storax,
incense, myrrh, turpentine resins, bitumen of Judea perfumed with henna, aromatic vegetable material
mixed with palm wine or the extract of certain fruits (such as cassia or tamarind) and grape wine29.
As for the ingredients that went into aromatic mixtures as quoted in texts, the main problem
encountered is of a lexicographical nature. We know that the general category of an ingredient is
indicated by a determinative. However, many plant names are still unidentified, and some designations
may have even changed or developed over the centuries. When confronting with the existed
translations into Greek, one encounters another problem: authors may suggest a substitute ingredient,
rather than a translation, for a plant that was perhaps not available locally. Adulteration of expensive
scents was common. Foreign ingredients of a durable nature were appreciated for their rarity.
Ptolemaic inscriptions specify numerous designations for gums and resins according to age, color,
texture, etc. Other plant ingredients quoted include iris, henna, juniper, lily, marjoram, mint, myrtle,
sweet flag, cyprus grass, mastic, and pistacia resin. Known base ingredients for incense are raisins and
sycamore figs, so far. Among the base ingredients for scented unguents applied to the body were oils
of local Sesamum indicum L., Ricinus communis L., Balanos aegyptiaca, Moringa oleifera. For more
solid unguents the Egyptians manufacturers used fat of ox, sheep, or fowl30.

3. Types of Ancient Egyptian Resinous Incense

When applied to the Mediterranean world, the story of resinous incense and its fragrance diused
through smoke is one of the most interesting and provocative. From the first millennium BC it has
been sought aer and valued on a par with precious metals or gems. Moreover, it is interesting to
notice that just like gold, the two main scented materials used as incense, the frankincense and myrrh
resins, were thought worthy markers of the antiquity31.
In Egypt incense was used from the Old Kingdom onward on a large scale both in religious
and funerary rituals and, due to its properties, in perfumery and cosmetic industries and in
medicine. Resin was a valued commodity and regarded as a luxury item because it was imported
and difficult to obtain. Pistacia resin was used in other Egyptian contexts, all related to royal or
elite consumption. Its use in mummification has often been suggested, although has rarely been
observed32. Ancient records mention not only different types of resinous incense33 but also the

25 30
Manniche 1994, 69. Manniche 2009, 2.
26 31
Pliny, Nat. Hist., XIII, 2. Peacock, Williams 2007, 1.
27 32
Lucas 1930, 47. Clark et al. 2013, 20394 (3).
28 33
Nash, Gowland 1898, 268-269. Breasted 1907, V (Index), 134; Erman 1927, 28, 33 sq.;
29
Reutter 1914, 49-78. Lucas 1948, 89.
688 RENATA TATOMIR

incense burners (censers)34, and even an individual specialized in activities related to a particular
type of resin (myrrh), the perfumer (pA, ant)35. Scientific analysis of jar contents confirm that
mixtures of oils and fats and resins were utilized. Scented oils in costly stone jars placed in a tomb
may have been intended for funerary purposes only, including incense. Such products may never have
been applied as cosmetics used in daily life. Some jars, particularly amphorae, may have been used
for the bulk transport of resins, as evidence from the Ulu Burun shipwreck in Turkey36 probably in
the late 14th century BC. Bass relates these findings to the trade relationships between Egypt and the
Syro-Palestinian coast. ere is one finding particularly that may have allowed the translation of snTr
as Lorets terebinth resin. As such, the word might highlight the importation of tons of this substance
from the Syro-Palestinian coast into Egypt, where it was burned as incense in religious rites37.

