TRADITIONAL AND CRITICAL THEORY

TRADITIONAL AND
CRITICAL THEORY
WHAT is "theory"? The question seems a rather easy one for
contemporary science. Theory for most researchers is the
sum-total of propositions about a subject, the propositions being
so linked with each other that a few are basic and the rest derive
from these. The smaller the number of primary principles in
comparison with the derivations, the more perfect the theory.
The real validity of the theory depends on the derived propositions being consonant with the actual facts. If experience and
theory contradict each other, one of the two must be re-examined.
Either the scientist has failed to observe correctly or something
is wrong with the principles of the theory. In relation to facts,
therefore, a theory always remains a hypothesis. One must be
ready to change it if its weaknesses begin to show as one works
through the material. Theory is stored up knowledge, put in a
form that makes it useful for the closest possible description of
facts. Poincare compares science to a library that must ceaselessly expand. Experimental physics is the librarian who takes
care of acquisitions, that is, enriches knowledge by supplying
new material. Mathematical physicsthe theory of natural science in the strictest sensekeeps the catalogue; without the
catalogue one would have no access to the library's rich contents. "That is the role of mathematical physics. It must direct
generalisation, so as to increase what I have called just now
the output of science."1 The general goal of all theory is a
universal systematic science, not limited to any particular sub1. Henri Poincare, Science and Hypothesis, tr. by W[illiam] J[ohn]
G[reenstreet] (London: Walter Scott, 1905), p. 145.

188

ject matter but embracing all possible objects. The division of

sciences is being broken down by deriving the principles for
special areas from the same basic premises. The same conceptual
apparatus which was elaborated for the analysis of inanimate
nature is serving to classify animate nature as well, and anyone
who has once mastered the use of it, that is, the rules for derivation,
the symbols, the process of comparing derived propositions with
observable fact, can use it at any time. But we are still rather far
from such an ideal situation.
Such, in its broad lines, is the widely accepted idea of what
theory is. Its origins supposedly coincide with the beginnings
of modern philosophy. The third maxim in Descartes' scientific
method is the decision
to carry on my reflections in due order, commencing with objects
that were the most simple and easy to understand, in order to rise
little by little, or by degrees, to knowledge of the most complex,
assuming an order, even if a fictitious one, among those which do
not follow a natural sequence relative to one another.
The derivation as usually practiced in mathematics is to be applied to all science. The order in the world is captured by a
deductive chain of thought.
Those long chains of deductive reasoning, simple and easy as they
are, of which geometricians make use in order to arrive at the most
difficult demonstrations, had caused me to imagine that all those
things which fall under the cognizance of men might very likely be
mutually related in the same fashion; and that, provided only that
we abstain from receiving anything as true which is not so, and
always retain the order which is necessary in order to deduce the
one conclusion from the other, there can be nothing so remote that
we cannot reach to it, nor so recondite that we cannot discover it.2
Depending on the logician's own general philosophical outlook, the most universal propositions from which the deduction
begins are themselves regarded as experiential judgments, as
2. Descartes, Discourse on Method, in The Philosophical Works of
Descartes, tr. by Elizabeth S. Haldane and G. R. T. Ross (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1931 2 ), volume 1, p. 92.

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inductions (as with John Stuart Mill), as evident insights (as in

rationalist and phenomenological schools), or as arbitrary postulates (as in the modern axiomatic approach). In the most
advanced logic of the present time, as represented by Husserl's
Logische Untersuchungen, theory is defined "as an enclosed
system of propositions for a science as a whole."3 Theory in the
fullest sense is "a systematically linked set of propositions, taking
the form of a systematically unified deduction."4 Science is "a
certain totality of propositions . . . , emerging in one or other
manner from theoretical work, in the systematic order of which
propositions a certain totality of objects acquires definition."5 The
basic requirement which any theoretical system must satisfy is
that all the parts should intermesh thoroughly and without
friction. Harmony, which includes lack of contradictions, and the
absence of superfluous, purely dogmatic elements which have no
influence on the observable phenomena, are necessary conditions,
according to Weyl.6
In so far as this traditional conception of theory shows a
tendency, it is towards a purely mathematical system of symbols.
As elements of the theory, as components of the propositions
and conclusions, there are ever fewer names of experiential
objects and ever more numerous mathematical symbols. Even
the logical operations themselves have already been so rationalized that, in large areas of natural science at least, theory
formation has become a matter of mathematical construction.
The sciences of man and society have attempted to follow
the lead of the natural sciences with their great successes. The
difference between those schools of social science which are
more oriented to the investigation of facts and those which
concentrate more on principles has nothing directly to do with
the concept of theory as such. The assiduous collecting of facts

in all the disciplines dealing with social life, the gathering of

great masses of detail in connection with problems, the empirical
inquiries, through careful questionnaires and other means, which
are a major part of scholarly activity, especially in the
Anglo-Saxon universities since Spencer's timeall this adds up
to a pattern which is, outwardly, much like the rest of life in a
society dominated by industrial production techniques. Such
an approach seems quite different from the formulation of abstract principles and the analysis of basic concepts by an armchair scholar, which are typical, for example, of one sector of
German sociology. Yet these divergences do not signify a structural difference in ways of thinking. In recent periods of contemporary
society
the
so-called
human
studies
Geisteswissen-scMften) have had but a fluctuating market value
and must try to imitate the more prosperous natural sciences
whose practical value is beyond question.
There can be no doubt, in fact, that the various schools of
sociology have an identical conception of theory and that it is
the same as theory in the natural sciences. Empirically oriented
sociologists have the same idea of what a fully elaborated
theory should be as their theoretically oriented brethren. The
former, indeed, are persuaded that in view of the complexity
of social problems and the present state of science any concern with general principles must be regarded as indolent and
idle. If theoretical work is to be done, it must be done with an
eye unwaveringly on the facts; there can be no thought in the
foreseeable future of comprehensive theoretical statements.
These scholars are much enamored of the methods of exact
formulation and, in particular, of mathematical procedures,
which are especially congenial to the conception of theory described above. What they object to is not so much theory as
such but theories spun out of their heads by men who have no
personal experience of the problems of an experimental science.
Distinctions like those between community and society
(Ton-nies), mechanical and organic solidarity (Durkheim), or
culture and civilization (A. Weber) as basic forms of human
sociality prove to be of questionable value as soon as one
attempts to

3. Edmund Husserl, Formale und transzendentale Logik (Halle,

1929), p. 89.
4. Husserl, op. cit., p. 79.
5. Husserl, op. cit., p. 91.
6. Hermann Weyl, Philosophie der Naturwissenschaft, in Handbuch
der Philosophie, Part 2 (Munich-Berlin, 1927), pp. 118ff.

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apply them to concrete problems. The way that sociology must

take in the present state of research is (it is argued) the laborious
ascent from the description of social phenomena to detailed
comparisons and only then to the formation of general concepts.
The empiricist, true to his traditions, is thus led to say that only
complete inductions can supply the primary propositions for a
theory and that we are still far from having made such inductions.
His opponent claims the right to use other methods, less
dependent on progress in data-collection, for the formation of
primary categories and insights. Durkheim, for example,
agrees with many basic views of the empirical school but, in
dealing with principles, he opts for an abridgement of the inductive process. It is impossible, he claims, to classify social
happenings on the basis of purely empirical inventories, nor
can research make classification easier in the way in which it is
expected to do so.

in a particular case we are dealing with an instance of the essence in question or of a related essence, whether we are faced
with a poor example of one type or a good example of another
type. There is always, on the one hand, the conceptually formulated knowlege and, on the other, the facts to be subsumed
under it. Such a subsumption or establishing of a relation between the simple perception or verification of a fact and the
conceptual structure of our knowing is called its theoretical
explanation.
We need not enter here into the details of the various kinds of
classification. It will be enough to indicate briefly how the
traditional concept of theory handles the explanation of historical
events. The answer emerged clearly in the controversy between
Eduard Meyer and Max Weber. Meyer regarded as idle and
unanswerable the question of whether, even if certain historical
personages had not reached certain decisions, the wars they
caused would nonetheless sooner or later have occurred. Weber
tried to show that if the question were indeed idle and
unanswerable, all historical explanation would become impossible. He developed a "theory of objective possibility," based
on the theories of the physiologist, von Kries, and of writers in
jurisprudence and national economy such as Merkel, Liefmann,
and Radbruch. For Weber, the historian's explanations, like
those of the expert in criminal law, rest not on the fullest possible enumeration of all pertinent circumstances but on the
establishment of a connection between those elements of an
event which are significant for historical continuity, and particular, determinative happenings. This connection, for example
the judgment that a war resulted from the policies of a statesman
who knew what he was about, logically supposes that, had such a
policy not existed, some other effect would have followed. If one
maintains a particular causal nexus between historical events,
one is necessarily implying that had the nexus not existed, then in
accordance with the rules that govern our experience another
effect would have followed in the given circumstances. The rules
of experience here are nothing but the formulations of our
knowledge concerning economic, social, and psychologi-

Its [induction's] role is to put into our hands points of reference to

which we can refer other observations than those which have furnished us with these very points of reference. But for this purpose it
must be made not from a complete inventory of all the individual
characteristics but from a small number of them, carefully
chosen . . . It will spare the observer many steps because it will
guide him . . . We must, then, choose the most essential
characteristics for our classification.7
Whether the primary principles are gotten by selection, by
intuition, or by pure stipulation makes no difference, however,
to their function in the ideal theoretical system. For the scientist
must certainly apply his more or less general propositions, as
hypotheses, to ever new facts. The phenomenologically oriented
sociologist will indeed claim that once an essential law has been
ascertained every particular instance will, beyond any doubt,
exemplify the law. But the really hypothetical character of the
essential law is manifested as soon as the question arises whether
7. Er-ile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method, tr. from the
eighth ed^ion by Sarah A. Soiovay and John H. Mueller (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1938), p. 80.

