Chapter - 1 Introduction:-: Variable Power Supply With Digital Control 2011

Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011

CHAPTER -1

Introduction:- The most frequently used device in electronic workshops and

laboratories is a universal power supply that Variable Power supply with digital
control .That provides a variable, fluctuation-free output. Here we present a variable
power supply with digital control that is simple and easy to construct. The circuit is
built around an adjustable 3-terminal positive-voltage regulator IC LM317, CMOS
decade counter IC CD4017, timer IC NE555 and 3-terminal .
The fixed negative-voltage regulator LM7912.The AC mains supply is stepped down

by transformer X1 to deliver a secondary output of 12V-0-12V AC, 1A. The output of
the transformer is rectified by a full-wave rectifier comprising diodes D1 through D4.
Capacitors C1 through C4 are connected in parallel to rectifier. The diodes to bypass
undesired spikes and provide smooth and fluctuation-free power. Capacitors C5 and
C13 are used as filters to eliminate ripple. Here both negative and positive half cycles
are used to obtain positive as well as negative DC output. LED1, along with current-
limiting resistor R1, is used for mains ‘on’
Indication.Timer IC NE555 (IC1) is wired as an astable multivibrator. It generates clock

pulses when switch S2 is pressed. The output of IC1 is connected, via an RC network,
to the clock input of counter IC CD4017 (IC2).IC CD4017 is a decade ring counter.
Each of its ten outputs goes high one by one when a clock pulse is received. The
outputs of IC CD4017 are connected to the bases of transistors T1 through T10
respectively, as shown in the figure. LED3 through LED11 are used here to indicate the
voltage levels. The collectors of transistors T2 through T10 are connected to presets
VR1 through VR9, respectively, which are used to set the output voltage.Adjustable
voltage regulator IC LM317 (IC4) develops 1.25V nominal reference voltage (VREF)
between its output and the adjustable terminal. The reference voltage appears across
resistor R16. When the voltage is constant, a constant current flows through one of the
output-setting variable resistors (VRset, VR1 through VR9), giving an output voltage at
pin 2 of IC4 as follows: VOUT=1.25(1+VRset/R16).Presets VR1 through VR9 are
adjusted to get the desired output voltage. The collector of transistor T1 is directly
connected to to ADJ terminal (pin 1) of IC4, so the output voltage of IC4 will be the
1
voltage across fixed resistor R16, which is equal to 1.25V. When switch S3 is pressed,
pin 3 of IC2 goes high and the output voltage becomes 1.2V. When switch S2 is
pressed, the output of IC1 goes high. As a result, the outputs of IC2 go high one by one
as a ring counter. Since presets VR1 through VR9 are connected at the collectors of
transistors T2 through T10, respectively, different output resistances appear between
the adjustable and ground terminals of IC4, resulting in different output voltages. By
using a properly calibrated digital multimeter you can easily adjust the presets to obtain
1.5V to 12V.A fixed, negative 12V DC can be obtained by using fixed, negative-volt
age regulator IC LM7912 (IC3). Thus the power supply unit can be used for circuits
requiring both negative and positive DC voltages. When CD4017 is reset by pressing
switch S3, the output voltage becomes 1.2V and all the voltage-indication LEDs turn
off. Assemble the circuit on any general purpose PCB and enclose it in a suitable
cabinet. Use suitable heat-sinks for regulators IC3 and IC4. Since pin con figurations of
the regulators are different, never fix both regulators on the same heat sink. For S2 and
S3, using micro switches will enhance the beauty of the unit. LED2 is used to indicate
the 12V DC voltage.
1.2 PROJECT SURVEY & SELECTION
During the survey time for the Project we have selected the followed of topic for our
project.
 Variable power supply with digital control
 AC Voltage regulator
 PWM with rpm counter
 High current d.c .motor controller
 Medium power low cost inverter
 Automatic railway gate controller
From above a topic Variable power supply with digital control was chosen because of
following point.
 Very useful for over knowledge

 Simple but unique application
 Easy available components
 Useful for low power available place
So we select this topic for our project.
2
1.3 Component Required
Semiconductors:-
IC1 -NE555
IC2 -CD4017
IC3 -LM7912
IC4 -LM317
D1-D4 -1N4007
LED1 -RED
LED2 -YELLOW
LED3-LED11 -GREEN
Resistors:-
R1,R7 ,R15 -1 kilo-ohm
R17 -1 kilo-ohm
R2 -22 Kilo- ohm
R3 - 560 ohm
R4,R5 -8.2Kilo ohm
Capacitor:-
C1-C4 -47nF ceramic
C5,C13 -2200µF electrolytic
C6 -10µF electrolytic
C7 -.01µF ceramic
Miscellaneous:-
S1 -ON OFF switch
S2-S3 - PUSH-TO-ON Switch
Transformer -230v,1 Amp.
3
1.4 Tools and Instruments used

