D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS 1

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D - AND F - BLLOCK ELEMENTS
BASIC CONCEPTS
1. 'd' Block Elements : The d-block elements are those elements is which the last electron enters the d-
subshell of penultimate shell. The general electronic configuration of these element is
(n1) d
110
ns
12
, where n is outermost shell. The d-block consisting of groups 312 occupies the large
middle section of the periodic table.
2. Transition Elements : The elements of d-block are known as transition element as they process
properties that are transitional between the s and p block element. A transition element is defined as
an element which has incompletely filled d-orbitals in its ground state or any one of its oxidation
states. There are four series of transition elements spread between group 3 and 12.
First transition series or 3d-series : Scandium (
21
Sc) to zinc (
30
Zn)
Second transition series or 4d-series : Yttri um (
39
Y) to cadmium
(
48
Cd)
Third transition series or 5d-series : Lanthanum (
57
La) to
Mercury (
80
Hg)
Fourth transition series or 6d-series :
Begins with actinium (
89
Ac) is still incomplete.
Zinc cadmium and mercury of group 12 have full d
10
configuration in their ground state as well as in
their common oxidation states and hence, are not regarded as transition metals. However being the
end elements of the three transition series, their chemistry is studied along with the chemistry of the
transition elements.
3. General Characteristics of Transition Elements
(a) Atomic radii : The atomic radii of transition element are smaller than those of s-block elements
and larger than those of p-block elements in a period. In a transition series, as the atomic number
increases, the atomic radii first decreases till the middle, becomes almost constant and then increases
towards the end of the period. The decrease in atomic radii in the beginning is due to the increase in
the effective nuclear charge with the increase in atomic number. However, with the increase in the
number of electrons in (n 1) d-subshell, the screening effect counterbalances the effect of increased
nuclear charge, therefore, the atomic radii remain almost constant in the middle of the series. Increase
in atomic radii toward the end may be attributed to the electron-electron repulsion. The pairing of
electrons in the d-orbitals of the penultimate shell occurs only after the d-subshell is half filled. The
repulsive interactions between the paired electrons in d-orbitals (of the penultimate shell) become
very dominant towards the end of the series and causes the expansion of the electron cloud and thus,
resulting in increased atomic size. The atomic radii usually increases down the group. But the atomic
radii of the element of second and third transition series belonging to a particular group are almost
equal. This is due to lanthanoid contraction.
(b) Ionic radii : The ionic radii of the transitional element follow the same order as their atomic radii.
In general, the ionic radii decrease with increase in oxidation state.
(c) Ionization enthalpies : The first ionization enthalpies of transition elements are higher than
those of s-block elements but lower than p-block elements. In a particular transition series ionization
enthalpy increases gradually with increase in atomic number, though some irregularities are observed.
(d) Meltallic and boiling points : Except zinc, cadmium and mercury all the other transition elements
generally have high melting and boiling points. This is due to strong metallic bonds and presence of
partially filled d-orbitals in them. Because of these half-filled orbitals some covalent bonds also exist
between atoms of transition elements.
(e) Oxidation states : All transition element except first and last member of the series exhibit
variable oxidation states as (n 1) d and ns have comparable energies so that both can enter into
chemical bond formation.
(g) Standard electrode potential : The E value decreases from left to right across the series ; Mn,
Ni and Zn have higher values than expected because of their half-filled or completely filled 3d-orbital
in case of Mn
2+
and Zn
2+
and the highest negative enthalpy of hydration, Ni
2+
.
(h) Magnetic properties : Substances containing unpaired electrons are said to be paramagnetic. A
diamagnetic substance is one in which all the electrons are paired. Except the ions of d
0
(Sc
+3
, Ti
+4
)
and d
10
(Cu
+
, Zn
+2
) configurations, all other simple ions of transition elements contain unpaired electrons
in their
(n 1) d subshell and are, therefore, paramagnetic.
(i) Complex formation : The tendency to form complex ions is due to
(i) the high charge on the transition metal ions.
(ii) the availability of d-orbital for accommodating electrons donated by the ligand atoms.
(j ) Catalytic property : Most of the transition metals and their compounds possess catalytic properties.
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() Alloy formation : The transition metals have similar radii and other characteristics. Therefore,
these metals can mutually substitute their position in their crystal lattices and form alloys.
(m)Interstitial compounds : Interstitial compounds are those in which small atoms occupy the
interstitial sites in the crystal lattice. Interstitial compounds are well known for transition metals
because small-sized atoms of H, B, C, N, etc., can easily occupy position in the voids present in the
crystal lattices of transition metals.
4. Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements :
(i) their high enthalpies of sublimation, and
(ii) their high ionization enthalpies.
Oxides : Transition metals form oxides of the general composition MO, M
2
O
3
, MO
2
, M
2
O
5
and MO
6
.
Oxides in the lower oxidation states are generally basic in nature and those in the higher oxidation
states are amphoteric or acidic in nature. For example,
7
Acidic
7 2
4
Amphoteric
2
3 / 8
Amphoteric
4 3
3
Amphoteric
3 2
2
Basic
O Mn MnO O Mn O Mn MnO
+ + + + +
(a) Potassium Dichromate, K
2
Cr
2
O
7
: It is prepared from the chromite ore. Different reactions
involves in the preparation of potassium dichromate from chromite ore are :
4FeO.Cr
2
O
3
+ 8Na
2
CO
3
+ 7O
2