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cal interconnections. With the help of these we reconstruct the

probable course of events, going beyond the event itself to
what will serve as explanation.8 We are thus working with
conditional propositions as applied to a given situation. If circumstances a, b, c, and d are given, then event q must be expected; if d is lacking, event r; if g is added, event s, and so on.
This kind of calculation is a logical tool of history as it is of
science. It is in this fashion that theory in the traditional sense is
actually elaborated.
What scientists in various fields regard as the essence of
theory thus corresponds, in fact, to the immediate tasks they
set for themselves. The manipulation of physical nature and
of specific economic and social mechanisms demand alike the
amassing of a body of knowledge such as is supplied in an
ordered set of hypotheses. The technological advances of the
bourgeois period are inseparably linked to this function of the
pursuit of science. On the one hand, it made the facts fruitful
for the kind of scientific knowledge that would have practical
application in the circumstances, and, on the other, it made
possible the application of knowledge already possessed. Beyond
doubt, such work is a moment in the continuous transformation
and development of the material foundations of that society.
But the conception of theory was absolutized, as though it were
grounded in the inner nature of knowledge as such or justified
in some other ahistorical way, and thus it became a reined,
ideological category.
As a matter of fact, the fruitfulness of newly discovered
factual connections for the renewal of existent knowledge, and
the application of such knowledge to the facts, do not derive
from purely logical or methodological sources but can rather
be understood only in the context of real social processes. When a
discovery occasions the restructuring of current ideas, this is
not due exclusively to logical considerations or, more par8. Max Weber, "Critical Studies in the Logic of the Cultural Sciences I: A Critique of Eduard Meyer's Methodological Views," in Max

ticularly, to the contradiction between the discovery and particular elements in current views. If this were the only real issue,
one could always think up further hypotheses by which one
could avoid changing the theory as a whole. That new views
in fact win out is due to concrete historical circumstances, even
if the scientist himself may be determined to change his views
only by immanent motives. Modern theoreticians of knowledge
do not deny the importance of historical circumstance, even if
among the most influential nonscientific factors they assign more
importance to genius and accident than to social conditions.
In the seventeenth century, for example, men began to resolve
the difficulties into which traditional astronomy had fallen, no
longer by supplemental constructions but by adopting the
Copernican system in its place. This change was not due to
the logical properties alone of the Copernican theory, for
example its greater simplicity. If these properties were seen
as advantages, this very fact points beyond itself to the fundamental characteristics of social action at that time. That
Coper-nicanism, hardly mentioned in the sixteenth century,
should now become a revolutionary force is part of the larger
historical process by which mechanistic thinking came to prevail.9
But the influence of the current social situation on change in
scientific structures is not limited to comprehensive theories like
the Copernican system. It is also true for special research
problems in everyday life. Sheer logic alone will not tell us
whether the discovery of new varieties in particular areas of
inorganic or organic nature, whether in the chemical laboratory
or in paleontological research, will be the occasion for modifying
old classifications or for elaborating new ones. The theoreticians
of knowledge usually rely here on a concept of theology which
only in appearance is immanent to their science. Whether and how
new definitions are purposefully drawn up depends in fact not
only on the simplicity and consistency of the system but also,
among other things, on the directions and goals of

Weber on the Methodology of the Social Sciences, ed. and tr. by Edward
A. Shils and Henry A. Finch (Glencoe: Free Press, 1949), pp. 113-63.

194

9. A description of this development may be found in Henryk

Gross-mann, "Die gesellschaftlichen Grundlagen der mechanischen
Philosophie und die Manufaktur," Zeilschrijt filr Sozialforschung 4
(1935), 161ff.

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research. These last, however, are not self-explanatory nor

are they, in the last analysis, a matter of insight.
As the influence of the subject matter on the theory, so also
the application of the theory to the subject matter is not only an
intrascientific process but a social one as well. Bringing
hypotheses to bear on facts is an activity that goes on, ultimately,
not in the savant's head but in industry. Such rules as that coal-tar
under certain conditions becomes colored or that nitro-glycerin,
saltpeter, and other materials have great explosive force, are
accumulated knowledge which is really applied to reality in the
great industrial factories.
Among the various philosophical schools it is the Positivists
and the Pragmatists who apparently pay most attention to the
connections between theoretical work and the social life-process.
These schools consider the prevision and usefulness of results
to be a scientific task. But in reality this sense of practical purpose,
this belief in the social value of his calling is a purely private
conviction of the scholar. He may just as well believe in an
independent, "suprasocial," detached knowledge as in the
social importance of his expertise: such opposed interpretations
do not influence his real activity in the slightest. The scholar
and his science are incorporated into the apparatus of
society; his achievements are a factor in the conservation and
continuous renewal of the existing state of affairs, no matter
what fine names he gives to what he does. His knowledge and
results, it is expected, will correspond to their proper "concept,"
that is, they must constitute theory in the sense described above.
In the social division of labor the savant's role is to integrate
facts into conceptual frameworks and to keep the latter
up-to-date so that he himself and all who use them may be
masters of the widest possible range of facts. Experiment has the
scientific role of establishing facts in such a way that they fit into
theory as currently accepted. The factual material or subject
matter is provided from without; science sees to its
formulation in clear and comprehensible terms, so that men
may be able to use the knowledge as they wish. The reception,
transformation, and rationalization of factual knowledge is the
scholar's special

form of spontaneity, namely theoretical activity, whether there

is question of as detailed as possible an exposition of a subject
as in history and the descriptive branches of other special
disciplines, or of the synthesis of masses of data and the attainment of general rules as in physics. The dualism of thought and
being, understanding and perception is second nature to the
scientist.
The traditional idea of theory is based on scientific activity
as carried on within the division of labor at a particular stage in
the latter's development. It corresponds to the activity of the
scholar which takes place alongside all the other activities of a
society but in no immediately clear connection with them. In this
view of theory, therefore, the real social function of science is not
made manifest; it speaks not of what theory means in human
life, but only of what it means in the isolated sphere in which
for historical reasons it comes into existence. Yet as a matter of
fact the life of society is the result of all the work done in the
various sectors of production. Even if therefore the division of
labor in the capitalist system functions but poorly, its branches,
including science, do not become for that reason self-sufficient
and independent. They are particular instances of the way in
which society comes to grips with nature and maintains its own
inherited form. They are moments in the social process of
production, even if they be almost or entirely unproductive in the
narrower sense. Neither the structures of industrial and agrarian
production nor the separation of the so-called guiding and
executory functions, services, and works, or of intellectual and
manual operations are eternal or natural states of affairs. They
emerge rather from the mode of production practiced in
particular forms of society. The seeming self-sufficiency
enjoyed by work processes whose course is supposedly
determined by the very nature of the object corresponds to the
seeming freedom of the economic subject in bourgeois society.
The latter believe they are acting according to personal
determinations, whereas in fact even in their most complicated
calculations they but exemplify the working of an incalculable
social mechanism.

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The false consciousness of the bourgeois savant in the liberal

era comes to light in very diverse philosophical systems. It
found an especially significant expression at the turn of the
century in the Neo-Kantianism of the Marburg school. Particular
traits in the theoretical activity of the specialist are here elevated
to the rank of universal categories, of instances of the
world-mind, the eternal "Logos." More accurately, decisive
elements in social life are reduced to the theoretical activity of the
savant. Thus "the power of knowledge" is called "the power of
creative origination." "Production" means the "creative
sovereignty of thought." For any datum it must be possible to
deduce all its determinations from theoretical systems and
ultimately from mathematics; thus all finite magnitudes may be
derived from the concept of the infinitely small by way of the
infinitesimal calculus, and this process is precisely their
"production." The ideal to be striven for is a unitary system of
science which, in the sense just described, will be all-powerful.
Since everything about the object is reduced to conceptual
determinations, the end-result of such theoretical work is that
nothing is to be regarded as material and stable. The
determinative, ordering, unifying function is the sole foundation
for all else, and towards it all human effort is directed.
Production is production of unity, and production is itself the
product.10 Progress in awareness of freedom really means,
according to this logic, that the paltry snippet of reality which the
savant encounters finds ever more adequate expression in the
form of differential quotients. In reality, the scientific calling is
only one, nonindependent, element in the work or historical
activity of man, but in such a philosophy the former replaces
the latter. To the extent that it conceives of reason as actually
determining the course of events in a future society, such a
hypostatization of Logos as reality is also a camouflaged Utopia.
In fact, however, the self-knowledge of present-day man is not a
mathematical knowledge of nature which claims to be the
eternal Logos, but a critical

theory of society as it is, a theory dominated at every turn by a

concern for reasonable conditions of life.
The isolated consideration of particular activities and branches
of activity, along with their contents and objects, requires for its
validity an accompanying concrete awareness of its own
limitations. A conception is needed which overcomes the
one-sidedness that necessarily arises when limited intellectual
processes are detached from their matrix in the total activity of
society. In the idea of theory which the scholar inevitably reaches
when working purely within his own discipline, the relation
between fact and conceptual ordering of fact offers a point of
departure for such a corrective conception. The prevailing
theory of knowledge has, of course, recognized the problem
which this relation raises. The point is constantly stressed that
identical objects provide for one discipline problems to be resolved only in some distant future, while in another discipline
they are accepted as simple facts. Connections which provide
physics with research problems are taken for granted in biology.
Within biology, physiological processes raise problems while
psychological processes do not. The social sciences take human
and nonhuman nature in its entirety as given and are concerned
only with how relationships are established between man and
nature and between man and man. However, an awareness of
this relativity, immanent in bourgeois science, in the relationship
between theoretical thought and facts, is not enough to bring
the concept of theory to a new stage of development. What is
needed is a radical reconsideration, not of the scientist alone,
but of the knowing individual as such.
The whole perceptible world as present to a member of
bourgeois society and as interpreted within a traditional
world-view which is in continuous interaction with that given
world, is seen by the perceiver as a sum-total of facts; it is there
and must be accepted. The classificatory thinking of each
individual is one of those social reactions by which men try to
adapt to reality in a way that best meets their needs. But there is
at this point an essential difference between the individual and
society.

10. Cf. Hermann Cohen, Logik der reinen Erkenr.tnis (Berlin, 1914)
pp. 23ff.
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The world which is given to the individual and which he must

accept and take into account is, in its present and continuing
form, a product of the activity of society as a whole. The objects
we perceive in our surroundingscities, villages, fields, and
woodsbear the mark of having been worked on by man. It is
not only in clothing and appearance, in outward form and
emotional make-up that men are the product of history. Even
the way they see and hear is inseparable from the social
life-process as it has evolved over the millennia. The facts
which our senses present to us are socially preformed in two
ways: through the historical character of the object perceived
and through the historical character of the perceiving organ.
Both are not simply natural; they are shaped by human activity,
and yet the individual perceives himself as receptive and passive
in the act of perception. The opposition of passivity and activity,
which appears in knowledge theory as a dualism of sense-perception and understanding, does not hold for society, however,
in the same measure as for the individual. The individual sees
himself as passive and dependent, but society, though made up
of individuals, is an active subject, even if a nonconscious one
and, to that extent, a subject only in an improper sense. This
difference in the existence of man and society is an expression
of the cleavage which has up to now affected the historical
forms of social life. The existence of society has either been
founded directly on oppression or been the blind outcome of
conflicting forces, but in any event not the result of conscious
spontaneity on the part of free individuals. Therefore the meaning
of "activity" and "passivity" changes according as these concepts
are applied to society or to individual. In the bourgeois economic
mode the activity of society is blind and concrete, that of
individuals abstract and conscious.
Human production also always has an element of planning
to it. To the extent then that the facts which the individual and
his theory encounter are socially produced, there must be rationality in them, even if in a restricted sense. But social action
always involves, in addition, available knowledge and its application. The perceived fact is therefore co-determined by
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TRADITIONAL AND CRITICAL THEORY

human ideas and concepts, even before its conscious theoretical

elaboration by the knowing individual. Nor are we to think
here only of experiments in natural science. The so-called purity
of objective event to be achieved by the experimental procedure
is, of course, obviously connected with technological conditions,
and the connection of these in turn with the material process of
production is evident. But it is easy here to confuse two
questions: the question of the mediation of the factual through
the activity of society as a whole, and the question of the influence of the measuring instrument, that is, of a particular action,
upon the object being observed. The latter problem, which
continually plagues physics, is no more closely connected with
the problem that concerns us here than is the problem of perception generally, including perception in everyday life. Man's
physiological apparatus for sensation itself largely anticipates
the order followed in physical experiment. As man reflectively
records reality, he separates and rejoins pieces of it, and concentrates on some particulars while failing to notice others. This
process is just as much a result of the modern mode of production,
as the perception of a man in a tribe of primitive hunters and
fishers is the result of the conditions of his existence (as well, of
course, as of the object of perception).
In this context the proposition that tools are prolongations
of human organs can be inverted to state that the organs are
also prolongations of the tools. In the higher stages of civilization
conscious human action unconsciously determines not only the
subjective side of perception but in larger degree the object as
well. The sensible world which a member of industrial society sees
about him every day bears the marks of deliberate work:
tenement houses, factories, cotton, cattle for slaughter, men,
and, in addition, not only objects such as subway trains, delivery
trucks, autos, and airplanes, but the movements in the course
of which they are perceived. The distinction within this complex
totality between what belongs to unconscious nature and what
to the action of man in society cannot be drawn in concrete
detail. Even where there is question of experiencing natural
objects as such, their very naturalness is determined by con201