Following tools and instruments were used for the preparation of this project:
 Soldering Iron
 Desoldering wire
 Drill machine
 File
 Screw driver
 Brush
 Petrol
 Soldering wire
 PCB Etching Kit
4
CHAPTER – 2
2.1 Circuit Description
A variable D.C supply is one of the most useful tool in electronic hobby desk. This
circuit shows a voltage up to 24V and variable current limiting up to 2A. P1 set output
current you want delivered by the Power supply on a output voltage. P2 determine the
output voltage and should be a logarithmic taper type, in order to obtain a more linear
scale voltage indication. You can select a Transformer on the basis of the maximum
output voltage and current required. The following is a schematic drawing:
The best option is: 36, 40 or 48V center-tapped and 50, 75, 80 or 100VA. C1 can be
2200 to 6800?F, 35 to 50V. Q4 must be mounted on a good heat sink to keep the output
short-circuit ongoing. In some cases, the rear panel metal box in which you will attach
the circuit can do the job. The 2N3055 transistor (Q4) can be replaced with a slightly
stronger TIP3055 type.
A Variable DC Power Supply is one of the most useful tools on the electronics
hobbyist's workbench. This circuit is not an absolute novelty, but it is simple, reliable,
"rugged" and short-proof, featuring variable voltage up to 24V and variable current
limiting up to 2A. Well suited to supply the circuits shown in this website. You can
adapt it to your own requirements
5
2.2 Circuit Diagram:-
6
CHAPTER-3
3.1 Working of circuit:- Divide the whole circuit in two parts as power supply
section and voltage selector section. Power supply section:-Transformer x1 step down
230 ac main to 12 v-0-12v,1A ac current. Diode1 to D4 from a bridge rectifier to
recitifiy step down voltage to DC. While capacitor c1 to c4 by pass undesired spikes.
Further filtering is performed by capacitors c5 and c13.This positive 12v dc output is
use to operate Ic1,Ic2,IC4 and to get variable output. A fixed -ve 12v dc output is
obtained by using Ic7912.Yellow Led to indicate –ve 12v output while red Led1
indicate main ON condition.
3.2 VOLTAGE SELECTOR:-The voltage selector section is use to obtained variable

voltage in nine steps from 1.5 to 12v. The section is centered around variable regulator
IC LM317(IC4). The versatility of this ic alow us to obtained voltage range from 1.2v
to 37v. The voltage of its output pin2 related to input resistance as follow:
Vout=1.25(1+VRset/R16)VOLT
7
3.3 APPLICATION:-A regulated power supply is one of the most important and
essential requirement in electronics lab .The avilable power supply must provide
varrible output in step as different appliances required differnent supply voltage varying
in the range 1.5 to 12v .Also output must be easily to select and unit should provde
proper display . The present circuit is designed with keeping above point in mind.It give
varible and fluctuantaion free Dc voltage as output in the range of 1.5 to 12v .Proper
display of output selected –ve supply voltage and main ON condition are provided by
using LED.
8
CHAPTER-4
4.1Component Description
NE555:- The 555 Timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer
pulse generation and oscillator applications. The IC was designed by Hans R
Camenzind in 1970 and brought to market in 1971 by Signetics (later acquired by
Philip). The original name was the SE555 (metal can)/NE555 (plastic DIP) and the part
was described as "The IC Time Machine" It has been claimed that the 555 gets its name
from the three 5 kΩ resistors used in typical early implementations, but Hans
Camenzind has stated that the number was arbitrary. The part is still in wide use, thanks
to its ease of use, low price and good stability. As of 2003, it is estimated that 1 billion
units are manufactured every year.
Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes over 20 transistors,
2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin mini dual-in-line
package (DIP-8).Variants available include the 556 (a 14-pin DIP combining two 555s
on one chip), and the 558 (a 16-pin DIP combining four slightly modified 555s with
DIS & THR connected internally, and TR falling edge sensitive instead of level
sensitive).
Ultra-low power versions of the 555 are also available, such as the 7555 and
TLC555The 7555 is designed to cause less supply glitching than the classic 555 and the
manufacturer claims that it usually does not require a "control" capacitor and in many
cases does not require a power supply bypass capacitor.
9
Features
 Direct replacement for SE555/NE555
 Timing from microseconds through hours
 Operates in both astable and monostable modes
 Adjustable duty cycle
 Output can source or sink 200 mA
 Output and supply TTL compatible
 Temperature stability better than 0.005% per °C
 Normally on and normally off output
 Available in 8-pin MSOP package
Applications
 Precision timing
 Pulse generation
 Sequential timing
 Time delay generation
 Pulse width modulation