3.1. sntr/snTr
Based on the ancient Egyptian records, according to e British Museum Dictionary of Ancient
Egypt38 the most widely used Egyptian term associated with scented materials (mostly resinous) is
sntr or snTr. Currently labeled as incense39 to this word have been given several meanings of semantic
related areas, from general to specific, inferring either the action of burning an aromatic substance, or
the particular scented material. It was usually translated hitherto either as: a) to make divine (since
in the ancient Egyptian language s- suggests a causative form, it was allegedly translated as to cause
to make divine s[-]nTr being interpreted as the causative of nTrj to be divine), or b) to cense, c)
to purify40, or simply d) incense, sometimes a particular kind of resin because the verb s[-]ntr/s[-
]nTr, to cense may points out to (resinous) incense. Another recent approach (e) was given by de
Vartavan to whom sntr/snTr referrs to the [divine/godly] scent, that is [divine/godly] smell41. Both
the noun and the verb sntr, which belong to the Old Kingdom lexicon, suggest that from that times
onward incense and incense burning were associated in the Egyptian mind with the cult of the dead,
because, as the causative of ntr, sntr suggests that incense was a deifying agent in the embalming,
mummifying process performed on/for the dead. Egyptologists use the term incense as a generic
one, as an umbrella to describe a various range of specific aromatic biotic materials burnable on
charcoal for fumigating in temples and for scenting the godly statues during religious ceremonies and
the deceased during funerary rituals. One of the most employed scented products used in ancient
Egypt, snTr was allegedly made of resins of various species or even genera of plants.42 Most resins
were and still are obtained by making incisions into the bark of a tree or shrub and collecting the
exudate on a fluid state or aer it had hardened. In Egypt it is likely that resins were obtained primarily

34
Breasted V (Index), 113. a new interpretation of Linear B lei-ta-no as terebinth resin.
35
Colin 2003, 73-109. Ki-ta-no had earlier been translated by one scholar as being
36
Serpico, White 2000a, 463. nuts from the pistachio tree, but the vast quantities in which
37
However, due to the fact that only two possible samples of they were used in Bronze Age Greece did not make sense.
terebinth resin had archaeologically ever been found, and Bass suggests that perhaps here we have a new insight into
neither of them have been identified with certainty, Loret's Mycenaean religion. Bass 1995, 21-22.
38
thesis did not gain general acceptance. e Ulu Burun ship Shaw, Nicholson 2002, 140.
39
carried more than a hundred Canaanite jars filled with a Moret (1902) however translated the term more properly
resin chemically identified as coming from the Pistacia as resin and not as incense, in connection with its
terebinthus tree and weighing about a ton. e reason that original solid state of aggregation.
40
such resin had not been found on land in such quantities is Wilson 1991, 1551, referring to the purifying
that shipments of resin that did reach their destinations connotation of the verb snTr, to cense, in the Ptolemaic
presumably were quickly burned. It is interesting that texts in the Temple of Edfu, agrees that the burning of
according to Bass observation in a storeroom scene from incense and its scent signifies the presence of god or is a
the tomb of Rekh-mi-re' in Egyptian ebes one may means of communicating with him.
41
recognize the word sntr written in hieroglyphs on a De Vartavan 2010, 5-17.
42
Canaanite jar similar to those from Uluburun, the jar being It was a sine-qua-non condition in a series of cult practices,
stored with copper ingots, of which the Uluburun ship i.e., the grand daily temple ritual ociated either by the king
carried ten tons. e jars of resin at Uluburun also allowed or by the first prophet in his absence. David 1973.
TO CAUSE TO MAKE DIVINE THROUGH SMOKE: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN INCENSE AND PERFUME 689