CRITICAL THEORY

trast with the social world and, to that extent, depends upon
the latter.
The individual, however, receives sensible reality, as a simple
sequence of facts, into his world of ordered concepts. The
latter too, though their context changes, have developed along
with the life process of society. Thus, though the ordering of
reality by understanding and the passing of judgment on objects
usually take place as a foregone conclusion and with surprising
unanimity among members of a given society, yet the harmony
between perception and traditional thought and among the
monads or individual subjects of knowledge is not a metaphysical
accident. The power of healthy human understanding, or
common sense, for which there are no mysteries, as well as the
general acceptance of identical views in areas not directly connected with class conflicts, as for example in the natural
sciences, are conditioned by the fact that the world of objects
to be judged is in large measure produced by an activity that is
itself determined by the very ideas which help the individual to
recognize that world and to grasp it conceptually.
In Kant's philosophy this state of affairs is expressed in
idealist form. The doctrine of purely passive sensation and
active understanding suggests to him the question of whence
the understanding derives its assured expectation that the manifold given in sensation will always obey the rules of the understanding. He explicitly rejects the thesis of a pre-established
harmony, "a kind of preformation-system of pure reason," in
which reason has innate and sure rules with which objects are in
accord.11 His own explanation is that sensible appearances are
already formed by the transcendental subject, that is, through the
activity of reason, when they are received by perception and
consciously judged.12 In the most important chapters of the
Critique of Pure Reason Kant tried to give a more detailed
explanation of the "transcendental affinity" or subjective dell.
Kant, Critique of Pure Reason, B 167, tr. by Norman Kemp Smith
(London: Macmillan, 19332), p. 175. 12. Cf. Kant, op. cit., A 110, pp.
137-38.
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termination of sensible material, a process of which the individual is unaware.

The difficulty and obscurity which, by Kant's own admission,
mark the sections on the deduction and schematism of the pure
concepts of understanding may be connected with the fact that
Kant imagines the supra-individual activity, of which the individual is unaware, only in the idealist form of a
consciousness-in-itself, that is a purely intellectual source. In
accordance with the theoretical vision available in his day, he
does not see reality as product of a society's work, work which
taken as a whole is chaotic, but at the individual level is
purposeful. Where Hegel glimpses the cunning of a reason that is
nonetheless world-historical and objective, Kant sees "an art
concealed in the depths of the human soul, whose real modes
of activity nature is hardly likely ever to allow us to discover,
and to have open to our gaze."13
At least Kant understood that behind the discrepancy between
fact and theory which the scholar experiences in his professional
work, there lies a deeper unity, namely, the general subjectivity
upon which individual knowledge depends. The activity of
society thus appears to be a transcendental power, that is, the
sum-total of spiritual factors. However, Kant's claim that its
reality is sunk in obscurity, that is, that it is irrational despite
all its rationality, is not without its kernel of truth. The bourgeois
type of economy, despite all the ingenuity of the competing
individuals within it, is not governed by any plan; it is not consciously directed to a general goal; the life of society as a whole
proceeds from this economy only at the cost of excessive friction,
in a stunted form, and almost, as it were, accidentally. The
internal difficulties in the supreme concepts of Kantian
philosophy, especially the ego of transcendental subjectivity,
pure or original apperception, and consciousness-in-itself, show
the depth and honesty of his thinking. The two-sidedness of
these Kantian concepts, that is, their supreme unity and
purpose-fulness, on the one hand, and their obscurity,
unknownness, and
1
13. Kant, op. cit., B 181, p. 183.

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impenetrability, on the other, reflects exactly the

contradiction-filled form of human activity in the modern period.
The collaboration of men in society is the mode of existence
which reason urges upon them, and so they do apply their powers
and thus confirm their own rationality. But at the same time
their work and its results are alienated from them, and the
whole process with all its waste of work-power and human life,
and with its wars and all its senseless wretchedness, seems to
be an unchangeable force of nature, a fate beyond man's
control.
In Kant's theoretical philosophy, in his analysis of knowledge,
this contradition is preserved. The unresolved problem of the
relation between activity and passivity, a priori and sense data,
philosophy and psychology, is therefore not due to purely subjective insufficiency but is objectively necessary. Hegel discovered and developed these contradictions, but finally resolved
them in a higher intellectual realm. Kant claimed that there existed a universal subject which, however, he could not quite
describe. Hegel escaped this embarrassment by postulating the
absolute spirit as the most real thing of all. According to him,
the universal has already adequately evolved itself and is identical
with all that happens. Reason need no longer stand over against
itself in purely critical fashion; in Hegel reason has become
affirmative, even before reality itself is affirmed as rational. But,
confronted with the persisting contradictions in human existence
and with the impotence of individuals in face of situations they
have themselves brought about, the Hegelian solution seems a
purely private assertion, a personal peace treaty between the
philosopher and an inhuman world.
The integration of facts into existing conceptual systems and
the revision of facts through simplification or elimination of
contradictions are, as we have indicated, part of general social
activity. Since society is divided into groups and classes, it is
understandable that theoretical structures should be related to
the general activity of society in different ways according as the
authors of such structures belong to one or other social class.
Thus when the bourgeois class was first coming into being in a
feudal society, the purely scientific theory which arose with it

tended chiefly to the break-up of the status quo and attacked the
old form of activity. Under liberalism this theory was accepted
by the prevailing human type. Today, development is determined much less by average men who compete with each other
in improving the material apparatus of production and its
products, than by conflicting national and international cliques
of leaders at the various levels of command in the economy and
the State. In so far as theoretical thought is not related to highly
specialized purposes connected with these conflicts, especially
war and the industry that supports it, interest in theory has
waned. Less energy is being expended on forming and developing
the capacity of thought without regard to how it is to be applied.
These distinctions, to which others might be added, do not at
all change the fact that a positive social function is exercised by
theory in its traditional form: that is, the critical examination
of data with the aid of an inherited apparatus of concepts and
judgments which is still operative in even the simplest minds, as
well as the interaction between facts and theoretical forms that
goes on in daily professional activity. In this intellectual work
the needs and goals, the experiences and skills, the customs and
tendencies of the contemporary form of human existence have
all played their part. Like a material tool of production, it represents potentially an element not only of the contemporary
cultural totality but of a more just, more differentiated, more
harmoniously organized one as well. To the extent that this
theoretical thinking does not deliberately lend itself to concerns
which are external and alien to the object but truly concentrates
on the problems which it meets in the wake of technical development and, in this connection, itself turns up new problems and
transforms old concepts where necessaryto this extent it may
rightly regard the technological and industrial accomplishments
of the bourgeois era as its own justification and be confident of
its own value.
This kind of theoretical thinking considers itself to belong to
the realm of the hypothetical, of course, not of certainty. But the
hypothetical character is compensated for in many ways. The

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uncertainty involved is no greater than it need be, given the

intellectual and technological means at hand at any given time,
with their proven general usefulness. The very elaboration of
such hypotheses, however small their probability may be, is itself
a socially necessary and valuable accomplishment which is not at
all hypothetical. The construction of hypotheses and theoretical
activity in general are a kind of work which in present social
circumstances has a real usefulness; that is, there is a demand for
it. In so far as it is underpaid or even neglected, it only shares the
fate of other concrete and possibly useful kinds of work which
have gotten lost in the present economy. Yet these very kinds of
work presuppose the present economy and are part of the total
economic process as it exists under specific historical conditions.
This has nothing to do with the question of whether scientific
labor is itself productive in the narrow sense of the term. In the
present order of things there is a demand for an immense number
of so-called scientific creations; they are honored in very varying
ways, and part of the goods emerging from strictly productive
work is handed over for them, without anything at all being
thereby settled about their own productivity. Even the emptiness
of certain areas of university activity, as well as all the idle
ingenuity and the construction of metaphysical and
nonmetaphysical ideologies have their social significance, no
less than do other needs arising out of social conflicts. However,
they do not therefore further the interests of any important large
sector of society in the present age. An activity which in its
existing forms contributes to the being of society need not be
productive at all, that is be a money-making enterprise.
Nevertheless it can belong to the existing order and help make it
possible, as is certainly the case with specialized science. We must
go on now to add that there is a human activity which has
society itself for its object.14 The aim of this activity
14. In the following pages this activity is called "critical" activity. The

is not simply to eliminate one or other abuse, for it regards such

abuses as necessarily connected with the way in which the social
structure is organized. Although it itself emerges from the social
structure, its purpose is not, either in its conscious intention
or in its objective significance, the better functioning of any element in the structure. On the contrary, it is suspicious of the
very categories of better, useful, appropriate, productive, and
valuable, as these are understood in the present order, and refuses to take them as nonscientific presuppositions about which
one can do nothing. The individual as a rule must simply accept
the basic conditions of his existence as given and strive to fulfill
them; he finds his satisfaction and praise in accomplishing as
well as he can the tasks connected with his place in society and
in courageously doing his duty despite all the sharp criticism
he may choose to exercise in particular matters. But the critical
attitude of which we are speaking is wholly distrustful of the
rules of conduct with which society as presently constituted
provides each of its members. The separation between individual
and society in virtue of which the individual accepts as natural
the limits prescribed for his activity is relativized in critical
theory. The latter considers the overall framework which is
conditioned by the blind interaction of individual activities (that
is, the existent division of labor and the class distinctions) to be a
function which originates in human action and therefore is a
possible object of planful decision and rational determination of
goals.
The two-sided character of the social totality in its present
form becomes, for men who adopt the critical attitude, a conscious opposition. In recognizing the present form of economy
and the whole culture which it generates to be the product of
human work as well as the organization which mankind was
capable of and has provided for itself in the present era, these
men identify themselves with this totality and conceive it as will
and reason. It is their own world. At the same time, however,
they experience the fact that society is comparable to nonhuman
natural processes, to pure mechanisms, because cultural forms

term is used here less in the sense it has in the idealist critique of pure
reason than in the sense it has in the dialectical critique of political economy.
It points to an essential espect of the dialectical theory of society.