Roasted
Chromite ore 8Na
2
CrO
4
+ 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 8CO
2
2Na
2
CrO
4
+ H
2
SO
4
Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ Na
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 2KCl K
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 2NaCl
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
is separated by fractional crystallization.
Properties : Potassium dichromate is a powerful oxidizing agent. In acidic medium, its oxidizing
action can be represented as follows
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 4H
2
SO
4

K
2
SO
4
+ Cr
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 4H
2
O + 3[O]
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14H
+
+ 6e

2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
(E = 1.33 V)
(i) It oxidizes ferrous to ferric.
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14H
+
+ 6e

2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
Fe
2+
Fee
3+
+ e

6
O 7H 6Fe 2Cr H 14 Fe 6 O Cr
2
3 3 2 2
7 2
+ + + +
+ + +
Structures of chromate and dichromate ions :
Cr
O
O
O
O
2
Cr
O
O
O
O
Cr
O
O
O
2
1
7
9
p
m
126
Chromate ion Dichromate ion
The chromate and dichromate ions are interconvertible in aqueous depending upon the pH of the
solution
2CrO
4
2
+ 2H
+

Cr
2
O
7
2
Dichromate ion (orange red)
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ OH

2CrO
4
2
+ H
2
O
Chromate ion (orange red)
Potassium dichromate is used as primary statndard in volumetric analysis.
(b) Potassium permaganate, KMnO
4
: It is
prepared by fusion of pyrolusite, MnO
2
, with KOH in the presence of an Oxidizing agent like KNO
3
. This
produces the dark green potassium magnate, K2MnO
4
which disproportionates in a neutral or acidic
solution to give purple permanganate.
2MnO
2
+ 4KOH + O
2
K
2
MnO
4
+ 2H
2
O
3MnO
4
2
+ 4H
+
2MnO
4

+ MnO
2
+ 2H
2
O
Commercially it is prepared by alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO
2
followed by the electrolytic oxidation
of manganate(VI).
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Properties :
Potassium permanganate is a dark purple crystalline solid.
On heating it decomposes at 513 K and O
2
is evolved.
2KMnO
4
K
2
MnO
4
+ MnO
2
+ O
2
Potassium permmanganate acts as a powerful oxidizing agent in acidic, alkaline and neutral media.
Few important oxidizing reactions of KMnO
4
are given below :
1. In acidic medium potassium permanganate oxidizes :
The MnO
4
2
and MnO
4

are tetrahedral; the green MnO

4
2
is paramagnetic with one unpaired electron
but the purple MnO
4

is diamagnetic.
Mn
O

O
OO

Mn
O
OO

O
Tetrahedral manganate ion
(green)
Tetrahedral permanganate ion
(purple)
INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS
(f-BLOCK ELEMENTS)
The inner transition elements consist of lanthanoids and actionoids. They are characterized by filling
of the 'f' orbitals.
are highly dense metals.
have high melting points.
form alloys easily with other metals.
are soft, malleable and ductile with low tensile strength.
(i) Oxidation state : The most characteristic on the state of lanthanoid element is +3. Some of the
element also exhibit +2 and +4 oxidation states.
(ii) Colour : Some of the trivalent ions of lanthanoids are coloured. This is due to the absorption in
visible region of the spectrum, resulting in f-f transitions they have partily filled orbitals.
(iii) Magnetic properties : Among lanthanoids La
3+
and Lu
3+
, which have 4f
0
or 4f
14
electronic
configurations are diamagnetic and all the other trivalent lantanoid ions are paramagnetic because of
the presence of unpaired electrons.
(iv) Reactivity : All lanthanoids are highly electropositive metals and have in almost similar chemical
reactivity.
(v) Lanthanoid contraction : In lanthanoid, with increasing atomic number, the atomic and ionic
radii decreases from one element to the other, but the decrease is very small. It is because for every
additional proton in the nucleus, the corresponding electron goes into a 4f-subshell, which is too
diffused to screen the nucleus as effectively as the more localized inner shell. Hence, the attraction of
the nucleus for the outermost electrons increases steadily with the atomic number
7. Differences between Lanthanoids and Actinoids
(i) 4f-orbital is progressively filled.
(ii) +3 oxidation state is most common along with
+2 and +4.
(iii) Only promethium (Pm) is radioactive.
(iv) They are less reactive than actinoids.
(v) Magnetic properties are less complex.
(i) 5f-orbital is progressively filled.
(ii) They show +2, +3,+4, +5, +6, +7 oxidation
states.
(iii) All are radioactive.
(iv) They are more reactive.
(v) Magnetic properties are more complex.
Lanthanoids Actinoids
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SOLVED PROBLEMS
Q.1 Write down the electronic configuration of:
(a) Cr
3+
(b) Cu
+
(c) Co
2+
(d) Mn
2+
(e) Pm
3+
(f) Ce
+4
(g) Lu
2+
(h) Th
4+
Ans. (a)
24
Cr
3+
; [Ar] 3d
3
or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
3
(b)
29
Cu
+
; [Ar] 3d
10
or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
(c)
27
Co
2+
; [Ar] 3d
7
or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
7
(d)
25
Mn
2+
; [Ar] 3d
5
or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
5
(e)
61
Pm
3+
; [Xe] 4f
4
or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
4f
4
(f)
58
Ce
+4
; [Xe] or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
(g)
71
Lu
2+
; [Xe] 4f
14
5d
1
or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
3d
10
4p
6
5s
2
4d
10
5p
6
4f
414
5d
1
(h)
90
Th
4+
; [Rn] or 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
4s
2
4p
6
4d
10
4f
414
5s
2
5p
6
5d
10
6s
2
6p
6
Q.2 Why are Mn
2+
compounds more stable than Fe
2+
towards oxidation to their + 3 state?
Ans. The electron configuration of Mn
2+
in [Ar] 3d
5
and in it 3d orbitals are half filled (each d orbital
has one electron) which is a stable configuration as compared to that of Fe
2+
i.e. [Ar] 3d
6
. Fue to this
Fe
2+
has a tendency to lose an electron to form Fe
3+
having a more stable configuration [Ar] 3d
5
(stable due to half filled orbitals).
Q.3 Explain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half of the first row
transition elements with increasing atomic number?
Ans. The first row of transition elements include elements from Sc (z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30). In its first half
i.e. from Sc (z = 21) to
Mn (z = 25), the stability of + 2 oxidation increases from Sc to Mn because of increase in effective
nuclear charge.
Q.4 To what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of oxidation states in
the first series of the transition elements? Illustrate your answer with example.
Ans. To a large extent, the electronic configurations decide the stability of oxidation state in the first series
of transition elements.
Elements with larger number of oxidation states are found in or near the middle of the series e.g. Mn
(Z = 25) exhibits all the states from
+ 2 to + 7. The elements with lesser number of oxidation states are present at the extreme ends
stems and they have a few electrons to lose or share e.g. Sc (3d
1
4s
2
), Ti (3d
2
s
2
) or too many electrons
hence fewer orbitals are available e.g. Cu (3d
10
4s
1
) Zn (3d
10
4s
2
) etc.
Q.5 What may be the stable oxidation state of the transition element with the following d electron
configurations in the ground state of their atoms : 3d
3
, 3d
5
, 3d
8
and 3d
4
?
Ans. 3d
5
would be most stable because in this state the 3d orbitals are half filled (each d orbitals has
one electron)
Q.6 Name the oxometal anions of the first series of the transition metals in which the metal
exhibits the oxidation state equal to its group number.
Ans. MnO
4