 Pulse position modulation
 Linear ramp generator
10
4.2. 2ND IC:- LM317:- The LM317 series of adjustable 3-terminal positive voltage
regulators is capable of supplying in excess of 1.5A over a 1.2V to 37V output range.
They are exceptionally easy to use and require only two external resistors to set the
output voltage. Further, both line and load regulation are better than standard fixed
regulators. Also, the LM317 is packaged in standard transistor packages which are
easily mounted and handled.
In addition to higher performance than fixed regulators, the LM117 series offers full
overload protection available only in IC's. Included on the chip are current limit,
thermal overload protection and safe area protection. All overload protection circuitry
remains fully functional even if the adjustment terminal is disconnected.
Normally, no capacitors are needed unless the device is situated more than 6 inches
from the input filter capacitors in which case an input bypass is needed. An optional
output capacitor can be added to improve transient response. The adjustment terminal
can be bypassed to achieve very high ripple rejection ratios which are difficult to
achieve with standard 3-terminal regulators.
Besides replacing fixed regulators, the LM117 is useful in a wide variety of other
applications. Since the regulator is “floating” and sees only the input-to-output
differential voltage, supplies of several hundred volts can be regulated as long as the
maximum input to output differential is not exceeded, i.e., avoid short-circuiting the
output.
Also, it makes an especially simple adjustable switching regulator, a programmable

output regulator, or by connecting a fixed resistor between the adjustment pin and
output, the LM117 can be used as a precision current regulator. Supplies with electronic
shutdown can be achieved by clamping the adjustment terminal to ground which
programs the output to 1.2V where most loads draw little current.
For applications requiring greater output current, see LM150 series (3A) and LM138
series (5A) data sheets. For the negative complement, see LM137 series data sheet.
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Features
 Guaranteed 1% output voltage tolerance (LM317A)
 Guaranteed max. 0.01%/V line regulation (LM317A)
 Guaranteed max. 0.3% load regulation (LM117)
 Guaranteed 1.5A output current
 Adjustable output down to 1.2V
 Current limit constant with temperature
4.3 3rd IC:-LM7912:-The LM7912 three terminal negative voltage regulator IC is

available in TO-220 package and with a fixed output voltage of -12 volt, making it
useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting,
thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making it essentially
indestructible
Features
 Thermal, short circuit and safe area protection
 High ripple rejection
 1.5A output current
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4.4 4th IC:-CD4017
Description:-The CD4017BM/CD4017BC is a 5-stage divide-by-10 Johnson counter

with 10 decoded outputs and a carry out bit.The CD4022BM/CD4022BC is a 4-stage
divide-by-8 Johnson counter with 8 decoded outputs and a carry-out bit.These counters
are cleared to their zero count by a logical "1" on their reset line. These counters are
advanced on the positive edge of the clock signal when the clock enable signal is in the
logical "0" state.The configuration of the CD4017BM/CD4017BC and
CD4022BM/CD4022BC permits medium speed operation and assures a hazard free
counting sequence. The 10/8 decoded outputs are normally in the logical "0" state and
go to the logical "1" state only at their respective time slot. Each decoded output
remains high for 1 full clock cycle. The carry-out signal completes a full cycle for every
10/8 clock input cycles and is used as a ripple carry signal to any succeeding stages.
Features
 Wide supply voltage range: 3.0V to 15V
 High noise immunity: 0.45 VDD (typ.)
 Low power: Fan out of 2 driving 74L
TTL compatibility: or 1 driving 74LS
 Medium speed operation: 5.0 MHz (typ.): with 10V VDD
 Low power: 10 µW (typ.)
 Fully static operation
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4.5 Pin configuration:-
Applications
 Automotive
 Instrumentation
 Medical electronics
 Alarm systems
 Industrial electronics
 Remote metering
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4.6. TRANSISTOR:-BC548
Description:-A transistor controls the flow of current or presence of voltage in a

circuit, acting as a switch, gate or amplifier for electronic signals. The transistor may be
driven in a digital manner, so that the "gate" is either on or off, or it may be operated in
an analog manner, allowing variable current flow depending on the needs of the circuit
Related
Application:- The LM3411 is a low power fixed-voltage (3.3V or 5.0V) precision

shunt regulator designed specifically for driving an optoisolator to provide feedback
isolation in a switching regulator. The LM3411 circuitry includes an internally
compensated op amp, a bandgap reference, NPN output transistor, and voltage setting
resistors. A trimmed precision bandgap reference with temperature drift curvature
correction, provides a guaranteed 1% precision over the operating temperature range (A
grade version).
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4.7 DIODE:-
4.1 IN4007
Description:------Design active filter circuits including low pass, high pass, band stop,
and band pass filters using op amps ICs. Bessel, Butterworth, Chebyshev (0.01dB to
1dB), Equiripple with Linear Phase, Transitional Gaussian, and Legendre Papoulis filter
approximations are supported. Filter circuits are composed of 2nd order Sallen-Key,
Multiple Feedback, State Variable, Dual Follower, Fliege, Gyrator, or Voltage-
Controlled Voltage Source stages supported.
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4.8. LED:-
RED LED: Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs, are real unsung heroes in
the electronics world. They do dozens of different jobs and are found in all kinds of
devices. Among other things, they form the numbers on digital clocks transmit
information from remote controls, light up watches and tell you when your appliances
are turned on. Collected together, they can form images on a jumbo television screen or
illuminate a traffic light.
Basically, LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical circuit. But
unlike ordinary incandescent bulbs, they don't have a filament that will burn out, and
they don't get especially hot. They are illuminated solely by the movement of electrons
in a semiconductor material, and they last just as long as a standard transistor. In this
article, we'll examine the simple principles behind these ubiquitous blinkers,
illuminating some cool principles of electricity and light in the process.
Description:------ LEDs must be connected the correct way round,

the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode
(yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead
and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED
the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method).
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very
slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.
Example: Circuit symbol:
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LED SECOND:-YELLOW LED:-
Description: LEDs - those blinky things. A must have for power indication, pin status,
opto-electronic sensors, and fun blinky.
DIAGRAM:-
This is a very standard, yellow LED. The lens is 3mm in diameter and it is diffused.
Features:
 2.0-2.4VDC forward drop