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which are supported by war and oppression are not the creations of a unified, self-conscious will. That world is not their
own but the world of capital.
Previous history thus cannot really be understood; only the
individuals and specific groups in it are intelligible, and even
these not totally, since their internal dependence on an inhuman
society means that even in their conscious action such individuals
and groups are still in good measure mechanical functions. The
identification, then, of men of critical mind with their society
is marked by tension, and the tension characterizes all the
concepts of the critical way of thinking. Thus, such thinkers
interpret the economic categories of work, value, and productivity exactly as they are interpreted in the existing order, and
they regard any other interpretation as pure idealism. But at
the same time they consider it rank dishonesty simply to accept
the interpretation; the critical acceptance of the categories which
rule social life contains simultaneously their condemnation.
This dialectical character of the self-interpretation of contemporary man is what, in the last analysis, also causes the obscurity of
the Kantian critique of reason. Reason cannot become transparent
to itself as long as men act as members of an organism which
lacks reason. Organism as a naturally developing and declining
unity cannot be a sort of model for society, but only a form of
deadened existence from which society must emancipate itself.
An attitude which aims at such an emancipation and at an
alteration of society as a whole might well be of service in
theoretical work carried on within reality as presently ordered. But
it lacks the pragmatic character which attaches to traditional
thought as a socially useful professional activity.
In traditional theoretical thinking, the genesis of particular
objective facts, the practical application of the conceptual systems by which it grasps the facts, and the role of such systems in
action, are all taken to be external to the theoretical thinking itself.
This alienation, which finds expression in philosophical
terminology as the separation of value and research, knowledge
and action, and other polarities, protects the savant from the
tensions we have indicated and provides an assured framework
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for his activity. Yet a kind of thinking which does not accept
this framework seems to have the ground taken out from under it.
If a theoretical procedure does not take the form of determining
objective facts with the help of the simplest and most differentiated conceptual systems available, what can it be but an
aimless intellectual game, half conceptual poetry, half impotent
expression of states of mind? The investigation into the social
conditioning of facts and theories may indeed be a research
problem, perhaps even a whole field for theoretical work, but
how can such studies be radically different from other specialized efforts? Research into ideologies, or sociology of knowledge, which has been taken over from the critical theory of
society and established as a special discipline, is not opposed
either in its aim or in its other ambitions to the usual activities
that go on within classificatory science.
In this reaction to critical theory, the self-awareness of
thought as such is reduced to the discovery of the relationship
that exists between intellectual positions and their social location.
Yet the structure of the critical attitude, inasmuch as its
intentions go beyond prevailing social ways of acting, is no
more closely related to social disciplines thus conceived than it
is to natural science. Its opposition to the traditional
concept of theory springs in general from a difference not so
much of objects as of subjects. For men of the critical mind, the
facts, as they emerge from the work of society, are not
extrinsic in the same degree as they are for the savant or for
members of other professions who all think like little savants. The
latter look towards a new kind of organization of work. But in
so far as the objective realities given in perception are conceived
as products which in principle should be under human control
and, in the future at least, will in fact come under it, these
realities lose the character of pure factuality.
.The scholarly specialist "as" scientist regards social reality
and its products as extrinsic to him, and "as" citizen exercises
his interest in them through political articles, membership in
political parties or social service organizations, and participation in elections. But he does not unify these two activities, and
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his other activities as well, except, at best, by psychological

interpretation. Critical thinking, on the contrary, is motivated
today by the effort really to transcend the tension and to abolish
the opposition between the individual's purposefulness, spontaneity, and rationality, and those work-process relationships
on which society is built. Critical thought has a concept of man
as in conflict with himself until this opposition is removed. If
activity governed by reason is proper to man, then existent
social practice, which forms the individual's life down to its least
details, is inhuman, and this inhumanity affects everything that
goes on in the society. There will always be something that is
extrinsic to man's intellectual and material activity, namely
nature as the totality of as yet unmastered elements with which
society must deal. But when situations which really depend on
man alone, the relationships of men in their work, and the
course of man's own history are also accounted part of "nature,"
the resultant extrinsicality is not only not a suprahistorical eternal
category (even pure nature in the sense described is not that),
but it is a sign of contemptible weakness. To surrender to such
weakness is nonhuman and irrational.
Bourgeois thought is so constituted that in reflection on the
subject which exercises such thought a logical necessity forces it
to recognize an ego which imagines itself to be autonomous.
Bourgeois thought is essentially abstract, and its principle is an
individuality which inflatedly believes itself to be the ground of
the world or even to be the world without qualification, an individuality separated off from events. The direct contrary of such
an outlook is the attitude which holds the individual to be the
un-problematic expression of an already constituted society; an
example would be a nationalist ideology. Here the rhetorical "we"
is taken seriously; speech is accepted as the organ of the community. In the internally rent society of our day, such thinking,
except in social questions, sees nonexistent unanimities and is
illusory.
Critical thought and its theory are opposed to both the types
of thinking just described. Critical thinking is the function

neither of the isolated individual nor of a sum-total of individuals.

Its subject is rather a definite individual in his real relation to
other individuals and groups, in his conflict with a particular class,
and, finally, in the resultant web of relationships with the social
totality and with nature. The subject is no mathematical point like
the ego of bourgeois philosophy; his activity is the construction of
the social present. Furthermore, the thinking subject is not the
place where knowledge and object coincide, nor consequently
the starting-point for attaining absolute knowledge. Such an
illusion about the thinking subject, under which idealism has lived
since Descartes, is ideology in the strict sense, for in it the limited
freedom of the bourgeois individual puts on the illusory form of
perfect freedom and autonomy. As a matter of fact, however, in a
society which is untransparent and without self-awareness the
ego, whether active simply as thinker or active in other ways as
well, is unsure of itself too. In reflection on man, subject and
object are sundered; their identity lies in the future, not in the
present. The method leading to such an identification may be
called explanation in Cartesian language, but in genuinely
critical thought explanation signifies not only a logical process
but a concrete historical one as well. In the course of it both the
social structure as a whole and the relation of the theoretician to
society are altered, that is both the subject and the role of thought
are changed. The acceptance of an essential unchangeableness
between subject, theory, and object thus distinguishes the
Cartesian conception from every kind of dialectical logic.
How is critical thought related to experience? One might
maintain that if such thought were not simply to classify but also
to determine for itself the goals which classification serves, in
other words its own fundamental direction, it would remain
locked up within itself, as happened to idealist philosophy. If it
did not take refuge in Utopian fantasy, it would be reduced to
the formalistic fighting of sham battles. The attempt legitimately
to determine practical goals by thinking must always fail. If
thought were not content with the role given to it in

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existent society, if it were not to engage in theory in the traditional sense of the word, it would necessarily have to return to
illusions long since laid bare.
The fault in such reflections as these on the role of thought is
that thinking is understood in a detachedly departmentalized
and therefore spiritualist way, as it is today under existing
conditions of the division of labor. In society as it is, the power of
thought has never controlled itself but has always functioned as a
nonindependent moment in the work process, and the latter has its
own orientation and tendency. The work process enhances and
develops human life through the conflicting movement of
progressive and retrogressive periods. In the historical form in
which society has existed, however, the full measure of goods
produced for man's enjoyment has, at any particular stage,
been given directly only to a small group of men. Such a state of
affairs has found expression in thought, too, and left its mark on
philosophy and religion. But from the beginning the desire to
bring the same enjoyment to the majority has stirred in the
depths of men's hearts; despite all the material appropriateness of
class organization, each of its forms has finally proved inadequate.
Slaves, vassals, and citizens have cast off their yoke. This desire,
too, has found expression in cultural creations. Now, inasmuch
as every individual in modern times has been required to make his
own the purposes of society as a whole and to recognize these in
society, there is the possibility that men would become aware of
and concentrate their attention upon the path which the social
work process has taken without any definite theory behind it, as
a result of disparate forces interacting, and with the despair of the
masses acting as a decisive factor at major turning points.
Thought does not spin such a possibility out of itself but rather
becomes aware of its own proper function. In the course of
history men have come to know their own activity and thus to
recognize the contradiction that marks their existence. The
bourgeois economy was concerned that the individual should
maintain the life of society by taking care of his own personal
happiness. Such an economy has within it, however, a dynamism
which results in a fantastic
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degree of power for some, such as reminds us of the old Asiatic

dynasties, and in material and intellectual weakness for many
others. The original fruitfulness of the bourgeois organization
of the life process is thus transformed into a paralyzing barrenness, and men by their own toil keep in existence a reality
which enslaves them in ever greater degree.
Yet, as far as the role of experience is concerned, there is a
difference between traditional and critical theory. The viewpoints which the latter derives from historical analysis as the
goals of human activity, especially the idea of a reasonable organization of society that will meet the needs of the whole community, are immanent in human work but are not correctly
grasped by individuals or by the common mind. A certain concern is also required if these tendencies are to be perceived and
expressed. According to Marx and Engels such a concern is
necessarily generated in the proletariat. Because of its situation
in modern society the proletariat experiences the connection
between work which puts ever more powerful instruments into
men's hands in their struggle with nature, and the continuous
renewal of an outmoded social organization. Unemployment,
economic crises, militarization, terrorist regimesin a word,
the whole condition of the massesare not due, for example, to
limited technological possibilities, as might have been the case
in earlier periods, but to the circumstances of production which
are no longer suitable to our time. The application of all intellectual and physical means for the mastery of nature is hindered because in the prevailing circumstances these means are
entrusted to special, mutually opposed interests. Production is
not geared to the life of the whole community while heeding
also the claims of individuals; it is geared to the power-backed
claims of individuals while being concerned hardly at all with
the life of the community. This is the inevitable result, in the
present property system, of the principle that it is enough for
individuals to look out for themselves.
But it must be added that even the situation of the proletariat is,
in this society, no guarantee of correct knowledge. The proletariat may indeed have experience of meaninglessness in the
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form of continuing and increasing wretchedness and injustice

in its own life. Yet this awareness is prevented from becoming a
social force by the differentiation of social structure which is
still imposed on the proletariat from above and by the opposition
between personal class interests which is transcended only at
very special moments. Even to the proletariat the world
superficially seems quite different than it really is. Even an outlook which could grasp that no opposition really exists between
the proletariat's own true interests and those of society as a
whole, and would therefore derive its principles of action from
the thoughts and feelings of the masses, would fall into slavish
dependence on the status quo. The intellectual is satisfied to
proclaim with reverent admiration the creative strength of the
proletariat and finds satisfaction in adapting himself to it and in
canonizing it. He fails to see that such an evasion of theoretical
effort (which the passivity of his own thinking spares him) and
of temporary opposition to the masses (which active theoretical
effort on his part might force upon him) only makes the masses
blinder and weaker than they need be. His own thinking should
in fact be a critical, promotive factor in the development of the
masses. When he wholly accepts the present psychological state of
that class which, objectively considered, embodies the power to
change society, he has the happy feeling of being linked with an
immense force and enjoys a professional optimism. When the
optimism is shattered in periods of crushing defeat, many
intellectuals risk falling into a pessimism about society and a
nihilism which are just as ungrounded as their exaggerated
optimism had been. They cannot bear the thought that the kind of
thinking which is most topical, which has the deepest grasp of the
historical situation, and is most pregnant with the future, must at
certain times isolate its subject and throw him back upon himself.
If critical theory consisted essentially in formulations of the
feelings and ideas of one class at any given moment, it would not
be structurally different from the special branches of science. It
would be engaged in describing the psychological contents typical
of certain social groups; it would be social psychology. The

relation of being to consciousness is different in different classes

of society. If we take seriously the ideas by which the bourgeoisie explains its own orderfree exchange, free competition,
harmony of interests, and so onand if we follow them to their
logical conclusion, they manifest their inner contradiction and
therewith their real opposition to the bourgeois order. The
simple description of bourgeois self-awareness thus does not
give us the truth about this class of men. Similarly, a systematic
presentation of the contents of proletarian consciousness cannot
provide a true picture of proletarian existence and interests. It
would yield only an application of traditional theory to a
specific problem, and not the intellectual side of the historical
process of proletarian emancipation. The same would be true
if one were to limit oneself to appraising and making known
the ideas not of the proletariat in general but of some more
advanced sector of the proletariat, for example a party or its
leadership. The real task set here would be the registering and
classifying of facts with the help of the most suitable conceptual
apparatus, and the theoretician's ultimate goal would be the
prediction of future socio-psychological phenomena. Thought
and the formation of theory would be one thing and its object,
the proletariat, another.
If, however, the theoretician and his specific object are seen
as forming a dynamic unity with the oppressed class, so that his
presentation of societal contradictions is not merely an expression of the concrete historical situation but also a force within
it to stimulate change, then his real function emerges. The
course of the conflict between the advanced sectors of the class
and the individuals who speak out the truth concerning it, as
well as of the conflict between the most advanced sectors with
their theoreticians and the rest of the class, is to be understood
as a process of interactions in which awareness comes to flower
along with its liberating but also its aggressive forces which
incite while also requiring discipline. The sharpness of the conflict
shows in the ever present possibility of tension between the
theoretician and the class which his thinking is to serve. The
unity of the social forces which promise liberation is at the