, permanganate. In it the oxidation state of Mn is +7 which is equal to group number of Mn (i.e.

group, 7) or CrO
4
2
, In it the oxidation state of Cr is + 6 which is equal to group number of Cr (i.e.
group 6).
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Q.7 What is lanthanoid contraction? What are the consequences of lanthanoid contraction?
Ans. Lanthanoid contraction. On moving from lanthanum (La) to Lutetium (Lu), a gradual decrease in
size of lanthanoids is observed with increase in atomic number. This is known as lanthanoid contraction.
Consequences
(i) The properties of 4d and 5d elements closely resemble because of lanthanoid contraction.
(ii) There is only a little variation in chemical properties among lanthanoids.
Q.8 What are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they called transition
elements? Which of the d block elements may not be regarded as the transition elements?
Ans. Characteristic of Transition Elements
(i) They belong to d block of the periodic table.
(ii) They show variable oxidation states.
(iii) They are coloured.
(iv) They are generally paramagnetic in nature.
(v) They have a tendency to form complexes.
They are called transition elements because their properties lie in between those of s block elements
(metals) and p block elements (non metals). They are more electropositive than s block elements
but less electropositive than p block elements.
The elements Zn, Cd and Hg are not regarded as transition elements because neither the atoms of
these elements nor their ions (Cd
2+
, Zn
2+
or Hg
2+
) have partially filled d orbitals.
Q.9 In what way is the electronic configuration of the transition elements different from that of
the non transition elements?
Ans. In case of transition elements the incoming electron enters (n 1) d orbitals whereas is case of non
transition elements (i.e. s block and p block elements) the incoming electron enters the ns or
np orbitals.
In case of transition elements the last two shells are incomplete whereas in case of non transition
elements only the last shell is incomplete and is being progressively filled up.
Q.10 What are the different oxidation states exhibited by the lanthanoids?
Ans. Various oxidation states shown by lanthanoids are +2, +3 and +4. The +3 state is common to all the
lanthanoids.
Q.11 Explain giving reason:
(a) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic behavior.
(b) The enthalpies of atomization of the transition metals are high.
(c) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds.
(d) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst.
Ans. (a) The paramagnetic behaviour is due to presence of unpaired electron in the atom or ion of transition
metals.
(b) The high enthalpies of atomization of transition metals can be attributed to strong metallic bond
and additional covalent bond because of the presence of unpaired d electrons in such metals.
(c) The colour of transition metal compounds is due to d d transition in them. The unpaired electron
present in them undergo d d transition by absorbing light from the u.v. region and thereby radiate
complementary colour.
(d) The transition metals and their compounds act as good catalysts because they can show variable
oxidation states.
Q.12 What are interstitial compound? Why are such compounds well known for transition metals?
Ans. Crystal lattices of transition metals have interstitial voids in between the adjacent atoms, consequently,
the small sized atoms like H, B, C, N etc. can be taken up by these voids to form socalled intersitial
compounds.
The chemical properties of interstitial compounds are quite similar to those of parent metal, however
in physical properties such as hardness, rigidity and electrical conductance these compounds differ
from parent metal.
There is a decrease in malleability and ductility but an increase in tenacity. e.g. steel and cast iron are
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harder than pure iron. It is due to formation of interstitials of iron with carbon in case of steel and cast
iron.
Q.13 How is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from that of the non
transition metals? Illustrate with examples.
Ans. In transition metals the oxidation states differ by 1 (e.g. Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
, Cr
2+
and Cr
3+
etc.) whereas in
non transition elements they differ by two (e.g. Tl
+
and Tl
3+
, Sn
2+
and Sn
4+
etc.).
The variable oxidation states of transition metals are due to availability of both (n 1) d and ns
orbitals which have nearly same energy where as the variable oxidation state in non transition
metals are due to the availability of ns
2
np1
6
electrons for bond formation.
Q.14 Describe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore. What is the effect
of increasing ph on a solution of potassium dichromate?
Ans. It is prepared as under:
(i) Preparation of sodium chromite. The chromite ore is heated with molten alkali in presence of
air in a reverbatory furnace
4FeCrO
4
+ 16 NaOH + O
2
8Na
2
CrO
4
+ 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 8CO
2
(ii) Conversion of Sodium chromate into sodium dichromate. Sodium chromate is extracted
with water and acidified.
3Na
2
CrO
4
+ H
2
SO
4
Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ Na
2
SO
4
+ H
2
O
On cooling Na
2
SO
4
separates out as Na
2
SO
4
.10H
2
O and Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
remains in solution.
(iii) Conversion of Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
into K
2
Cr
2
O
7
. The solution containing Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
is treated with KCl
Na
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 2KCl K
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 2NaCl
Sodium chloride being less soluble separates out.
Effect of pH
The chromate ion, CrO
4
2
and dichromate ion Cr
2
O
7
2
exist in equilibrium and interconvertible by
alternating pH of the solution.
In alkaline solution (increasing the pH), the dichromate ions get converted to chromate ions whereas
in acidic solution (decreasing the pH), the chromate ions changes to dichromate ions
2CrO
4
2
+ 2H
+
2HCrO
4