 Max current: 20mA
 Suggested using current: 16-18mA
 Luminous Intensity: 40-100mcd
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4.9. RESISTORS:-
DESCRIPTION:- Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows

through a resistor. Usually the effect is negligible, but if the resistance is low (or the
voltage across the resistor high) a large current may pass making the resistor become
noticeably warm. The resistor must be able to withstand the heating effect and resistors
have power ratings to show this.
Power ratings of resistors are rarely quoted in parts lists because for most circuits the
standard power ratings of 0.25W or 0.5W are suitable. For the rare cases where a higher
power is required it should be clearly specified in the parts list, these will be circuits
using low value resistors (less than about 300 ) or high voltages (more than 15V).
Example: Circuit symbol:
Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series
with a light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.
Connecting and soldering
Resistors may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
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The Resistor
Colour Code
Colour Number
Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange 3
Yellow 4
Resistor values - the resistor colour code Green 5
Blue 6
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega
. Violet 7
1 is0 quite small so resistor values are often given in k and M . Grey 8
White 9
1k = 1000 1 M = 1000000 .
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.

Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands:
o The first band gives the first digit.

o The second band gives the second digit.
o The third band indicates the number of zeros.
o The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the resistor, this may
be ignored for almost all circuits but further details are given below.
Table – 5 Resistor colour coding
20
This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:
P = I² × R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

or I = current through the resistor in amps (A)
P = V² / R R = resistance of the resistor in ohms ( )
V = voltage across the resistor in volts (V)
Examples:
 A 470 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/470 =
0.21W.
In this case a standard 0.25W resistor would be suitable.
 A 27 resistor with 10V across it, needs a power rating P = V²/R = 10²/27 =
3.7W.
A high power resistor with a rating of 5W would be suitable.
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4.10 CAPACITOR:- Capacitor:-(ceramic capacitor)ceramic capacitor is the

"disc capacitor". This device pre-dates the transistor and was use
Description:- A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical

extensively in vacuum-tube equipment (e.g., radio receivers) from about 1930 through
the 1950s, and in discrete transistor equipment from the 1950s through the 1980s. As of
2007, ceramic disc capacitors are in widespread use in electronic equipment, providing
high capacity and small size at low price compared to other low value capacitor types.
Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles
Application of ceramic capacitor:- Ceramic capacitors are suitable for moderately

high-frequency work (into the high hundreds of megahertz range, or, with great care,
into the low gigahertz range), as modern ceramic caps are fairly non-inductive
compared to the other major classes of capacitors (film and electrolytic). Capacitor
technologies with higher self-resonant frequencies tend to be expensive and esoteric
(typically, mica or glass capacitors).
22
Electrolytic capacitor:-
Description:- Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance

values of any type of capacitor but they have drawbacks which limit their use. The
standard design requires that the applied voltage must be polarized; one specified
terminal must always have positive potential with respect to the other. Therefore they
cannot be used with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias. However there are
special non-polarized electrolytic capacitors for AC use which do not require a DC bias.
Electrolytic capacitors also have relatively low breakdown voltage, higher leakage
current and inductance, poorer tolerances and temperature range, and shorter
DIAGRAM:-
7.4 Application :- The first major application of DC versions of this type of capacitor
was in large telephone exchanges, to reduce relay hash (noise) on the 48 volt DC power
supply. The development of AC-operated domestic radio receivers in the late 1920s
created a demand for large capacitance (for the time) high voltage capacitors, typically
at least 4 microfarads and rated at around 500 volts DC. Waxed paper and oiled silk
capacitors were available but devices with that order of capacitance and voltage rating
were bulky and prohibitively expensive.
23
4.11 TRANSFORMER:-
Description:- A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from

one circuit to another through inductively couple with conductors—the transformer's
coils. A varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic
flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic field through
the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive
force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.
If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary
winding (Vs) is in proportion to the primary voltage (Vp), and is given by the ratio of the
number of turns in the secondary (Ns) to the number of turns in the primary (Np) as
follows:
By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows

an alternating current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making Ns greater
than Np, or "stepped down" by making Ns less than Np.
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Circuit diagram:-
APPLICATION:- A major application of transformers is to increase voltage