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same time their distinction (in Hegel's sense); it exists only as a

conflict which continually threatens the subjects caught up in it.
This truth becomes clearly evident in the person of the theoretician; he exercises an aggressive critique not only against the
conscious defenders of the status quo but also against distracting, conformist, or Utopian tendencies within his own
household.
The traditional type of theory, one side of which finds expression in formal logic, is in its present form part of the production
process with its division of labor. Since society must come to
grips with nature in future ages as well, this intellectual technology will not become irrelevant but on the contrary is to be
developed as fully as possible. But the kind of theory which is
an element in action leading to new social forms is not a cog in
an already existent mechanism. Even if victory or defeat provides
a vague analogy to the confirmation or failure of scientific
hypotheses, the theoretician who sets himself up in opposition to
society as it is does not have the consolidation that such hypotheses are part of his professional work. He cannot sing for
himself the hymn of praise which Poincare sang to the enrichment deriving even from hypotheses that must be rejected.15 His
profession is the struggle of which his own thinking is a part
and not something self-sufficient and separable from the struggle.
Of course, many elements of theory in the usual sense enter into
his work: the knowledge and prognosis of relatively isolated facts,
scientific judgments, the elaboration of problems which differ
from those of other theoreticians because of his specific interests
but nonetheless manifest the same logical form.
Traditional theory may take a number of things for granted:
its positive role in a functioning society, an admittedly indirect
and obscure relation to the satisfaction of general needs, and
participation in the self-renewing life process. But all these
exigencies about which science need not trouble itself because
their fulfillment is rewarded and confirmed by the social position
of the scientist, are called into question in critical thought. The
goal at which the latter aims, namely the rational state of so15. Poincare, op. cit., pp. 150-51.

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ciety, is forced upon him by present distress. The theory which

projects such a solution to the distress does not labor in the
service of an existing reality but only gives voice to the mystery
of that reality. However cogently absurdities and errors may be
uncovered at any given moment, however much every error may
be shown to be taking its revenge, yet the overall tendency of
the critical theoretical undertaking receives no sanction from
so-called healthy human understanding; it has no custom on its
side, even when it promises success. Theories, on the contrary,
which are confirmed or disproved in the building of machines,
military organizations, even successful motion pictures, look to a
clearly distinguishable consumer group, even when like
theoretical physics they are pursued independently of any
application or consist only in a joyous and virtuous playing with
mathematical symbols; society proves its humaneness by rewarding such activity.
But there are no such examples of the form consumption will
take in that future with which critical thinking is concerned.
Nonetheless the idea of a future society as a community of free
men, which is possible through technical means already at hand,
does have a content, and to it there must be fidelity amid all
change. In the form of an insight that the dismemberment and
irrationality of society can now be eliminated and how this is to
be accomplished, this idea is constantly being renewed amid
prevailing conditions. But the state of affairs upon which judgment is passed in this conception and the tendencies inciting
men to build a rational society are not brought into existence
outside thought by forces extrinsic to it, with thought then, as it
were, accidentally recognizing its own reflection in the product
of these forces. Rather, one and the same subject who wants a
new state of affairs, a better reality, to come to pass, also
brings it forth. Out of the obscure harmony between being and
thought, understanding and sense perception, human needs and
their satisfaction in today's economy, a harmony which seems
an accident to the bourgeois eye, there will emerge in the future
age the relation between rational intention and its realization.
The struggle for the future provides but a fragmentary re-

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flection of this relation, to the extent that a will which aims at

the shaping of society as a whole is already consciously operative
in the construction of the theory and practice which will lead
to it. Despite all the discipline, justified by the need to win
through, the community of those engaged in the struggle experiences something of the freedom and spontaneity which will
mark the future. Where the unity of discipline and freedom has
disappeared, the movement becomes a matter of interest only to
its own bureaucracy, a play that already belongs to the repertory
of modern history.
That the future being striven for should be a vital reality
even in the present proves nothing, however. The conceptual
systems of classificatory understanding, the categories into
which dead and living things, social, psychological, and physical
phenomena have all been absorbed together, the division of
objects and of judgments on them into the various pigeonholes
of the special areas of knowledgeall this makes up the apparatus of thought as it has proved and refined itself in connection
with the real work process. This world of concepts makes up the
consciousness of most men, and it has a basis to which its
proponents can appeal. The concerns of critical thought, too,
are those of most men, but they are not recognized to be such.
The concepts which emerge under its influence are critical of
the present. The Marxist categories of class, exploitation, surplus value, profit, pauperization, and breakdown are elements in a
conceptual whole, and the meaning of this whole is to be
sought not in the preservation of contemporary society but in
its transformation into the right kind of society. Consequently,
although critical theory at no point proceeds arbitrarily and in
chance fashion, it appears, to prevailing modes of thought, to be
subjective and speculative, one-sided and useless. Since it runs
counter to prevailing habits of thought, which contribute to the
persistence of the past and carry on the business of an outdated
order of things (both past and outdated order guaranteeing a
faction-ridden world), it appears to be biased and unjust.
Above all, however, critical theory has no material accom-

plishments to show for itself. The change which it seeks to bring

about is not effected gradually, so that success even if slow
might be steady. The growth in numbers of more or less
clear-minded disciples, the influence of some among them on
governments, the power position of parties which have a positive
attitude towards this theory or at least do not outlaw itall these
are among the vicissitudes encountered in the struggle for a
higher stage of man's life in community and are not found at the
beginnings of the struggle. Such successes as these may even
prove, later on, to have been only apparent victories and really
blunders. Again: fertilization in agriculture, for example, or the
application of a medical therapy may be far removed from ideal
reality and yet accomplish something. Perhaps the theories
underlying such technology may have to be refined, revised, or
abolished in connection with specialized activity and with discoveries in other areas. Through such techniques, nonetheless, a
certain amount of labor is saved in achieving results, and many
an illness is healed or alleviated.18 But the first consequence of
the theory which urges a transformation of society as a whole is
only an intensification of the struggle with which the theory is
connected.
Furthermore, although material improvements, originating in
the increased powers of resistance of certain groups, are indirectly due to the critical theory, the groups in question are not
sectors of society whose steady spread would finally bring the
new society to pass. Such ideas mistake the fundamental difference between a fragmented society in which material and
ideological power operates to maintain privileges and an association of free men in which each has the same possibility of
self-development. Such an association is not an abstract Utopia,
for the possibility in question can be shown to be real even at the
present stage of productive forces. But how many tendencies
will actually lead to this association, how many transitional
phases have been reached, how desirable and intrinsically val-

218

16. The same is true of insights in the areas of political economy and
financial technology, and their use in economic policy.

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uabie individual preliminary stages may be, and what their

historical importance is in relation to the ideaall this will be
made clear only when the idea is brought to realization.
One thing which this way of thinking has in common with
fantasy is that an image of the future which springs indeed from a
deep understanding of the present determines men's thoughts and
actions even in periods when the course of events seems to be
leading far away from such a future and seems to justify every
reaction except belief in fulfillment. It is not the arbitrariness and
supposed independence of fantasy that is the common bond here,
but its obstinacy. Within the most advanced group it is the
theoretician who must have this obstinacy. The theoretician of the
ruling class, perhaps after difficult beginnings, may reach a
relatively assured position, but, on the other hand, the theoretician
is also at times an enemy and criminal, at times a solitary
Utopian; even after his death the question of what he really was
is not decided. The historical significance of his work is not
self-evident; it rather depends on men speaking and acting in such
a way as to justify it. It is not a finished and fixed historical
creation.
The capacity for such acts of thought as are required in
everyday action, social or scientific, has been developed in men
by a realistic training over many centuries. Failure here leads to
affliction, failure, and punishment. The intellectual modality to
which we refer consists essentially in this, that the conditions for
bringing about an effect which has always appeared in the same
circumstances before are known and in the appropriate context
are supplied. There is an object-lesson kind of instruction
through good and bad experiences and through organized experiment. The issue here is direct individual self-preservation,
and in bourgeois society men have the opportunity of developing
a sense of this. Knowledge in this traditional sense, including
every type of experience, is preserved in critical theory and
practice. But in regard to the essential kind of change at which
the critical theory aims, there can be no corresponding concrete
perception of it until it actually comes about. If the proof of the

pudding is in the eating, the eating here is still in the future.

Comparison with similar historical events can be drawn only
in a limited degree.
Constructive thinking, then, plays a more important role than
empirical verification in this theory as a whole, in comparison
with what goes on in the activity of common sense. This is one of
the reasons why men who in particular scientific areas or in other
professional activity are able to do extremely competent work,
can show themselves quite limited and incompetent, despite
good will, when it comes to questions concerning society as a
whole. In all past periods when social change was on the agenda,
people who thought "too much" were regarded as dangerous.
This brings us to the problem of the general relation of the
intelligentsia to society.
The theoretician whose business it is to hasten developments
which will lead to a society without injustice can find himself in
opposition to views prevailing even among the proletariat, as
we said above. If such a conflict were not possible, there would
be no need of a theory; those who need it would come upon it
without help. The conflict does not necessarily have anything
to do with the class to which the theoretician belongs; nor does it
depend on the kind of income he has. Engels was a businessman.
In professional sociology, which derives its concept of class
not from a critique of the economy but from its own observations,
the theoretician's social position is determined neither by the
source of his income nor by the concrete content of his theory
but by the formal element of education. The possibility of a
wider vision, not the kind possessed by industrial magnates who
know the world market and direct whole states from behind the
scenes, but the kind possessed by university professors,
middle-level civil servants, doctors, lawyers, and so forth, is what
constitutes the "intelligentsia," that is, a special social or even
suprasocial stratum.
It is the task of the critical theoretician to reduce the tension
between his own insight and oppressed humanity in whose
service he thinks. But in the sociological concept of which we