Cr
2
O
7
2
+ H
2
O
(yellow) (Basic solution) (orange) (Acidic solution)
Q.15 Describe the oxidizing action of potassium dichromatic and write the ionic equations for its
reaction with:
(a) Iodide (b) Iron
(II)solution (c) H
2
S
Ans. Potassium dichromate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium.
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
+ 4H
2
SO
4
K
2
SO
4
+ Cr
2
(SO
4
)
3
+ 4H
2
O + 3[O].
The reactions are
(i) 2I

I
2
+ 2e

] 3
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14 H
+
+ 6e

2Cr
3+
+ 7 H
2
O
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14 H
+
+ 6I

2Cr
3+
+ 7 H
2
O + 3I
2
(ii) Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e

] 6
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14 H
+
+ 6e

2Cr
3+
+ 7 H
2
O
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14 H
+
+ 6Fe
2+
6Fe
3+
+ 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
(iii) H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e

] 3
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 14 H
+
+ 6e

2Cr
3+
+ 7 H
2
O
Cr
2
O
7
2
+ 8 H
+
+ 3H
2
S 2Cr
3+
+ 7 H
2
O + 3S
Q.16 Describe the preparation of potassium permanganate. How does the acidified permanganate
solution reaction with
(a) iron (II) ions (b) SO
2
(c) oxalic acid?
Write the ionic equations for the reactions.
Ans. KMnO
4
is prepared from Pyrolusite as follows.
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Pyrolusite is fused with potassium hydroxide and the molten liquid is stirred in presence of air when
the following reactions occurs and K
2
MnO
4
(potassium manganate) is formed:
2MnO
2
(Pyrolusite) + 4KOH + O
2
(air) 2K
2
MnO
4
+ 2H
2
O
K
2
MnO
4
is then electrolysed electrochemically. The MnO
4
2
ions get oxidized to MnO
4

ions at anode and

hydrogen gas in evolved at cathode
K
2
MnO
4
2K
+
+ MnO
4
2
H
2
O H
+
+ OH

MnO
4
2
MnO
4

+ e

(at anode)
2H
2
O + e

H
2
+ 2OH

(at cathode)
Reactions of Acidified KMnO
4
(It is a oxidizing agent)
(i) Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+e

] 3
MnO
4

+ 8 H
+
+ 5e

Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
MnO
4

+ 8 H
+
+ 5Fe
2+

5Fe
3+
+ Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
(ii) 2KMnO
4
+ 2H
2
O + 5SO
2
K
2
SO
4
+ MnSO
4
+ 2H
2
SO
4
( ) | ]

iii
COO
COO
CO e
F
H
G
G
I
K
J
J
+ 2 2 5
2
MnO
4

+ 8 H
+
+ 5e

Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O] 2
2MnO
4

+ 16 H
+
+ 5C
2
O
4
2

5CO
2
+ 2Mn
2+
+ 8H
2
O
Q.17 For M
2+
/ M and M
3+
/ M
2+
system the E

values for some metals are as follows:

Cr
2+
/ Cr 0.9 V Cr
3+
/ Cr
2+
0.4 V
Mn
2+
/ Mn 1.2 V Mn
3+
/ Mn
2+
+ 1.5 V
Fe
2+
/ Fe 0.4 V Fe
3+
/ Fe
2+
+ 0.8 V
Use this data to comment upon:
(a) The stability of Fe
3+
in acid solution as compared to that of Cr
3+
or Mn
3+
(b) The ease with which iron can be oxidized as compared to the similar process for either
chromium or manganese metal.
Ans. (a) In acidic medium the stability of Fe
3+
is more than the stability of Mn
3+
but less than that of Cr
3+
.
(b) Iron can be easily oxidized as compared to Cr and Mn.
Q.18 Predict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution?
Ti
3+
, V
3+
, Cu
+
, Sc
3+
, Mn
2+
, Fe
3+
, Co
2+
andMnO
4

. Give reason for each.