through middle-men at major trading centres. A number of botanical studies in the past have
considered the possible sources43. e distribution of the dierent resins can be divided by their
geographical locations: east Africa/Arabia, the Mediterranean, and Central Asia. In 1949 V. Loret
examined in a whole book the evidence for snTr to determine its identity and suggested a theory
concluding it was about the oleoresin of the small Anacardiaceous terebinth tree [Pistacia terebinthus
L., a type of conifer with aromatic resin, of the cashew family, belonging to the spp. Pistacia], having
winged leafstalks and clusters of small flowers, yielding Chian turpentine and growing in countries
of the Mediterranean region (W. Asia, Syria , Europe and N. Africa) and therefore must have been
exported from those regions to Egypt44. At that time Loret considered this genus the most likely prime
source of the resin known as snTr and thought that it was in the northern part of the Eastern Desert
of Egypt that the Egyptians first came across snTr. Aer two decades however Dixon opinated that
for the Egyptians there was no necessity to travel very far to obtain aromatic substances such as
those from the snTr-trees because these grew wild in the deserts east and west of the Nile valley in
Egypt itself 45. e author however makes a confusion between the spp. of Pistacia, because as Serpico
& White point out it is particularly Pistacia khinjuk sp. that is exceptionally found within Egypt itself46.
Phonetically it is likely that the modern European term of the aromatic oleoresin that allegedely
exuded by the snTr-tree, that is turpentine (from the terebinth tree, in Lorets view), might echoe a
Latinized version of the Egyptian name of the mythical land of origin, Pwnet (terebinth
terra+Punt, i.e. the land of Punt, or, as the ancient Egyptians called it, the land of gods). anks to
Margaret Serpicos recent research47 it is now known that snTr comes from a species of Pistacia48. She
notices that within the genus Pistacia, several species produce resin and are found throughout the
Mediterranean. Following her detailed analysis on Pistacia, four species of this genus have been
identified as primary sources of resin from the Mediterranean, i.e., Pistacia atlantica, P. terebinthus,
P. khinjuk and P. lentiscus, while two species, P. aethiopica and P. chinensis var. falcata may have been
exploited in Africa. Of these, P. atlantica would have been an exceptionally good source of resin49.
Terebinth resin could be derived from either P. atlantica or P. terebinthus and it could be misleading
to call the resin terebinth without secure botanical identification. Among the relevant species, the
shrub Pistacia lentiscus L. exudes the pale yellow tears known as mastic. e term is oen applied to
the resin of this specific species, although it is no less true that the same word it also has been applied
to describe certain bituminous products50 or to resins from any species of pistacia. According to
Serpico, both resin and bitumen reached Egypt since the Predynastic times, although their usages at
that time is till unclear51, and their manufacture was constantly developed by the Egyptian civilization
throughout its history. Resin found in tombs from the predynastic period appears dull on the outside
and resinous in the interior. When burnt these resins smell like burning varnish, some can be more
aromatic, but never sweet smelling like frankincense and myrrh. Resins were important for
mummification and this maybe the significance in early graves52, both resin and bitumen being likely
applied to the body of the deceased. Other usages might have been as a varnish on imperial funerary
furniture during the New Kingdom53, or, on a more pragmatic level, they could have been employed
as adhesives and possibly as mortar54. Because indigenous sources of aromatic resins are virtually
absent in Egypt, incense was a valuable imported commodity, generally from the Eastern lands. us,

43 52
See them mentioned in Serpico and White 2000a, 55. Lucas 1948, 365-375; Loret 1949, 29-47.
44 53
Wilson 1991, See De Vartavans theory around the uses of oleoresin issued
45
Dixon 1969, 55. from P. Lentiscus (mastic), P. atlantica (the Atlas mastic) and
46
Dixon 2000a, 435. Pinus resin as complex imperial varnishes from New Kingdom
47
Serpico, White 2000b. onward until Roman times. De Vartavan 2009, 26-28.
48 54
See her detailed investigation and results in 2000a, 434. Lucas 1962, 7-8, 75. For the dierent uses of various plants
49
Serpico, White 2000a, 436. See also De Vartavan 2007, 63-92. and their sources in ancient Egypt, see also De Vartavan
50
Serpico, White 2000a, 456. 1998, 51-61.
51
Serpico, White 2000a, 430
690 RENATA TATOMIR

the most closely related spp. of Pistacia to the high quality odoriferous oleoresin used in fumigations
and as medicine are P. aetiopica Kokwaro (syn. P. lentiscus L. var. emarginata Engl.), found in Ethiopia,
Somalia and perhaps Eritrea, and P. chinensis Bge. var. falcata (Beccari) Zoh. (syn. P. falcata Mart.)
which occurs in Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia and Arabia55.
As for the use of resins in funerary purpose one of the earliest evidence might be the contents of an
imported Palestinian Abydos ware jug dated back to the First-Dynasty tomb of Djer at Abydos
(Ashmolean E3160). It contained a mixture of a lipid and resin, the source of the latter being in the family
Pinaceae (pine, cedar or fir). Archeologists found that the resin mix was an earlier deposit than the one
discovered in the base, which did not contain resin. erefore it is possible that the jar did not reach
Egypt until the second deposit had been placed inside56. us, textual evidence reveals that the noun
sntr, translated as incense, was known from Early Dynastic times (2920-2575 BC) onward. Its botanical
identity is still uncertain though57. Temple pictographs dated around 1500 BC detail Queen Hatshephuts
journey to Punt with the objective of bringing back frankincense trees for replanting in Egypt.
Pictographs show courtesans wearing bitcones on their heads, consisting of animal fat impregnated with
aromatic materials. In the Egyptian heat, this fat melted down the neck covering the body in an oily,
pleasant layer which, while workable as an early form of deodorant, could have caused a great deal of
inconvenience to the wearer and was a far cry from modern day shampoo. Other hieroglyphs depict
king Ramses II of Egypt oering incense in thanks to the Gods, while Nefertiti joined Semiramis of
Babylon as one of the earliest women to demonstrate the liking of particular products, such as honey
and orchid-leaf, in her fragrant formulations58. e discovery of resin preserved on pottery vessels at the
New Kingdom site of Amarna in Middle Egypt has enabled a multidisciplinary approach to the problem,
including not only botanical and archaeological research but also chemical analysis of the resin itself.