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speak detachment from all classes is an essential mark of the

intelligentsia, a sort of sign of superiority of which it is
proud.17 Such a neutral category corresponds to the abstract
self-awareness typical of the savant. To the bourgeois consumer
under liberalism knowledge meant knowledge that was useful in
some circumstances or other, no matter what kind of
knowledge might be in question; the sociology we speak of
approaches knowledge in the same way at the theoretical level.
Marx and Mises, Lenin and Liefmann, Jaures and Jevons all
come under the same sociological heading, unless the politicians
are left out of the list and put down as potential students of the
political scientists, sociologists, and philosophers who are the
real men of knowledge. From them the politician is to learn to use
"such and such a means" when he takes "such and such a stand";
he must learn whether the practical position he adopts can be implemented with logical consistency.18 A division of labor is
established between men who in social conflicts affect the course
of history and the social theoreticians who assign them their
standpoint.
Critical theory is in contradiction to the formalistic concept
of mind which underlies such an idea of the intelligentsia.
According to this concept there is only one truth, and the positive
attributes of honesty, internal consistency, reasonableness, and
striving for peace, freedom, and happiness may not be attributed
in the same sense to any other theory and practice. There is
likewise no theory of society, even that of the sociologists
concerned with general laws, that does not contain political
motivations, and the truth of these must be decided not in supposedly neutral reflection but in personal thought and action, in
concrete historical activity. Now, it is disconcerting that the
intellectual should represent himself in this way, as though a
difficult labor of thought, which he alone could accomplish,
17. The author is referring, here and in the following paragraphs, to
Karl Mannheim's theory, in his sociology of knowledge, of the specific

were the prime requirement if men were accurately to choose

between revolutionary, liberal, and fascist ends and means. The
situation has not been like that for many decades. The
avant-garde in the political struggle need prudence, but not
academic instruction on their so-called standpoint. Especially at
a time when the forces of freedom in Europe are themselves
disoriented and seeking to regroup themselves anew, when
everything depends on nuances of position within their own
movement, when indifference to substantive content, created by
defeat, despair, and corrupt bureaucracy, threatens to overwhelm
all the spontaneity, experience, and knowledge of the masses
despite the heroic efforts of a few, a conception of the
intelligentsia which claims to transcend party lines and is
therefore abstract represents a view of problems that only hides
the decisive questions. Mind is liberal. It tolerates no external
coercion, no revamping of its results to suit the will of one or
other power. But on the other hand it is not cut loose from the life
of society; it does not hang suspended over it. In so far as mind
seeks autonomy or man's control over his own life no less than
over nature, it is able to recognize this same tendency as a force
operative in history. Considered in isolation, the recognition of
such a tendency seems neutral; but just as mind is unable to
recognize it without having first been stimulated and become
concerned, neither can it make such recognition a generally
accepted fact without a struggle. To that extent, mind is not
liberal. Intellectual efforts which arise here and there without any
conscious connection with a particular practical commitment but
vary according to different academic or other tasks that promise
success, intellectual efforts which take now this, now that for
their field of concentration, may be useful in the service of one or
other historical tendency. But for all their formal correctness (and
what theoretical structure, however radically faulted, cannot
fulfill the requirements of formal correctness?), they can also
hinder and lead astray the development of the mind. The
abstract sociological concept of an intelligentsia which is to
have missionary functions is, by its structure, an hypostatiza-tion
of specialized science. Critical theory is neither "deeply

condition and outlook of the intelligentsia in the bourgeois era.

18. Max Weber, "Science as a Vocation," in From Max Weber: Es
says in Sociology, tr. and ed. by H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1946), p. 151.

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rooted" like totalitarian propaganda nor "detached" like the

liberalist intelligentsia.
Our consideration of the various functions of traditional and
critical theory brings to light the difference in their logical
structure. The primary propositions of traditional theory define
universal concepts under which all facts in the field in question
are to be subsumed; for example, the concept of a physical
process in physics or an organic process in biology. In between
primary propositions and facts there is the hierarchy of genera
and species with their relations of subordination. Facts are individual cases, examples, or embodiments of classes. There are
no differences due to time between the unities in the system.
Electricity does not exist prior to an electrical field, nor a field
prior to electricity, any more than wolf as such exists before or
after particular wolves. As far as an individual knower is concerned there may be one or other temporal sequence among
such relationships, but no such sequence exists in the objects
themselves.
Furthermore, physics has also ceased to regard more general
characteristics as causes or forces hidden in the concrete facts
and to hypostatize these logical relationships; it is only sociology
that is still unclear on this point. If new classes are added to the
system or other changes are introduced, this is not usually regarded as proof that the determinations made earlier are necessarily too rigid and must turn out to be inadequate, for the
relationship to the object or even the object itself may change
without losing its identity. Changes are taken rather as an indication that our earlier knowledge was deficient or as a substitution of some aspects of an object for others, as a map, for
example, may become dated because forests have been cut
down, new cities built, or different borders drawn. In discursive
logic, or logic of the understanding, the evolution of living
beings is conceived in the same way. This person is now a child,
then an adult; for such logic this can only mean that there is an
abiding stable nucleus, "this person," who successively possesses
the attributes of being a child and an adult. For positivism, of
course, there is simply no identity: first there is a child, Jater

there is an adult, and the two are simply distinct complexes of

facts. But this view cannot come to grips with the fact that a
person changes and yet is identical with himself.
The critical theory of society also begins with abstract determinations; in dealing with the present era it begins with the
characterization of an economy based on exchange.19 The concepts
Marx uses, such as commodity, value, and money, can function
as genera when, for example, concrete social relations are judged
to be relations of exchange and when there is question of the
commodity character of goods. But the theory is not satisfied to
relate concepts of reality by way of hypotheses. The theory begins
with an outline of the mechanism by which bourgeois society,
after dismantling feudal regulations, the guild system, and
vassalage, did not immediately fall apart under the pressure of its
own anarchic principle but managed to survive. The regulatory
effects of exchange are brought out on which bourgeois economy
is founded. The conception of the interaction of society and
nature, which is already exercising its influence here, as well as
the idea of a unified period of society, of its self-preservation,
and so on, spring from a radical analysis, guided by concern for the
future, of the historical process. The relation of the primary
conceptual interconnections to the world of facts is not
essentially a relation of classes to instances. It is because of its
inner dynamism that the exchange relationship, which the theory
outlines, dominates social reality, as, for example, the
assimilation of food largely dominates the organic life of plant
and brute beast.
In critical theory, as in traditional theory, more specific elements must be introduced in order to move from fundamental
structure to concrete reality. But such an intercalation of more
detailed factorsfor example the existence of large money reserves, the diffusion of these in sectors of society that are still
precapitalist, foreign tradeis not accomplished by simple
deduction as in theory that has been simplified for specialized

224

19. On the logical structure of the critique of political economy, cf.

the essay "Zum Problem der Wahrheit," in Horkheimer, Kritische
Theorie, vol. I (Frankfurt, 1968), p. 265ff.

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use. Instead, every step rests on knowledge of man and nature

which is stored up in the sciences and in historical experience.
This is obvious, of course, for the theory of industrial technology.
But in other areas too a detailed knowledge of how men react is
applied throughout the doctrinal developments to which we have
been referring. For example, the statement that under certain
conditions the lowest strata of society have the most children
plays an important role in explaining how the bourgeois society
built on exchange necessarily leads to capitalism with its army of
industrial reserves and its crises. To give the psychological reasons
behind the observed fact about the lower classes is left to
traditional science.
Thus the critical theory of society begins with the idea of the
simple exchange of commodities and defines the idea with the
help of relatively universal concepts. It then moves further,
using all knowledge available and taking suitable material from
the research of others as well as from specialized research.
Without denying its own principles as established by the special
discipline of political economy, the theory shows how an exchange economy, given the condition of men (which, of course,
changes under the very influence of such an economy), must
necessarily lead to a heightening of those social tensions which
in the present historical era lead in turn to wars and revolutions.
The necessity just mentioned, as well as the abstractness of
the concepts, are both like and unlike the same phenomena in
traditional theory. In both types of theory there is a strict deduction if the claim of validity for general definitions is shown to
include a claim that certain factual relations will occur. For
example, if you are dealing with electricity, such and such an
event must occur because such and such characteristics belong
to the very concept of electricity. To the extent that the critical
theory of society deduces present conditions from the concept of
simple exchange, it includes this kind of necessity, although it is
relatively unimportant that the hypothetical form of statement
be used. That is, the stress is not on the idea that wherever a
society based on simple exchange prevails, capitalism must developalthough this is true. The stress is rather on the fact

that the existent capitalist society, which has spread all over the
world from Europe and for which the theory is declared valid,
derives from the basic relation of exchange. Even the
classifica-tory judgments of specialized science have a
fundamentally hypothetical character, and existential judgments
are allowed, if at all, only in certain areas, namely the descriptive
and practical parts of the discipline.20 But the critical theory of
society is, in its totality, the unfolding of a single existential
judgment. To put it in broad terms, the theory says that the basic
form of the historically given commodity economy on which
modern history rests contains in itself the internal and external
tensions of the modern era; it generates these tensions over and
over again in an increasingly heightened form; and after a period
of progress, development of human powers, and emancipation for
the individual, after an enormous extension of human control
over nature, it finally hinders further development and drives
humanity into a new barbarism.
The individual steps within the theory are, at least in intention,
as rigorous as the deductions in a specialized scientific theory;
each is an element in the building up of that comprehensive
existential judgment. Particular parts of the theory can be
changed into general or specific hypothetical judgments and
applied after the fashion of traditional theory; for example, the
idea that increasing productivity usually devalues capital. In
many areas of the theory there thus arise propositions the
relation of which to reality is difficult to determine. From the
fact that the representation of a unified object is true as a
whole, it is possible to conclude only under special conditions
the extent to which isolated parts of the representation can
validly be applied, in their isolation, to isolated parts of the

226

20. There are connections between the forms of judgment and the
historical periods. A brief indication will show what is meant. The
classificatory judgment is typical of prebourgeois society: this is the way it
is, and man can do nothing about it. The hypothetical and disjunctive forms
belong especially to the bourgeois world: under certain circumstances this
effect can take place; it is either thus or so. Critical theory maintains: it need
not be so; man can change reality, and the necessary conditions for such
change already exist.

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object. The problem that arises as soon as particular propositions of the critical theory are applied to unique or recurring
events in contemporary society has to do not with the truth of
the theory but with how suitable the theory is for traditional
kinds of intellectual operation with progressively extended goals.
The special sciences, and especially contemporary political
economics, are unable to derive practical profit from the fragmentary questions they discuss. But this incapacity is due neither
to these sciences nor to critical theory alone, but to their specific
role in relation to reality.
Even the critical theory, which stands in opposition to other
theories, derives its statements about real relationships from
basic universal concepts, as we have indicated, and therefore
presents the relationships as necessary. Thus both kinds of
theoretical structure are alike when it comes to logical necessity.
But there is a difference as soon as we turn from logical to real
necessity, the necessity involved in factual sequences. The
biologist's statement that internal processes cause a plant to
wither or that certain processes in the human organism lead to
its destruction leaves untouched the question whether any influences can alter the character of these processes or change
them totally. Even when an illness is said to be curable, the
fact that the necessary curative measures are actually taken is
regarded as purely extrinsic to the curability, a matter of technology and therefore nonessential as far as the theory as such is
concerned. The necessity which rules society can be regarded as
biological in the sense described, and the unique character of
critical theory can therefore be called in question on the grounds
that in biology as in other natural sciences particular sequences
of events can be theoretically constructed just as they are in the
critical theory of society. The development of society, in this
view, would simply be a particular series of events, for the
presentation of which conclusions from various other areas of
research are used, just as a doctor in the course of an illness or
a geologist dealing with the earth's prehistory has to apply
various other disciplines. Society here would be the individual

reality which is evaluated on the basis of theories in the special

sciences.
However many valid analogies there may be between these
different intellectual endeavors, there is nonetheless a decisive
difference when it comes to the relation of subject and object
and therefore to the necessity of the event being judged. The
object with which the scientific specialist deals is not affected
at all by his own theory. Subject and object are kept strictly
apart. Even if it turns out that at a later point in time the objective
event is influenced by human intervention, to science this is just
another fact. The objective occurrence is independent of the
theory, and this independence is part of its necessity: the
observer as such can effect no change in the object. A consciously critical attitude, however, is part of the development of
society: the construing of the course of history as the necessary
product of an economic mechanism simultaneously contains
both a protest against this order of things, a protest generated
by the order itself, and the idea of self-determination for the
human race, that is the idea of a state of affairs in which man's
actions no longer flow from a mechanism but from his own
decision. The judgment passed on the necessity inherent in the
previous course of events implies here a struggle to change it
from a blind to a meaningful necessity. If we think of the object
of the theory in separation from the theory, we falsify it and
fall into quietism or conformism. Every part of the theory presupposes the critique of the existing order and the struggle
against it along lines determined by the theory itself.
The theoreticians of knowledge who started with physics had
reason, even if they were not wholly right, to condemn the confusion of cause and operation of forces and to substitute the idea
of condition or function for the idea of cause. For the kind of
thinking which simply registers facts there are always only series
of phenomena, never forces and counterforces; but this, of
course, says something about this kind of thinking, not about
nature. If such a method is applied to society, the result is
statistics and descriptive sociology, and these can be important
for many purposes, even for critical theory.