before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires
have resistance and so dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of
the current through the wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and
therefore low-current) form for transmission and back again afterward, transformers
enable economical transmission of power over long distances. Consequently,
transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be
located remotely from points of demand. All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical
power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the con.
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the
supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The
transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.
25
4.12 FUSE:-A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element, of small cross-
section compared to the circuit conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical
terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-conducting and non-combustible housing.
The fuse is arranged in series to carry all the current passing through the protected
circuit. The resistance of the element generates heat due to the current flow. The size
and construction of the element is (empirically) determined so that the heat produced
for a normal current does not cause the element to attain a high temperature. If too high
a current flows, the element rises to a higher temperature and either directly melts, or
else melts a soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit.
When the metal conductor parts, an electric arc forms between the un-melted ends of
the element. The arc grows in length until the voltage required to sustain the arc is
higher than the available voltage in the circuit, terminating current flow. In alternating
current circuits the current naturally reverses direction on each cycle, greatly enhancing
the speed of fuse interruption. In the case of a current-limiting fuse, the voltage required
to sustain the arc builds up quickly enough to essentially stop the fault current before
the first peak of the AC waveform. This effect significantly limits damage to
downstream protected devices
The fuse element may be surrounded by air, or by materials intended to speed the
quenching of the arc. Silica sand or non-conducting liquids may be used.
DIAGRAM:-
26
4.13 HEAT SINK:-
Descption:- A heat sink is an object that transfers thermal energy from a higher
temperature to a lower temperature fluid medium. The fluid medium is frequently air,
but can also be water or in the case of heat exchangers, refrigerants and oil. If the fluid
medium is water, the 'heat sink' is frequently called a cold plate.
To understand the principle of a heat sink, consider Fourier's law of heat

conduction. Joseph Fourier was a French mathematician who made important
contributions to the analytical treatment of heat conduction. Fourier's law of heat
conduction, simplified to a one-dimensional form in the x-direction, shows that when
there is a temperature gradient in a body, heat will be transferred from the higher
temperature region to the lower temperature region. The rate at which heat is transferred
by conduction, qk, is proportional to the product of the temperature gradient and the
cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred.
10.2 Application:- Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of all but

micropower electronic devices and circuits. In general, the temperature of the device or
component will depend on the thermal resistance from the component to the
environment, and the heat dissipated by the component. To ensure that the component
temperature does not overheat, a thermal engineer seeks to find an efficient heat transfer
path from the device to the environment. The heat transfer path may be from the
component to a printed circuit board (PCB), to a heat sink, to air flow provided by a
fan, but in all instances, eventually to the environment.
4.14 Transistors
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output
current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device.
In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage,
so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off
with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
27
Types of transistor
 NPN
 PNP
Fig- 11 Transistors
4.15 Solder
Soldering filler materials are available in many different alloys for differing
applications. In electronics assembly, the eutectic alloy of 63% tin and 37% lead (or
60/40, which is almost identical in performance to the eutectic) has been the alloy of
choice. Other alloys are used for plumbing, mechanical assembly, and other
applications. A eutectic formulation has several advantages for soldering; chief among
these is the coincidence of the liquidus and solidus temperatures, i.e. the absence of a
plastic phase. This allows for quicker wetting out as the solder heats up, and quicker
setup as the solder cools.
Soldering Iron and Soldering Wire
4.16 Flux
In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), the
primary purpose of flux is to prevent oxidation of the base and filler materials. Tin-lead
solder, for example, attaches very well to copper, but poorly to the various oxides of
copper, which form quickly at soldering temperatures. Flux is a substance which is
nearly inert at room temperature, but which becomes strongly reducing at elevated
temperatures, preventing the formation of metal oxides. Secondarily, flux acts as a
28
wetting agent in the soldering process, reducing the surface tension of the molten solder
and causing it to better wet out the parts to be joined. Fluxes currently available include
water-soluble fluxes and 'no-clean' fluxes which are mild enough to not require removal
at all.
CHAPTER-5
29
5.1 Soldering of Components on PCB

For hand soldering of electronic components, the heat source tool should be selected to
provide adequate heat for the size of joint to be completed. A 100 watt soldering iron
may provide too much heat for printed circuit boards, while a 25 watt iron will not
Soldered Components
provide enough heat for large electrical connectors, joining copper roof flashing, or
large stained-glass lead came. Using a tool with too high a temperature can damage
sensitive components, but protected heating by a tool that is too cool or under powered
can also cause extensive heat damage. Hand-soldering techniques require a great deal of
skill to use on the finest pitch chip packages. The soldering iron tip must be clean and
pre-tinned with solder to ensure rapid heat transfer. Components which dissipate large
amounts of heat during operation are sometimes elevated above the PCB to avoid PCB
overheating. After inserting a through-hole mounted component, the excess lead is cut
off, leaving a length of about the radius of the pad. Visually, a good solder joint will
appear smooth and shiny, with the outline of the soldered wire clearly visible. The tip of
the iron is kept wetted with solder ("tinned") when hot to minimize oxidation and
corrosion of the tip itself.
Applications
30
One of the most frequent applications of soldering is assembling electronic components

to printed circuit boards (PCBs). Another common application is making permanent but
reversible connections between copper pipes in plumbing systems. Joints in sheet metal
objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain gutters and automobile radiators have also
historically been soldered, and occasionally still are. Jewelry components are assembled
Applications of Soldering
and repaired by soldering. Small mechanical parts are often soldered as well. Soldering
is also used to join lead came and copper foil in stained glass work. Soldering can also
be used as a semi-permanent patch for a leak in a container or cooking vessel.
4.2 PCB Fabrication
A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically

connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks, or traces, etched
from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also referred to as
printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with electronic
components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed circuit board
assembly (PCBA).
The PCB fabrication steps are:
• PCB board design
• Printing Artwork
31
• Exposure
• Developing
• Etching
• Cutting and Drilling
• Tinning and Masking
PCB Board Design
Material and Equipment
• Electronics Schematic Design Computer
• Protel DXP or PCB design software
PCB design introduction