3.2. antjw
Besides sntr/snTr, the ancient Egyptians also prized other organic materials for their therapeutic
uses. One of them was a resin exuded by a particular tree from Eastern Africa and Arabia, intensely
valued for its healing properties, for its contribution in perfumery, and for its sacred role played as
temple incense. Oen mistaken for frankincense, myrrh is a resin that seeps from thorny desert trees
in Ethiopia, Somalia, and Yemen. e Egyptians called it antjw and chewed it to purify the body; they
also used myrrh to promote the healing of wounds. Ointments made of myrrh were used to treat head
and backaches. It was also used to embalm mummies, and burnt at funeral ceremonies. On at least
two occasions, under King Sahure and Queen Harshepsut, myrrh trees were brought to Egypt,
although apparently unsuccessful attempts were made to grow them there. e texts go that around
2400 BC, king Sahures expedition to the fabled land of Punt (thought to be modern day Somalia or
Ethiopia), brought back in Egypt, among other valuable goods, 80,000 measures of myrrh. On another
occasion, the Book of the Dead (the Yuya papyrus) mentioned an example of soot, a by-product of
myrrh (and tamarisk) which was used to make the ink for writing an amulet inscription: To speak
over a ribbon of royal linen, inscribed with ink from the soot of the tamarisk and myrrh, being put
around the neck of the glorified one on the day of his burial59. Myrrh is the gum resin of several trees
and shrubs of the genus Commiphora. ese are mainly the types C. abyssinica Engl., C. molmol Engl.
and C. schimperi Engl. Its distribution extends over the southern areas of Arabia, Ethiopia and Somalia.
e antjw from Retjenu recorded under Year 34 in the Annals of Tuthmosis III60 was almost certainly
of Puntite origin, having been carried overland up the Arabian peninsula. Apart from the antjw
55
Serpico, White 2000a, 435. Kunste, Das altgyptische Totenbuch, Universitt Bonn, Ein
56
Serpico, White 2000a, 463. digitales Textzeugenarchiv, Totenbuch-Projekt 2015,
57
Baum 1994, 17-39. http://totenbuch.awk.nrw.de/. See also esaurus Linguae
58
Sell 2006, 5-6. Aegyptiae http://aaew.bbaw.de/tla/.
59 60
pKairo CG 51189 (pJuja) => Tb 101, in Totenbuchprojekt, Urk. IV. 706, 11.
Nordrhein-Westfalen Akademie der Wissenschaen und
TO CAUSE TO MAKE DIVINE THROUGH SMOKE: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN INCENSE AND PERFUME 691

brought by the Gnbtjw (Year 31/261), the only other place mentioned in texts of the Pharaonic period
as a source of antjw is the island where the Shipwrecked Sailor was cast ashore. However, despite
Wainwrights suggestion that it may be identical with the island of Zeberged, it is surely a mythical
place, although certainly conceived as being in the Red Sea and therefore within the same general
area as Punt62. Loret drew attention to New Kingdom texts which list both snTr and antjw from Punt,
and cited this species as a possible source of African snTr. He called it P. falcata Martelli63. As a
consequence of the expedition Hatshepsut (1473-1458 B.C.) sent to the African land of Punt, the
queen brought to Egypt as commodities the so-called incense trees exuding a particular type of
resin, in Egyptian antjw: 50:16: aHaw m qmyt nt antjw nhwt mn Xr antjw wAD / 50:16: large quantities
of resin of myrrh and trees that always carry fresh myrrh, / 51:1: wbA m wsxt Hbyt r mAA n nb nTrw
/ 51:1: to be unpacked in the festivity hall for inspection by the lord of the gods, / srd.kA st Hmt=T
Ds=T / and then Your Majesty yourself will plant them / 51:2: m xntj-S Hr gswj Hwt-nTr=j / 51:2: in
the tree-garden around my temple, / r sxmx jb=j m-m=sn / to gladden my heart among them. []64.