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For traditional science either everything is necessary or nothing is necessary, according as necessity means the independence
of event from observer or the possibility of absolutely certain
prediction. But to the extent that the subject does not totally
isolate himself, even as thinker, from the social struggles of
which he is a part and to the extent that he does not think of
knowledge and action as distinct concepts, necessity acquires
another meaning for him. If he encounters necessity which is
not mastered by man, it takes shape either as that realm of
nature which despite the far-reaching conquests still to come
will never wholly vanish, or as the weakness of the society of
previous ages in carrying on the struggle with nature in a consciously and purposefully organized way. Here we do have
forces and counterforces. Both elements in this concept of
necessitythe power of nature and the weakness of society
are interconnected and are based on the experienced effort of
man to emancipate himself from coercion by nature and from
those forms of social life and of the juridical, political, and
cultural orders which have become a straitjacket for him. The
struggle on two fronts, against nature and against society's
weakness, is part of the effective striving for a future condition of
things in which whatever man wills is also necessary and in
which the necessity of the object becomes the necessity of a
rationally mastered event.
The application, even the understanding, of these and other
concepts in the critical mode of thought, demand activity
and effort, an exercise of will power, in the knowing subject.
The effort may be made, of course, to supply for a deficient
understanding of these ideas and of how they are linked together, simply by greater attention to their logical implications
and the elaboration of apparently more exact definitions, even
of a "unified language," but the effort cannot succeed. The
issue is not simply one of misunderstanding but of a real opposition of outlooks. The concept of necessity in the critical theory
is itself a critical concept; it presupposes freedom, even if a
not yet existent freedom. But the idea of freedom as a purely
interior reality which is always there even when men are en-

slaved is typical of the idealist mentality. The tendency immanent in this not wholly false but surely distorted conception
of freedom was most clearly expressed by the young Fichte: "I
am now fully convinced that the human will is free and that the
purpose of our existence is not to be happy but only to deserve
happiness."21 Here we see the real identity underlying fundamental
metaphysical polarities and schools. The claim that events are
absolutely necessary means in the last analysis the same thing as
the claim to be really free here and now: resignation in practice.
The inability to grasp in thought the unity of theory and practice
and the limitation of the concept of necessity to inevitable events
are both due, from the viewpoint of theory of knowledge, to the
Cartesian dualism of thought and being. That dualism is
congenial both to nature and to bourgeois society in so far as
the latter resembles a natural mechanism. The idea of a theory
which becomes a genuine force, consisting in the self-awareness
of the subjects of a great historical revolution, is beyond the
grasp of a mentality typified by such a dualism. If scholars do not
merely think about such a dualism but really take it seriously,
they cannot act independently. In keeping with their own way of
thinking, they can put into practice only what the closed causal
system of reality determines them to do, or they count only as
individual units in a statistic for which the individual unit really
has no significance. As rational beings they are helpless and
isolated. The realization that such a state of affairs exists is
indeed a step towards changing it, but unfortunately the situation
enters bourgeois awareness only in a metaphysical, ahistorical
shape. In the form of a faith in the unchangeableness of the social
structure it dominates the present. Reflecting on themselves men
see themselves only as onlookers, passive participants in a
mighty process which may be foreseen but not modified.
Necessity for them refers not to events which man masters to
his own purposes but only to events which he anticipates as
probable. Where the intercon-

230

21. Fichte, Briejwechsel, ed. by H. Schulz, volume 1 (Leipzig, 1925),

p. 127.
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CRITICAL THEORY

nection of willing and thinking, thought and action is admitted

as in many sectors of the most recent sociology, it is seen only as
adding to that objective complexity which the observer must take
into account. The thinker must relate all the theories which
are proposed to the practical attitudes and social strata which
they reflect. But he removes himself from the affair; he has no
concern exceptscience.
The hostility to theory as such which prevails in contemporary
public life is really directed against the transformative activity
associated with critical thinking. Opposition starts as soon as
theorists fail to limit themselves to verification and classification
by means of categories which are as neutral as possible, that is,
categories which are indispensable to inherited ways of life.
Among the vast majority of the ruled there is the unconscious
fear that theoretical thinking might show their painfully won
adaptation to reality to be perverse and unnecessary. Those who
profit from the status quo entertain a general suspicion of any
intellectual independence. The tendency to conceive theory as
the opposite of a positive outlook is so strong that even the inoffensive traditional type of theory suffers from it at times. Since
the most advanced form of thought at present is the critical
theory of society and every consistent intellectual movement
that cares about man converges upon it by its own inner logic,
theory in general falls into disrepute. Every other kind of scientific statement which does not offer a deposit of facts in the
most familiar categories and, if possible, in the most neutral
form, the mathematical, is already accused of being theoretical.
This positivist attitude need not be simply hostile to progress.
Although in the intensified class conflicts of recent decades
rulers have had to rely increasingly on the real apparatus of
power, ideology is nonetheless still a fairly important cohesive
force for holding together a social structure threatened with
collapse. In the determination to look at facts alone and to
surrender every kind of illusion there still lurks, even today,
something like a reaction against the alliance of metaphysics
and oppression.
It would be a mistake, however, not to see the essential
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distinction between the empiricist Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and that of today. In the eighteenth century a new
society had already been developed within the framework of the
old. The task now was to free an already existent bourgeois
economy from its feudal limitations and to let it operate freely.
Bourgeois scientific thought, too, needed, fundamentally, only
to shake off the old dogmatic chains in order to progress along a
path it had already mapped out. Today, on the contrary, in the
transition from the present form of society to a future one
mankind will for the first time be a conscious subject and actively determine its own way of life. There is still need of a
conscious reconstruction of economic relationships. Indiscriminate hostility to theory, therefore, is a hindrance today. Unless
there is continued theoretical effort, in the interest of a rationally
organized future society, to shed critical light on present-day
society and to interpret it in the light of traditional theories
elaborated in the special sciences, the ground is taken from
under the hope of radically improving human existence. The
demand therefore for a positive outlook and for acceptance of a
subordinate position threatens, even in progressive sectors of
society, to overwhelm any openness to theory. The issue, however,
is not simply the theory of emancipation; it is the practice of it as
well.
The individual parts of a theory which attempts to deduce
the complicated reality of liberal capitalism and ultimately of
the capitalism of the huge combines from the model of a simple
commodity economy cannot be as indifferent to the
time-element as the steps in a deductive system of classification
are. Within the hierarchic systems of organisms, the digestive
function, so important for men too, finds its pure expression, as
it were, in the class of the Aschelminthes. Similarly there are
historical forms of society which show, at least approximately, a
simple commodity economy. As we indicated above, the conceptual development is, if not parallel, at least in verifiable
relation to the historical development. But the essential
related-ness of theory to time does not reside in the
correspondence between individual parts of the conceptual
construction and
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successive periods of history; that is a view on which Hegel's

Phenomenology oj Mind and Logic and Marx's Capital, examples of the same method, are in agreement. It consists rather
in the continuous alteration of the theoretician's existential
judgment on society, for this judgment is conditioned by its
conscious relation to the historical practice of society.
This kind of alteration has nothing to do with the principle by
which modern metaphysics and philosophy of religion have rejected every consistently developed theoretical structure: any
specific theoretical content must be constantly and "radically
questioned," and the thinker must be constantly beginning anew.
Critical theory does not have one doctrinal substance today,
another tomorrow. The changes in it do not mean a shift to a
wholly new outlook, as long as the age itself does not radically
change. The stability of the theory is due to the fact that amid all
change in society the basic economic structure, the class
relationship in its simplest form, and therefore the idea of the
supersression of these two remain identical. The decisive substantive elements in the theory are conditioned by these unchanging factors and they themselves therefore cannot change
until there has been a historical transformation of society. On
the other hand, however, history does not stand still until such a
point of transformation has been reached. The historical development of the conflicts in which the critical theory is involved
leads to a reassignment of degrees of relative importance to
individual elements of the theory, forces further concretizations,
and determines which results of specialized science are to be
significant for critical theory and practice at any given time.
In order to explain more fully what is meant, we shall use
the concept of the social class which disposes of the means of
production. In the liberalist period economic predominance was
in great measure connected with legal ownership of the means
of production. The large class of private property owners exercised leadership in the society, and the whole culture of the age
bears the impress of this fact. Industry was still broken up into a
large number of independent enterprises which were small by
modern standards. The directors of factories, as was suitable for

this stage of technological development, were either one or more

of the owners or their direct appointees. Once, however, the
development of technology in the last century had led to a
rapidly increasing concentration and centralization of capital,
the legal owners were largely excluded from the management
of the huge combines which absorbed their small factories,
and management became something quite distinct from ownership before the law. Industrial magnates, the leaders of the
economy, came into being.
In many cases these managers were initially the major owners
of the concerns. Today, however, such ownership has become
unimportant, and there are now some powerful managers who
dominate whole sectors of industry while owning a steadily
decreasing part of the businesses they direct. This economic
process brings with it a change in the way the political and
legal apparatus functions, as well as in ideologies. Without the
juridical definition of ownership being changed at all, owners
become increasingly powerless before the directors and their
staffs. In a lawsuit which owners might bring against managers
in the course of a difference of views, the managers' direct
control of the means which these huge enterprises have at their
disposal gives them such an advantage that a victory of their
opponents is for the most part hardly possible. The influence of
management, which may initially be exercised only over lower
judicial and administrative authorities, finally extends to the
higher ones and ultimately to the State and its power apparatus.
Once the legal owners are cut off from the real productive
process and lose their influence, their horizon narrows; they
become increasingly unfitted for important social positions,
and finally the share which they still have in industry due to
ownership and which they have done nothing to augment comes
to seem socially useless and morally dubious. These and other
changes are accompanied by the rise of ideologies centering on
the great personality and the distinction between productive and
parasitic capitalists. The idea of a right with a fixed content
and independent of society at large loses its importance. The
very same sector of society which brutally maintains its private