Ans. The coloured ions are Ti
3+
, V
3+
, Mn
2+
, Fe
3+
, Co
2+
and MnO
4

. Their colour is due to presence of unpaired

electrons in them. The unpaired electrons in them can undergo d d transitions by absorbing light
from visible region and the complementary colour in radiated.
Q.19 Compare the stability of + 2 oxidation state for the elements of the firs transition series.
Ans. The stability of +2 oxidation state increase from Sc (z = 21) to Mn (z = 25) which is attributed to the
increase in effective nuclear charge. After that in case of Iron, Fe
2+
is less stable than Fe
2+
as also Mn
2+
;
Co
2+
is less stable than Co
3+
but Ni
2+
is more stable than Ni
3+
and Cu
2+
is more stable than Cu
+
, Zn
2+
is
most stable because of its stable electronic configuration. Thus we have
Cu
2+
> Ni
2+
> Co
2+
> Fe
2+
> Mn
2+
> V
2+
> Ti
2+
> Sc
2+
.
Q.20 Name chief ore of iron. How is the pig iron converted into steel? Describe any one method of
steel making in detail.
Ans. Chief ore of iron is haematite
Any one of the following processes can be used to convert pig iron into steel.
8 D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS
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(i) Bessemer process (ii) Open hearth process
(iii) The oxygen top blowing process (iv) The electric arc process
(v) The high frequency induction process.
Open hearth Process
In this process, a mixture of molten pig iron, scrap steel and lime stone in heated on a shallow hearth
furnace by producer gas. The furnace is adapted for different types of pig iron feed by using acidic or
basic lining. The impurities get oxidized by iron oxide and form slag with the lining. e.g.
3C + Fe
2
O
3
2Fe + 3CO
(impurity) (iron oxide)
Oxides of P and Si + lining (CaO + MgO) Phosphate and silicate (slag).
Towards the end (after 10 hours), an alloy of Mn, Fe and C (Spiegleisen) is added along with alloying
metal.
Q.21 Name the chief ore of copper and zinc. Describe the principle of extraction of these metals
from the respective ore.
Ans. Chief ores
Copper Copper pyrites (CuFeS
2
)
Zinc Zinc blende (ZnS)
Principle of extraction of copper from copper pyrites
The extraction involves the following steps:
(i) Concentration. It is concentrated by froth floatation process.
(ii) Roasting. The concentrated ore is roasted in a current of air in a reverberatory furnace, below
the fusion point, to remove arsenic and sulphur as their volatile oxides.
2CuFeS
2
(ore) + O
2
(air) heat
Cu
2
S + 2FeS + SO
2
2FeS + O
2
2FeO + SO
2
(iii) The temperature is then allowed to rise above the fusion point and silica (SiO
2
) is added as flux.
Iron (II) oxide (FeO) reacts with silica to form iron silicate (FeSiO
3
) which is removed as slag.
FeO + SiO
2
FeSiO
3
(iv) Bessemerisation. The matte consists of Cu
2
S and FeS. The mate is charged into silicalined
converted through which hot compressed air is passed. The remaining sulphide is converted into FeO
which reacts with silica to form slag. Copper (I) sulphide is reduced to copper by Cu
2
O.
2Cu
2
S + 3O
2
2Cu
2
O + 2SO
2
2Cu
2
O + Cu
2
S 6Cu + SO
2
The copper thus obtained is known as blister copper.
(v) Electrolytic Refining. Impure copper is made the anode, pure copper is taken as cathode and
acidified CuSO
4
solution is taken as electrolyte. When electrolyzed pure copper gets deposited at
cathode and impure copper from anode goes in solution.
Anode Cu (impure) Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cathode Cu
2+
+ 2e

Cu pure
Extraction of zinc from zinc blende (ZnS)
It involves the following steps:
(i) Concentration. The ore is concentrated by froth floatation process.
(ii) Roasting. It is heated in presence of air when ZnS changes to ZnO and SO
2
goes out
2ZnS (ore) + 3O
2
(air) 2ZnO + SO
2
|
(iii) Bessemerization. During this remaining ZnS converts ZnO to Zn.
2ZnO + ZnS 2Zn (Impure) + SO
2
(iv) Electrorefining. The impure zinc is made anode and pure zinc made cathode. An acidified
solution of ZnSO
4
is used as electrolye when pure zinc gets deposited at cathode and impure zinc from
anode gets dissolved.
At Anode Zn (Impure) Zn
2+
+ 2e