Before any PCB fabrication can be done, we need to design PCB electrical pads for
component placing and trace for component connectivity. It can be draw by hand but if
your design is very complex, the PCB software will be very helpful. The software have
ready to use components footprint, and modification can be easy done, saving you a lot
of time and effort as compare to manual drawing. Professional PCB software such as
CADSTAR and PROTEL can easy cost above thousands of dollars. Simple and basic
PCB software such as Eagle or Easy-PC is slightly lower in cost, in the range of about
$500 to $1200. They are cheaper in cost, but features can be limited. Limitation can be
in the form of limited board size, number of board layer or the number of component's
pin allowed in the design.
32
PCB layout
33
5.3 Printing Artwork

• PCB artwork
• Paper
• Printer
• Transparency
• Laser printer or photo copier
Artwork introduction
The PCB layout can be printed from a normal home printer onto a white piece of paper.
The printing will be photocopied to a transparency. The transparency will be use for
photo-resist PCB board exposure in the next stage. A laser printer is preferred for
sharper trace, especially if the traces are very close to each other. The laser printer can
also print directly to transparency. The transparency is cut to PCB size 15x10cm. Five
PCB artwork are squeezed and arranged to maximize board usage. The following step
34
presents the traditional photo exposure method. The etch resistance layer can be formed
on the photo sensitive board after the exposure.
Fig. 23 A Closer View of a Printed PCB Pad and Traces

Photocopied onto a Transparency

• Ultra violet lamp
• A box
• Positive Acting Presensitized PCB board
• Transparency with PCB artwork printed
• Scotch tape
35
Exposure Equipment
Exposure introduction
A typical Ultra Violet UV lamp for exposure on a Positive Acting Presensitized Kinsten
PCB board. Preparing PCB board for exposure. Tear off the white/black protective film
on the board. Place the transparency artwork on top of the PCB board. Secure the
artwork position with scotch tape.
Exposure setup
If you have a piece of glass, place it on top, to make a good contact between the artwork
and the PCB board. Close proximity should be maintained to make sure that traces are
not exposing to the UV light.
PCB exposure
Turn on and expose the PCB board for 90 seconds for ultra violet lamp, or 6-10 minutes
for normal fluorescent lamp. The above reference is base on the guideline of the lamp
of about 5 cm distances away from the artwork PCB. If the distance is far from the
typical one, the exposure time should increase proportionally.
36
Peeling off the Protective Film from the PCB Board
5.3 Developing
• Sodium Hydroxide or Developer solution
• Distill or plain water
• Glove
• Glass, plastic, wooden rod or old chopstick
• Container slightly bigger than the PCB board
• Exposed PCB board
• Container with water for washing
Developer introduction
Sodium Hydroxide is used as a developer. Correct proportion is necessary as too much
will destroy the photo-resist coating instantly, while too little will have no effect in
developing the PCB. Commercial developer solution (pre-mixed with distill water)
might work better since mixture is in the correct ratio for PCB developing. Silicate
37
makes a better developer as less likely to be over-developed. Higher concentration will

increase the developing speed.
Developer Equipment
Developer mixture
The solvent composite for making the developer consist ratio of about 1unit of Sodium
Hydroxide is to 20 unit of Water. The solution must be of uniform concentration. Stir
the mixture until NaOH is fully dissolved in the water. If the chemical is not fully
dissolved, the region with concentrated NaOH can destroy the photo-resist coating
instantly. When mixing NaOH to water, heat will be produce. Stir the water solution
constantly while adding in NaOH slowly.
Various Developing Chemicals
- Sodium Metasilicate (msds) - Sodium Hydroxide NaOH (msds)
Developing PCB board

The board is fully developed when the PCB traces appear green in color. This green
layer is the photo resist layer which protects the copper surface underneath during the
etching process. The region to be etched away later will be exposing and is brown in
38
color. The brown color is the actual color of the copper. There is no photo-resist coating
to protect the surface. Rinse the developed PCB board with running water after
developing.
Remove Transparency and do Coating
5.4 Etching

• Ferric Chloride powder
• Distill or plain water
• Glove
• Glass, plastic, wooden rod or old chopstick
• Long container for the etchant
• A boarder container for boiling hot water below
• 3 liters of boiling water
• Drilling machine
Etching introduction
Ferric Chloride is use to etch away copper surface on the PCB board. It is a very toxin
chemical and is harmful to the environment. It is dark yellowish in color and can stain
your clothing. Remember to wear protective gloves while handling FeCl3. Chemical is
39
toxin and will cause skin irritation. Wash skin with running water immediately when in
contact with skin. Stronger FeCl3 solution enables etching process to be faster. When
designing PCB board, it may be a good idea to fill up with regions of copper. This is to
minimize the area of copper surface to be etched away.
Etchant mixture
The solvent composite for making the etchant consist of about 1 unit of Ferric Chloride
FeCl3 is to 3 unit of water or about 1 unit of Ammonium Persulphate is to 5 unit of
water. Stir the mixture until FeCl3 is fully dissolved with the water.
Various Etching chemicals