3.3. kAp.t - kyphi A Cultic And Medicinal Aromatic Compound

During the first two centuries C.E. the Greek, Egyptian, and Near-Eastern scholars (mostly
physicians) of the Roman Empire reported a recipe of a famous compound incense (or multi-
ingredient incense65) called in Greek kyphi (meaning welcome to the gods), but whose origins were
actually Egyptian, dating back to the time of the Pyramids (ca. 2400 B.C.), hence its name, kAp.t ~
burning item/product. It was highly prized as the real Egyptian incense used in the temples of nTrw,
and in Claudius Galens days (129-210 C.E.) kyphi had come into medicinal use for the treatment of
lung ailments and snake bites. Galens recipe of kyphi lists no less than 12 ingredients as follows: raisins,
wine, honey, asphaltum, bdellium, lemon grass, sweet flag, cyperus tuber, saron, spikenard, cardamom,
and cassia. Before him, however, kyphi was mentioned by the Egyptian priest Manetho, also known as
the author of a treatise entitled Preparation of kyphi-recipes, of which no copy has survived. He was
followed by the historian Plutarch who, in De Iside et Osiride, seemingly following Egyptian sources,
reports about 16 ingredients of which, however, only 13 have been identified - honey wine, raisins,
cyperus, frankincense (snTr), myrrh (antjw), aspalathus, seselis, bitumen, mastich, rush, sorrel,
cardamom and calamus and comments that the Egyptian priests burned incense three times a day:
Every day they make a triple oering of incense to the Sun, an oering of resin (or frankincense) at
sunrise, of myrrh at midday, and of the so-called kyphi at sunset. [] they burn resin and myrrh in
the daytime, for there are simple substances and have their origin from the sun; but the kyphi, since it
is compounded of ingredients of all sorts of qualities, they oer at dusk [] when Plutarch points
out the air is a composite mixture made up of many lights and forces66. en he adds: ese are
compounded, not at random, but while the sacred writings are being read to the perfumers, as they
mix the ingredients. Plutarch further notes that the mixture was used both as a potion and a salve.
Loret pointed out the importance of the Egyptian radical kAp meaning precisely burning perfume,
taking the example of the funerary recommendations from the time of the king Pepi I and the tomb of
Hor-hotep. A little later the ending is found in the medical treatises which record fumigations for
gynecological purpose, as in e Ebers Papyrus XCVIII, 12 (ca. 1500 B.C.). About four centuries later
the Harris Papyrus mentions a dierent and much simpler kAp.t kyphi recipe67. e Pharaonic
tradition culminated with the kyphi recipes found in the temples of Edfu and Philae (ca. 2nd1st centuries
B.C.). e recipe found on their walls and in the unguent hall of the Temple of Philae particularly is
said to make two times good kyphi for divine purposes for using in temples68. On the walls of the

61 65
Urk. IV, 695. Scarborough 1984, 229.
62 66
Dixon 1969, 55. Plutarchs De Iside et Osiride 1970, 80 - 81.
63 67
Loret 1949, 59; Serpico and White 2000a 435-436. Manniche 1999, 55.
64 68
Nederhof 2006. 5-6. Loret 1887, 87-130.
692 RENATA TATOMIR

both temples sixteen ingredients are listed each with its precise quantity. Each of these ingredients has
been commented and analyzed by Manniche, who has pointed out to their odoriferous uses in temples
from Pharaonic to Graeco-Roman times69. An interesting example is oered by the accounting records
of some of the temples of Roman Egypt which list the products bought for manufacturing kyphi. us
for the 1st3rd centuries C.E. both BGU70 and Wilcken71 mention for the rituals of the crocodile-god
Soknopaios great, great the followings: :ka e\iv timhn [t%wn a
\ r]wmatwn e\iv kataskeuhn e| terou
k[ufewv So]knop(aiou) Qeo%u megalou megalou (dracmav) 500, etc.72