At Cathode Zn
2+
+ 2e

Zn(S) (pure)
D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS 9
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Q.22 Describe the chemistry of the three stages of photography, i.e., exposure, developing and
fixing.
Ans. Exposure. The film is loaded in a camera and the light from the object is allowed to fall on the film by
opening the shutter of the camera for a moment. The image of the object is formed on the film. In this
AgBr changes to Ag particles.
Developing. It is the process in which exposed photographic film is treated with a reducing agent
(generally an alkaline of hydroquinone). This agent is called developer (AgBr is reduced to Ag). The
rate of reduction depends upon intensity of illumination through the exposure period. Thus parts of
film which were most illuminated become darkest.
Fixing. Removal of unreduced AgBr from the surface of developed film is called fixing. For this the
developed film is dipped in a solution of sodum thiosulphate (Na
2
S
2
O
3
, hypo) in a dark room. AgBr
forms a soluble complex
AgBr + 2Na
2
S
2
O
3
Na
3
[Ag(S
2
O
3
)
2
]
(soluble) + NaBr
Q.23 Compare the chemistry of actinoids with that of the lanthanids with special reference to:
(a) electronic configuration (b) oxidation state
(c) atomic and ionic sizes and (d) chemical reactivity
Ans. (a) Electronic configuration. In case of lanthanoids the 4 f orbitals are progressively filled whereas
is case of actinoids 5 f orbitals are filled up.
(b) Oxidation states. The most common oxidation state shown by lanthanoids is + 3 though some
of them also show + 2 and + 4 states. The oxidation states shown by actinoids are + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6
and + 7.
(c) Atomic and ionic sizes. The size is larger in case of actinoids than that of lanthanoids.
(d) Chemical reactivity. Actinoids are more reactive than lanthanodis because of their larger size
and low I. E.
Q.24 How would you account for the following:
(a) Of the d
4
species, Cr
2+
is strongly reducing while manganese (III) is strongly oxidizing.
(b) Cobalt (III) is stable in aqueous solution but in the presence of complexing reagents it
is easily oxidized.
(c) The d
1
configuration is very unstable in ions.
Ans. (a) Cr
2+
is strongly reducing because it changes to Cr
3+
which is more stable but Mn
3+
is strongly
oxidizing because it changes to Mn
2+
which is more stable.
(b) Co
2+
gets oxidized to Co
3+
in presence of a complexing agent because Co
3+
is more stable than
Co
2+
.
(c) In ions d
1
configuration is quite unstable because after losing one electron it will become stable. All
elements in d
1
configuration are either reducing agents or they undergo disproportionation.
Q.25 What is meant by dispropotionation? Give two examples of disproportionation reaction in
aqueous solution.
Ans. Disproportionation. It means that the same substance is oxidised as well as reduced. e.g.
Examples
2Cu
+
Cu
2+
+ Cu
3CrO
4
3
+ 8H
+
2CrO
4
2
+ Cr
3+
+ 4H
2
O
Q.26 Which metal in the first series of transition metals exhibits + 1 oxidation state most frequently
and why?
Ans. Copper
Reason. With formation of Cu
+
from Cu, a stable electronic configuration is attained.
29Cu: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
4s
1
Cu
+
: 1s
2
2s
2
2p
6
3s
2
3p
6
3d
10
(completely filled d orbitals)
10 D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS
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Q.27 Calculate the number of unpaired electrons in following gaseous ions: Mn
3+
, Cr
3+
, V
3+
and
Ti
3+
. Which one of these is the most stable in aqueous solution?
Ans.
25
Mn; Mn
3+
[Ar] 3d
4
i.e. It has four unpaired electrons.
24
Cr; Cr
3+
[Ar] 3d
3
i.e. It has three unpaired electrons.
23
V; V
3+
[Ar] 3d
2
i.e. It has two unpaired electrons.
22
Ti; Ti
3+
[Ar] 3d
1
i.e. It has one unpaired electrons.
of these Cr
3+
is most stable in aqueous solution.
Q.28 Give example and suggest reason for the following features of the transition metal chemistry:
(a) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is acidic.
(b) A transition metal exhibits higher oxidation states in oxides and fluorides.
(c) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal.
Ans. (a) In lowest oxidation state, ionic bonds are formed. Metals are electropositive and so they form
basicoxides.
(b) Since both oxygen and fluorine are strong oxidizing agents so they can provide energy for excitation
of electrons.
(c) In oxoanions, the highest oxidation state is exhibited because oxygen is a strong oxidizing agent.
Q.29 Indicate the steps in the preparation of:
(a) K
2
Cr
2
O
7
from chromite ore
(b) KMnO
4
from pyrolusite ore
(c) Copper sulphate from metallic copper
(d) Calomel from corrosive sublimate.
Ans. (a) Preparation of sodium chromite. The chromite ore is heated with molten alkali in presence of
air in a reverbatory furnace
4FeCrO
4
+ 16 NaOH + O
2

8Na
2
CrO
4
+ 2Fe
2
O
3
+ 8CO
2
(b) Refer to Q. 16.
(c) Cu + 2H
2
SO
4
heat CuSO
4
+ 2H
2
O + SO
2
(copper) (Conc.) (copper sulphate)
(d) HgCl
2
+ Hg heat Hg
2
Cl
2
Corrosive sublimate (Mercury) Calomel
Q.30 What happens when aqueous ammonia reacts with:
(a) silver chloride
(b) mercury (I) chloride
(c) mercury (II) chloride?
Ans. (a) A soluble complex is formed.
AgCl + 2NH
3
(aq) [Ag(NH
3
)
2
]Cl
(soluble) Diammine silver (I) chloride.
(b) Disproportionation occurs
Hg
2
Cl
2
+ 2NH
3
(aq) Hg + [Hg(NH
3
)]Cl + NH
4
Cl
(c) An infusible white precipitate is formed
Hg
2
Cl
2
+ 2NH
3
(aq) [Hg (NH
3
)] Cl + NH
4
Cl.
white ppt.
Q.31 Describe the two uses of each of the following:
(a) Copper sulphate (b) Silver nitrate (c) Silver bromide
Ans. (a) Copper sulphate is used
(i) in copper plating
D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS 11
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(ii) as germicide and fungicide under the trade name Bordeaux mixture which is a mixture of Cu
s
O
4
and Ca(OH)
2
.
(iii) as a timber preservative.
(b) AgNO
3
is used
(i) in producing light sensitive films
(ii) as a medicine in nervous diseases
(iii) as a laboratory reagent.
(c) AgBr is used
(i) in printing out papers (P. O. P.)
(ii) in making X rays films.
Q.32 What are alloys? Name an important alloy which contains some of the lanthanoid metals.
Mention its uses.
Ans. Alloys are homogenous mixture of two or more metals or a metal and non metal.
Misch metal is an alloy. It contains some of the lanthanoid metals (upto 45%), iron (5%) and traces
of C, S, Ca and Al.
Misch metal is used in tracer bullets and flints for lighters.
Q.33 What are inner transition elements? Decide which of the following atomic numbers are the
atomic numbers of the inner transition elements: 29, 59, 74, 95, 102, 104.
Ans. Lanthanoids and actinoids are known as inner transition elements.
Lanthanoids are 14 elements following Ln
(z = 57). They include atomic number 58 to 71.
Actinoids are 14 elements following Ac
(z = 89).
They include atomic number 90 to 103.
Of the given atomic number the inner transition elements are the elements with atomic numbers 59 (a
lanthanoids) and 95, 102 (both actinoids).
Q.34 The chemistry of the actinoid elements is not so smooth as that of the lanthanoids. Justify
this statement by giving some examples from the oxidation state of these elements.
Ans. All actinoids are radioactive and due to this their study is difficult However naturally occurring actinoids
and the earlier members of the series have relatively long half lives as compared to synthetic
elements.
There is a greater range of oxidation states as compared to that of lanthanoids. Lanthanoids show
oxidation states of +2 and +4 in addition to their common oxidation state of +3.
The actinoids show oxidation states of
+3, +4, +5, +6 and +7.
Q.35 Which is the last element in the series of the actinoids? Write the electronic configuration of
these elements. Comment on the possible oxidation state of this element.
Ans. The last member of actinoid series is
Lr (z = 103).
103
Lr : [Rn] 5f
14
6d
1
7s
2
Its possible oxidation state is + 3.
12 D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS
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Q.36 Use Hunds rule to derive the electronic configuration of Ce
3+
ion, and calculate its magnetic
moment on the basis of spin only formula.
Ans. Ce
3+
; [Xe] 4f
1
i.e. It has one unpaired electron
) 1 s ( s 4 + = u
=
|
.
|