- Ferric Chloride FeCl3 (msds)
- Ammonium Persulphate (msds)
- Sodium Persulphate (msds)
- Peroxy Sulfuric (recyclable chemical)
- Ammonium Persulphate (msds)
Warming up Etchant
Warm up the FeCl3 solution on a tray (blue) filled with hot water. Temperature range
from about 50°C to 60°C will be suitable to speed up etching process. Drill a small hole
on the PCB board so that a string can be secure to the board. The string is use to
position or pull out the PCB in the toxin solution.
Etching PCB
Immerse the PCB board slowly into the FeCl3 solution. Agitate the PCB by tilting the
container to and fro gently, until the unwanted copper layer is properly etched away,
leaving only the required region on the PCB. The process may take 15 - 60 minutes to
complete. Process duration will depends on the concentration, temperature of the
etchant solution. Etching method also plays a part in the etching speed. If you leave the
board without any agitation, the process may take hours.
40
The etching effectiveness will be reduced if the solution is re-used for a number of
times. Strong FeCl3 concentration and high temperature can increase the etching speed.
Testing various etch resist material

The photos simulate a developed PCB board masked with some scotch tape, masking
tape, and text using oil based marker. The board is over-developed and is used for
testing various etch resist materials. The experiment shows that adhesive tapes and oil
base marker can be implemented to perform as a mask to resist from the etchant.
Fig. 28 Etching Machine
Washing board condemned with FeCl3

Prepare a container of detergent solution to wash the PCB board condemned with
chemical FeCl3. Detergent contains Sodium Carbonate or Sodium Hydroxide, which
can neutralize FeCl3. Photo-resist mask or marking of the traces can be removed using
the NaOH developer. It is the same developer used during the developing process.
Stronger solution can be use this time round as the etching is already completed. The
protective coating is no more in use. A cloth soak with the solution can be use to wipe
on the PCB board surface to remove the coating. For the marker stain, it can be
removed using commercial available contact cleaner, alcohol, or thinner solution. Rinse
with water, clean and dry the PCB board.
Disposing toxin chemical
41
Ferric Chloride FeCl3 is a toxin chemical. Please consult your local authority for
proper dispose of chemical waste product. As recommended, detergent (or other baking
soda) can be mixed to the FeCl3 solution. The mixture solution can easily produce
bubble foam which can grow 10 times in volume. Lay waste paper under the container
to prevent toxin overflowing out of the container onto the floor. Leave it to dry before
disposing the waste. PCB board etching until the unwanted copper is remove
completely by the chemical.
Etching
5.5 Cutting and Drilling
Material and equipment
• Dot punch or sharp tool
• Drilling machine or hand drill
• 1mm, 1.5mm drill bits
• Hand files
• Penknife
• Steel ruler
42
Drill Machine
Introduction to cutting and drilling

The etching is completed. The original artwork is arranged to maximize the use of the
PCB board. 5 small PCB can be fabricated on the 15cm x 10cm board. 3 of the PCB
pattern is not formed properly during the developing process, therefore only 2 PCB
board can be extracted. Hole is necessary to mount component (example: resistor,
capacitor, inductor, board mount switch, DIP integrated circuit IC etc). Before drilling,
a dot punch is used to mark the hole position. This serves as a shallow guide for the
drill bit to align easily while drilling. Any other sharp pointed tool can be use to do the
marking. The drill is fitted with a 1mm drill bit. A 1mm drill bit is thin and can break
easily. Hold the drill steady and drill in straight slowly. The hole will be drilled with
little force applied.
43
Complete Fabrication of Smaller Individual PCB Board
5.6 Tinning and Masking

• Solder flux
• Soldering iron (flat tip is available)
• Soldering stand with wetted sponge
• Solder sucker
Tinning the copper surface
Copper will oxidize when exposed to oxygen environment. Oxidization should be
avoided as soldering is difficult on oxidization surface. A thin layer of solder is coated
44
on the copper surface to prevent oxidization. Apply solder to the copper surface with
hot soldering iron and spread the liquefied solder across the surface. Covering the
copper surface with solder helps protect the copper from oxidization.
Masking PCB board
Masking can be applied to non-soldering area to protect the board from potential short
circuit, oxidization and overflow of solder during soldering. The soldering would also
be easier and nicer.
Tinned and Finish PCB Product
Take a suitable copper Clad Board and draw the layout on it with the help of a carbon
paper.
Now overdraw the layout by nail polish solution. A syringe can be used for the purpose.
Dry the board.
Prepare the Ferric Chloride Solution for etching copper-clad board.
Now etch the unwanted copper from the board using ferric Chloride Solution. PCB
should be submerged into Solution properly.
With regular stirring, etching will take 20 minutes or longer depending on how many
times the solution has been used before.
While etching proper care should be given to protect your hands and body from the
solution. Latex gloves can be used for the purpose.
Now Dry the PCB
After Drying, drilling is done. You can use a PCB hand drill or a motor driver drill.
Clean the PCB and it is ready for use.
45
CHAPTER-6
6.1 Digital Voltmeter:-
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring the electrical potential difference