4. The unguent cones

An interesting issue closely related to the Egyptian use of aromatic materials both religiously
and medicinally is that of the famous so-called incense cones which still remains a matter of debate.
Shaw and Nicholson have recently pointed out new opinions on their function73. Given the fact that
no such cones have been discovered archeologically so far, scholars only now know of them due to
the various representations of guests at banquets and public functions. Until recently the general
academic consensus was to presume that these cones would gradually melt in the warm atmosphere
and run down the wig and clothing of the guest to leave them fragrant and cool. During the last
decades, however, in her investigations, Joan Fletcher has suggested that the representation of the
cones was used simply as a hieroglyphic symbol to signify the fact that the wigs were scented. e
argument was that it seems unlikely that guests would have wished to have their very elaborate and
expensive wigs matted with congealed fat or their fine linen garments marked and stained74. Shaw
& Nicholson agree with Fletcher and say that her hypothesis is a plausible one because the cones
might illustrate something that would otherwise be impossible to represent75. In her 1994 study76
Nadine Cherpion also expresses her doubts about the very nature and uses of these cones. She gives
a detailed analysis of this kind of unguent cone. While at first the author draws attention to the
oiling practices in Nubia, Sudan and Erithrea still in use during the first half of the Twentieth
Century, she further explains while she does not agree with the usual interpretation of the so-called
unguent cone. For Cherpion the main reasons are: 1) the unguent cone was not placed directly
on the hair, but rather on the wig, as the ancient Egyptians did; 2) such representations are found in
funerary contexts only, referring thus to dead precisely, and depict dierent categories of people
wearing unguent cones, although there is no evidence of their manufacture of aromatic materials.
Moreover no archaeological evidence has been found so far to suggest the very real existence of these
cones; 3) it is not even sure there is an ancient Egyptian word designating unguent cone
(Wrterbuch I, 483, 7 gives next to b.t, Salbkegel, i.e., ointment cone, but followed by the question
mark)77. e author agree with Bruyres view78, to whom the unguent cone expresses the
metaphysical state of the blissful, sanctified dead, i.e., mAa-xrw (during the first decaded of the
Twentieth century this was a trendy idea among Westerners), and thus oppinates that the most likely
interpretation of this cone could be in a certain degree related to the human spiritual body, i.e., a
kind of aura (or electromagnetic field), although she also points out that the ancient Egyptian idea
of suvival aer death was not expressed by such concept, but rather should be understood as a more
concrete one, to which it should be added the aromatic feature due to some symbols of eternity
(particularly the Lotus flower, symbol of the origin of the universe). Just like Lise Manniche did,
Cherpion also characterized therefore the unguent cone as a concrete image chosen by the Egyptians

69 74
Manniche 1989, 10-31; 1999, 51. Fletcher 1993.
70 75
BGU, I 149 Shaw, Nicholson 2000, 141.
71 76
Wilken 1912, 93. Cherpion 1994, 79. She cites the descriptions of
72
For more similar documents, see Perpillou-omas 1993, Schweinfurth and Keimer. Ibid., footnotes 3 and 4.
77
183. For more information on kyphi see also Ybenes 2011, Cherpion, work cited, 83 and footnote 28.
78
349-362. Cherpion apud Bruyere 1926.
73
Nicholson 2002, 140-141.
TO CAUSE TO MAKE DIVINE THROUGH SMOKE: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN INCENSE AND PERFUME 693

to translate an abstract notion, that of perfumed ointment/unguent79. erefore, as much as incense

did, the aromatic unguent cone too came to signify not only reverence and prayer, but, on a deeper
level, it evoked the actual presence of the divine entity by creating the fragrance of the gods. e
temple text from the Ritual of Amon describes incense coming from the pores of Amun: e god
comes with his body adorned [] the incense of the god which has issued from his flesh, the sweat
of the god which has fallen to the ground, which he has given to all the gods ... It is the Horus eye.
If it lives, the people live, thy flesh lives, their members are vigorous80.