'

+ 1
2
1
2
1
4
= \3 or 1.732 B.
Q.37 Name the members of the lanthnoid series which exhibit +4 oxidation states and those
which exhibit + 2 oxidation states. Try to correlate this type of behaviour with the electronic
configuration of these elements.
Ans. Actinoids showing + 2 state and + 4 state are
58
Ce; [Xe] 4f
1
5d
1
6s
2
It shows + 4 oxidation state
63
Eu; [Xe] 4f
7
5d
0
6s
2
It shows + 2 oxidation state
70
Yb; [Xe] 4f
14
5d
0
6s
2
It shows + 2 oxidation state
After losing electrons they acquires stable configuration.
Q.38 Compare the chemistry of the actinoids with that of lanthanoids with reference to:
(i) electronic configuration
(ii) oxidation states, and
(iii) chemical reactivity.
Ans. (i) Electronic configuration. In case of lanthanoids the 4 f orbitals are progressively filled whereas
is case of actinoids 5 f orbitals are filled up.
(ii) Oxidation states. The most common oxidation state shown by lanthanoids is + 3 though some
of them also show + 2 and + 4 states. The oxidation states shown by actinoids are + 3, + 4, + 5, + 6
and + 7.
(iii) Chemical reactivity. Actinoids are more reactive than lanthanodis because of their larger size
and low I. E.
Q.39 What is lanthanoid contraction? What is its effect on the chemistry of the elements which
follow the lanthanoids?
Ans. Lanthanoid contraction. On moving from lanthanum (La) to Lutetium (Lu), a gradual decrease in
size of lanthanoids is observed with increase in atomic number. This is known as lanthanoid contraction.
Consequences
(i) The properties of 4d and 5d elements closely resemble because of lanthanoid contraction.
(ii) There is only a little variation in chemical properties among lanthanoids.
Q.40 Write the electronic configurations of the elements with the atomic numbers 61, 91, 101
and 109.
Ans.
61
Pm; [Xe] 6s
2
4f
5
91
Pa; [Rn] 7s
2
5f
2
6d
1
101
Md; [Rn] 7s
2
5f
13
109
Mt; [Rn] 7s
2
5f
14
6d
7
.
D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS 13
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EXERCISE - I
UNSOLVED PROBLEMS
Q.1 A silver atom has completely filled d-orbitals (4d
10
) in its gound state. How can you say that it is a
transition element ?
Q.2 In the series Sc(Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomization of zinc is the lowest, i.e., 125 kJ
mol
1
. Why ?
Q.3 Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the largest number of oxidation states and why
Q.4 The E (M
2+
/M) value value for copper is positive (+0.34 V). What is possibly the reason for this ?
Q.5 How would you account for the irregular variation of ionization enthalpies (first and second) in first
series of the transition elements
Q.6 Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or fluoride only ?
Q.7 Which is a stronger reducing agent
Cr
2+
or Fe
2+
and why ?
Q.8 Calculate the spin only magnetic moment of M
2+
(aq) ion (Z = 27).
Q.9 Cu
+
ion is not stable in aqueous solution. Why
Q.10 Actinoid contraction is greater from element to element than lanthanoid contraction. Why
Q.11 Write down the electronic configuration of
(i) Cr
3+
(ii) Cu
+
(iii) Co
2+
(iv) Mn
2+
(v) Pm
3+
(vi) Ce
4+
(vii) Lu
2+
(viii) Th
4+
Q.12 Why are Mn
2+
compounds more stable than Fe
2+
compounds towards oxidation to their +3 state ?
Q.13 Explain briefly how +2 state becomes more and more stable in the first half of the first row transition
elements with increasing atomic number.
Q.14 To what extent do the electronic configurations decide the stability of oxidation states in the first series
of the transition elements? Illustrate your answer with example.
Q.15 What may be the stable oxidation state of the transition element with the following d-electron
configureation in the gorund state of their atoms ?
3d
3
, 3d
5
, 3d| and 3d
4
Q.16 Name the oxo-metal anions of the first series of the transition metals in which the metal exhibits the
oxidation state equal to its group number.
Q.17 What is lanthanoid contraction ? What are the consequences of lanthanoid contraction ?
Q.18 What are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they called transition elements ?
Which of the d-block elements may not be regarded as the transition elements ?
Q.19 In what way is the electronic configuration of transition elements different from that of the non-
transition elements ?
Q.20 What are the different oxidation states exhibited by lanthanoids ?
Q.21 Give reasons for the following :
(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic behaviour
(ii) The enthalpies of atomization of the transition metals are high
(iii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds
(iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst.
Q.22 What are interstitial compounds ? Why are such compounds well known for transition metals ?
Q.23 How is the variability in oxidation states of transition metals different from that of the non-transition
metals ?
Q.24 Describe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore and write the effect of
increasing pH on a solution of potassium dichromate.
Q.25 Predict which of the following will be coloured in aqueous solution ?
Ti
3+
, V
3+
, Sc
3+
, Mn
2+
, Fe
3+
, Co
2+
and MnO
4