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power to dispose of the means of production (and this power is

at the heart of the prevailing social order) sponsors political
doctrines which claim that unproductive property and parasitic
incomes must disappear. The circle of really powerful men
grows narrower, but the possibility increases of deliberately
constructing ideologies, of establishing a double standard of
truth (knowledge for insiders, a cooked-up story for the
people), and of cynicism about truth and thought generally. The
end result of the process is a society dominated no longer by
independent owners but by cliques of industrial and political
leaders.
Such changes do not leave the structure of the critical theory
untouched. It does not indeed fall victim to the illusion that
property and profit no longer play a key role, an illusion carefully fostered in the social sciences. On the one hand, even
earlier it had regarded juridical relations not as the substance
but as the surface of what was really going on in society. It
knows that the disposition of men and things remains in the
hands of a particular social group which is in competition with
other economic power groups, less so at home but all the more
fiercely at the international level. Profit continues to come from
the same social sources and must in the last analysis be increased
by the same means as before. On the other hand, in the judgment
of the critical theorist the loss of all rights with a determined
content, a loss conditioned by the concentration of economic
power and given its fullest form in the authoritarian state, has
brought with it the disappearance not only of an ideology
but also of a cultural factor which has a positive value and not
simply a negative one.
When the theory takes into account these changes in the
inner structure of the entrepreneurial class, it is led to differentiate others of its concepts as well. The dependence of culture
on social relationships must change as the latter change, even
in details, if society indeed be a single whole. Even in the
liberalist period political and moral interpretations of individuals could be derived from their economic situation. Admiration
for nobility of character, fidelity to one's word, independence of

judgment, and so forth, are traits of a society of relatively independent economic subjects who enter into contractual relationships with each other. But this cultural dependence was in
good measure psychologically mediated, and morality itself
acquired a kind of stability because of its function in the individual. (The truth that dependence on the economy thoroughly
pervaded even this morality was brought home when in the
recent threat to the economic position of the liberalist bourgeoisie the attitude of freedom and independence began to disintegrate.) Under the conditions of monopolistic capitalism,
however, even such a relative individual independence is a
thing of the past. The individual no longer has any ideas of his
own. The content of mass belief, in which no one really believes, is
an immediate product of the ruling economic and political
bureaucracies, and its disciples secretly follow their own atomistic and therefore untrue interests; they act as mere functions
of the economic machine.
The concept of the dependence of the cultural on the economic has thus changed. With the destruction of the classically
typical individual, the concept has as it were become more
materialistic, in the popular sense of the term, than before. The
explanation of social phenomena has become simpler yet also
more complicated. Simpler, because economic factors more
directly and consciously determine men and because the solidity
and relative capacity for resistance of the cultural spheres are
disappearing. More complicated, because the economic dynamism which has been set in motion and in relation to which most
individuals have been reduced to simple means, quickly brings
ever new visions and portents. Even advanced sectors of society
are discouraged and gripped by the general sense of helplessness.
The permanency of truth, too, is connected with the constellations of reality. In the eighteenth century truth had on its side a
bourgeoisie that was already economically developed. But
under the conditions of later capitalism and the impotence of
the workers before the authoritarian state's apparatus of oppression, truth has sought refuge among small groups of ad-

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mirable men. But these have been decimated by terrorism and

have little time for refining the theory. Charlatans profit by this
situation and the general intellectual level of the great masses is
rapidly declining.
What has been said is intended to show that the continuous
change of social relationships, due immediately to economic
developments and finding its most direct expression in the formation of the ruling class, does not affect only some areas of
the culture. It also affects the way in which the culture depends
on the economy and, thus, the key ideas in the whole conception.
This influence of social development on the structure of the
theory is part of the theory's doctrinal content. Thus new
contents are not just mechanically added to already existent
parts. Since the theory is a unified whole which has its proper
meaning only in relation to the contemporary situation, the
theory as a whole is caught up in an evolution. The evolution
does not change the theory's foundations, of course, any more
than recent changes essentially alter the object which the theory
reflects, namely contemporary society. Yet even the apparently
more remote concepts of the theory are drawn into the evolution.
The logical difficulties which understanding meets in every
thought that attempts to reflect a living totality are due chiefly
to this fact.
If we take individual concepts and judgments out of their
context in the theory and compare them with concepts and
judgments from an earlier version of the theory, contradictions
arise. This is true whether we think of the historical developmental stages through which the theory passes or of the logical
steps within the theory itself. Amid all the abiding identity of
the concepts of enterprise and entrepreneur there is nonetheless
distinction, according as the concepts are taken from the
presentation of the early form of bourgeois economy or from
the presentation of developed capitalism, and according as they
are taken from the nineteenth-century critique of political economy which has the liberalist manufacturer in view or from the
twentieth-century critique which envisages the monopolist. The

representation of the entrepreneur, like the entrepreneur himself,

passes through an evolution.
The contradictions which arise when parts of the theory are
taken as independent entities are thus not due to errors or to a
neglect of clear definitions. They are due to the fact that the
theory has a historically changing object which, however, remains identical amid all the changes. The theory is not a storehouse of hypotheses on the course of particular events in
society. It constructs a developing picture of society as a whole,
an existential judgment with a historical dimension. What the
bourgeois entrepreneur or even the bourgeois man as such was
(the fact, for example, that his character showed not only
rationalist traits but also an element of that irrationalism which
presently prevails in middle-class mass movements) depends
on the original economic situation of the bourgeoisie. The basic
concepts of the theory capture this reality. But those economic
origins manifest themselves so clearly only in the conflicts of
the present day. The reason for this is not that the bourgeois is
understanding change at the present time but that in connection
with present-day change the interests and attention of the
theoretician lead him to accentuate new aspects of this object.
It may be of systematic interest and not entirely useless to
classify and juxtapose the various kinds of dependency, commodity, class, entrepreneur, and so forth, as they occur in the
logical and historical phases of the theory. But the sense of these
concepts ultimately becomes clear only when we grasp the whole
conceptual structure with its demands for adaptation to ever
new situations. Consequently such systems of classes and subclasses, of definitions and specifications of concepts, which are
extracted from the critical theory do not have even the value of
the conceptual inventories found in other specialized science, for
the latter are at least applied in the relatively uniform practice of
daily life. To transform the critical theory of society into a
sociology is, on the whole, an undertaking beset with serious
difficulties.
The question we have been touching on, concerning the rela-

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tion between thought and time, has, it must be admitted, a special

difficulty connected with it. The objection is urged that it is
impossible to speak in any strict sense of changes in a theory
properly so called. The claim that such changes occur presupposes rather a theory that only glosses over the difficulty. No
one can turn himself into a different subject than what he is at
this historical moment. To speak of the constancy or
change-ableness of truth is strictly meaningful only in a
polemical context. That is, one would be opposing the idea of an
absolute, suprahistorical subject or the possibility of exchanging
subjects, as though a person could remove himself from his
present historical juncture and truly insert himself into any
other he wished.
How far this last is in fact possible or impossible is not our
concern here. In any event the critical theory is indeed incompatible with the idealist belief that any theory is independent of
men and even has a growth of its own. Documents have a
history but a theory does not have its vicissitudes. The claim,
then, that certain elements have been added to it and that it
must adapt itself to new situations in the future without changing
its essential content is rather an integral part of the theory as it
exists today and seeks to affect practice. Those who have the
theory in their heads have it there in its totality and act
according to that totality. The continuous progress of a truth
that is independent of the thinking subject or a trust in the advance of science can refer in the proper and strict sense only to
that function of knowledge which will continue to be necessary
even in a future society, namely the mastering of nature. This
knowledge, too, admittedly belongs to the existent social totality. Here, however, the presupposition of claims that this
knowledge lasts or changes, namely the continuance of economic production and reproduction in familiar forms, really has,
in a certain way, the same meaning as the claim that the subjects of
knowledge are interchangeable. The fact that class society is
divided does not render illusory, in this context, the equivalence
of human subjects. Knowledge in this instance is itself a thing
which one generation passes on to another; to the extent that

men must live, they need it. In this respect, too, then, the traditional scientist can be reassured.
The idea of a transformed society, however, does not have the
advantage of widespread acceptance, as long as the idea has
not yet had its real possibility tested. To strive for a state of
affairs in which there will be no exploitation or oppression, in
which an all-embracing subject, namely self-aware mankind,
exists, and in which it is possible to speak of a unified theoretical
creation and a thinking that transcends individualsto strive for
all this is not yet to bring it to pass. The transmission of the
critical theory in its strictest possible form is, of course, a
condition of its historical success. But the transmission will not
take place via solidly established practice and fixed ways of
acting but via concern for social transformation. Such a concern
will necessarily be aroused ever anew by prevailing injustice,
but it must be shaped and guided by the theory itself and in turn
react upon the theory.
The circle of transmitters of this tradition is neither limited
nor renewed by organic or sociological laws. It is constituted
and maintained not by biological or testamentary inheritance,
but by a knowledge which brings its own obligations with it.
And even this knowledge guarantees only a contemporary, not
a future community of transmitters. The theory may be stamped
with the approval of every logical criterion, but to the end of
the age it will lack the seal of approval which victory brings.
Until then, too, the struggle will continue to grasp it aright and
to apply it. A version of it which has the propaganda apparatus
and a majority on its side is not therefore the better one. In the
general historical upheaval the truth may reside with numerically
small groups of men. History teaches us that such groups, hardly
noticed even by those opposed to the status quo, outlawed but
imperturbable, may at the decisive moment become the leaders
because of their deeper insight.
Today, when the whole weight of the existing state of affairs
is pushing mankind towards the surrender of all culture and
relapse into darkest barbarism, the circle of solidarity is narrow
enough. The opponents, the masters of this age of decline,

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possess indeed neither fidelity nor solidarity. Such concepts, on

the contrary, are elements of the right theory and practice. Cut
loose from such theory and practice, these concepts change their
meaning as do all parts of a living whole. It is true, of course,
that in a gang of thieves, for example, positive traits of human
community can make their appearance, but this very possibility points to a deficiency in the larger community within
which the gang exists. In an unjust society criminals are not
necessarily inferior as human beings, whereas in a fully just
society they would be unhuman. Only in a context can particular judgments about what is human acquire their correct
meaning.
There are no general criteria for judging the critical theory as
a whole, for it is always based on the recurrence of events and
thus on a self-reproducing totality. Nor is there a social class
by whose acceptance of the theory one could be guided. It is
possible for the consciousness of every social stratum today to be
limited and corrupted by ideology, however much, for its
circumstances, it may be bent on truth. For all its insight into
the individual steps in social change and for all the agreement
of its elements with the most advanced traditional theories, the
critical theory has no specific influence on its side, except concern for the abolition of social injustice. This negative formulation,
if we wish to express it abstractly, is the materialist content of
the idealist concept of reason.
In a historical period like the present true theory is more critical
than affirmative, just as the society that corresponds to it cannot
be called "productive." The future of humanity depends on the
existence today of the critical attitude, which of course contains
within it elements from traditional theories and from our
declining culture generally. Mankind has already been
abandoned by a science which in its imaginary self-sufficiency
thinks of the shaping of practice, which it serves and to which it
belongs, simply as something lying outside its borders and is
content with this separation of thought and action. Yet the characteristic mark of the thinker's activity is to determine for itself
what it is to accomplish and serve, and this not in fragmentary
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fashion but totally. Its own nature, therefore, turns it towards a

changing of history and the establishment of justice among men.
Behind the loud calls for "social spirit" and "national community,"
the opposition between individual and society grows ever
greater. The self-definition of science grows ever more abstract.
But conformism in thought and the insistence that thinking is a
fixed vocation, a self-enclosed realm within society as a whole,
betrays the very essence of thought.
Translated by Matthew J. O'Connell

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