5. Contemporary Scientific Analyzes

and Possible Pharmacological Uses of Incense
e resin of Boswellia species (Burseraceae, frankincense and olibanum) is mentioned in
numerous ancient texts as incense by itself or as a major component of incense. erefore recently,
based on the prolonged use of Boswellia, its historical importance, and its significance in cultural and
religious rituals along with its purported pharmacological eects, researchers have investigated the
biochemical profile and psychoactivity of purified components of Boswellia resin. Pharmacologists
assumed that the spiritual exaltation caused by incense burning in religious ceremonies would be
enhanced by putative pharmacological eects of its constituents, particularly on the conductors of
the ceremonies, who presumably inhale large amounts of smoke81. Menon and Kar82 have reported
that an ether extract of Boswellia serrata resin produces analgesic and sedative eects in rats, but the
compounds causing these eects have not been isolated. They examined Boswellia extract for the
presence of novel bioactive components and isolated incensole acetate (IA) as a major active constituent
of Boswellia resin. IA showed an antiinflammatory action and exerted an anxiolytic-like and
antidepressive-like eects. us, the data from the behavioral assays suggested that IA may represent
a novel anxiolytic and antidepressive agent. Also the conclusions of the study published in the Journal
of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology included the idea that the active
ingredient in frankincense lights up brain receptors that play a role in the perception of warmth on
the skin and might help regulate emotion83. Studies of how those psychoactive drugs work have helped
scientists understand modern neurobiology, while the discovery of how IA, purified from frankincense,
works on specific targets in the brain also helped them understand diseases of the nervous system.
Interestingly enough some researchers further investigated the frequency of essential oils,
frankincense included. Everything has an electrical frequency or vibration, including food, our bodies,
and even disease that can be measured in Megahertz (MHz). Frequency is defined as a measurable
rate of electrical flow that is constant between any two points. Interestingly enough, the frequency of
essential oils are actually some of the highest frequencies known to man. ey create an environment
in which disease, bacteria, virus, fungus, etc., cannot live and are several times greater than the
frequencies of herbs and foods. erefore certain frequencies can prevent the development of disease
and other frequencies would destroy diseases. Substances of higher frequency will destroy diseases
of lower frequency.A healthy body, from head to foot, typically has a frequency ranging from 62 to
78 MHz, while disease begins at 58Hz. erapeutic Grade Essential Oils begin at 52 and go as high
as 320 MHz. For example: Rose 320 MHz, Helichrysum 181 MHz, Frankincense 147 MHz, Ravensara
134 MHz, Lavender 118 MHz, Myrrh 105 MHz, German Camomile 105 MHz, Juniper 98 MHz,
Sandalwood 96 MHz, Angelica 85 MHz, Peppermint 78 MHz84.

79 81
Cherpion, work cited, 86, and footnotes 50-51. See also Moussaie et al. 2008.
82
Manniche 1992, 14: A fragrance is some of the most Menon 1971, 19:333-341.
83
intangible, to imagine, but the Egyptians were prescient Moussaie et al. 2008, 3032-3033.
84
enough to keep the smell fixed for posterity in the form of Budwig Center 2015, http://www.budwigcenter.com/
recipes in stone and papyrus. essential-oils/#.VPNbmY5M3EQ
80
Wise 2009, 69.
694 RENATA TATOMIR

Conclusion
roughout history the fragrance released through smoke by the aromatic biomaterials (mostly
resinous) were mentioned in numerous ancient texts as incense by itself or as a major component of
incense. In the ancient Middle East, Boswellia resin was considered a highly precious commodity,
carried in caravans from sub-Sahara regions, where it is still a major export product. In ancient Egypt,
incense burning signified mainly a manifestation of the presence of the gods and a gratification to
them. Also a compund incense, kyphi, was highly prized for its therapeutical properties, and thus the
Greco-Roman physicians mentioned it in their pre-scientific treatises. In ancient Judea, it was a central
ceremony in the temple. e ancient Greeks used incense burning as an oblation. In Christendom,
its use in worship has continued since the fourth or fih century C.E. e psychoactivity of Boswellia
was already recognized in ancient times. Dioscorides (first century C.E.) writes that it causes madness.
In the Jewish Talmud (ca. 300600 C.E.), Boswellia resin is mentioned as a potion (in wine) given to
prisoners condemned to death to benumb the senses. In Ethiopia, where Boswellia trees are
indigenous, it is believed to have a tranquilizing eect. Recent investigations have shed some light
upon the connection between the religious and symbolic function of incense and its pharmacological
properties revealing new insights into their eects.

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