14 D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS

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EXERCISE - II
BOARD PROBLEMS
Q.1 Why do Zr and Hf exhibit almost similar properties ? [CBSE 2001]
Q.2 In transition series, with an increase in atomic number, the atomic radius does not change very much.
Why is it so ? [CBSE 2001]
Q.3 Why do the d-block elements exhibit a large number of oxidation states than f-block elements ?
[CBSE 2001]
Q.4 Assign reasons for the following :
(i) The enthalpies of atomization of transition elements are high
(ii) The transition metals and many of their compounds act as good catalysts.
(iii) From element to element, the actinoid contraction is greater than the lanthanoid contraction.
(iv) The E value for the Mn
3+
/Mn
2+
couple is much more positive than that of Cr
3+
/Cr
2+
.
(v) Scandium (Z = 21) does not exhibit variable oxidation states and yet it is regareded as a
transition element. [CBSE 2008]
Q.5 Discuss the relative stability in aqueous solution of +2 oxidation state among the elements :
Cr, Mn, Fe and Co. How would you justify this situation ?
(At. Nos. Cr = 24, Mn = 25, Fe = 26, Co = 27) [CBSE 2008]
Q.6 Compare actinoids and lanthanoids with reference to their :
(i) electronic configuration of atoms
(ii) oxidation states of elements
(iii) general chemical reactivity of elements. [CBSE 2008]
Q.7 Assign a reason for each of the following :
(i) The third ionization energy of Mn (Z = 25) is higher than that of either Cr (Z = 24) or
Fe (Z = 26).
(ii) Simple copper (I) salts are not stable in aqueous solutions. [CBSE 2008]
Q.8 Describe the trends in the following properties of the first series of the transition elements :
(i) Oxidation states
(ii) Atomic sizes
(iii) Magnetic behaviour of dipositive gaseous ions (M
2+
). [CBSE 2008]
Q.9 How would you account for the following :
(i) Many of the transition elements and their compounds can act as good catalystis.
(ii) The metallic radii of the third (5d) series of transition elements are virtually the same as those
of the corresponding members of the second series.
(iii) There is a greater range of oxidation states among the actinoids than among the lanthanoids.
[CBSE 2009]
Q.10 How would you account for the following :
(i) The atomic radii of the metals of the third (5d) series of transition elements are virtually the
same as those of the corresponding members of the second (4d) series.
D- AND F-BLOCK ELEMENTS 15
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(ii) The E value for the Mn
3+
/Mn
2+
couple is much more positive than that for Cr
3+
/Cr
2+
couple or
Fe
3+
/Fe
2+
couple.
(iii) The highest oxidation state of a metal is exhibited in its oxide or fluoride. [CBSE 2010]
Q.11 How would you account for the following :
(i) Mn (III) undergoes disproportionation reaction easily.
(ii) Co (II) is easily oxidized in the presence of strong ligands. [CBSE 2011]
Q.12 Explain giving a suitable reason for each of the following
(i) Transition metals and their compounds are generally found to be good catalysts.
(ii) Metal metal bonding is more frequent for the 4d and the 5d series of transition metals than
that for the 3d series. [CBSE 2011]
Q.13 State reasons for the following ;
(i) Cu (I) ion is not stable in an aqueous solution.
(ii) Unlike Cr
3+
, Mn
2+
, Fe
3+
and the subsequent other M
2+
ions of the 3d series of elements, the 4d
and the 5d series metals generally do not form stable cationic species.
[CBSE 2011]
Q.14 Complete the following chemical equaitons :
(i) MnO

4
(aq) + S
2
O
3
2
(aq) + H
2
O(I)
(ii) Cr
2
O
7
2
(aq) + Fe
2+
(aq) + H
+
(aq) [CBSE 2011]
Q.15 (a) Give reasons for the following :
(i) Mn3+ is a good oxidising agent.
(ii) E
M
2+
/M
values are not regular for first row transition metals (3d series)
(iii) Although 'F' is more electronegative than 'O', the highest Mn fluoride is MnF
4
, whereas the
highest oxides is Mn
2
O
7
.
(b) Complete the following equations
(i) 2CrO
2
4
+ 2 H
+
(ii) KMnO
4
heat
OR
(a) Why do transition elements show variable oxidation states ?
(i) Name the element showing maximum number of oxidation states among the first series of
transition metals from Sc(Z = 21) to Zn(Z = 30).
(ii) Name the eelement which shs only +3 oxidation state.
(b) What is lanthanoid contraction ? Name an important alloy which contains some fo the langthoid
metals. [CBSE 2013]