between two points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a
scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical
display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.
Voltmeters are made in a wide range of styles. Instruments permanently mounted in a

panel are used to monitor generators or other fixed apparatus. Portable instruments,
usually equipped to also measure current and resistance in the form of a multimeter, are
standard test instruments used in electrical and electronics work. Any measurement that
can be converted to a voltage can be displayed on a meter that is suitably calibrated; for
example, pressure, temperature, flow or level in a chemical process plant.
General purpose analog voltmeters may have an accuracy of a few percent of full scale,
and are used with voltages from a fraction of a volt to several thousand volts. Digital
meters can be made with high accuracy, typically better than 1%. Specially calibrated
test instruments have higher accuracies, with laboratory instruments capable of
measuring to accuracies of a few parts per million. Meters using amplifiers can measure
tiny voltages of micro volts or less.
Diagram :-
46
Application of voltmeter:- DVMs measure both alternating current (Ac) and direct
current (DC) in electronics. Common laboratory and commercial applications involve
electromechanical machinery with a current flowing through wires and circuits. Often,
a digital voltmeter is used to monitor a unit, such as a generator. Portable or handheld
devices, such as the digital multimeter (DMM), for example, may combine several
functions into one instrument measuring voltage, current, and resistance. This is the
preferred tool of an electrician
6.2 Application
 Different units in factory

 Bridge street lighting
 High loaded device
 Electronics Laboratries
47
CHAPTER-7
Costing
Parts name Cost

Semiconductors
IC1-NE555 40
IC2-CD4017 40
IC3-LM7912 50
IC4-LM317 50
Transistor 20
PCB 35
7805, 5V regulator 20
Heat Sink 20
Diodes 20
LEDs 30
Resistor
10-kilo-ohm × 2 5
100-kilo-ohm × 2 5
220-ohm 5
1-kilo-ohm × 4 10
Capacitors
1000µF, 35V electrolytic 5
0.1µF ceramic disk 2
Miscellaneous
230V AC primary to 12V,500mA secondary 100
transformer
Push-to-‘on’ switch 15
Fuse 20
Total cost 496
Price LIST
7.2 Bibliography
[1] www.datasheet.com
[2] www.vishay.com
[3] www.futurlec.com
[4] www.electronics-tutorials.ws/index.html
[5] Electronics for you magazine
48
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Chapter - 1 Introduction:-: Variable Power Supply With Digital Control 2011

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Chapter - 1 Introduction:-: Variable Power Supply With Digital Control 2011

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Variable Power Supply with Digital Control 2011

Introduction:- The most frequently used device in electronic workshops and

The fixed negative-voltage regulator LM7912.The AC mains supply is stepped down

Indication.Timer IC NE555 (IC1) is wired as an astable multivibrator. It generates clock

 Very useful for over knowledge

So we select this topic for our project.

1.3 Component Required

1.4 Tools and Instruments used

2.1 Circuit Description

2.2 Circuit Diagram:-

3.2 VOLTAGE SELECTOR:-The voltage selector section is use to obtained variable

 Pulse width modulation

Also, it makes an especially simple adjustable switching regulator, a programmable

4.3 3rd IC:-LM7912:-The LM7912 three terminal negative voltage regulator IC is

4.4 4th IC:-CD4017

Description:-The CD4017BM/CD4017BC is a 5-stage divide-by-10 Johnson counter

4.5 Pin configuration:-

Description:-A transistor controls the flow of current or presence of voltage in a

Application:- The LM3411 is a low power fixed-voltage (3.3V or 5.0V) precision

Description:------ LEDs must be connected the correct way round,

Example: Circuit symbol:

LED SECOND:-YELLOW LED:-

 2.0-2.4VDC forward drop

DESCRIPTION:- Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows

Example: Circuit symbol:

Connecting and soldering

Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.

Most resistors have 4 bands:

o The first band gives the first digit.

Table – 5 Resistor colour coding

The power, P, developed in a resistor is given by:

P = I² × R where: P = power developed in the resistor in watts (W)

4.10 CAPACITOR:- Capacitor:-(ceramic capacitor)ceramic capacitor is the

Description:- A ceramic capacitor is a two-terminal, non-polar device. The classical

Ceramic capacitors come in various shapes and styles

Application of ceramic capacitor:- Ceramic capacitors are suitable for moderately

Description:- Electrolytic capacitors are capable of providing the highest capacitance

Description:- A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows

APPLICATION:- A major application of transformers is to increase voltage

4.13 HEAT SINK:-

To understand the principle of a heat sink, consider Fourier's law of heat

10.2 Application:- Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of all but

Soldering Iron and Soldering Wire

5.1 Soldering of Components on PCB

One of the most frequent applications of soldering is assembling electronic components

4.2 PCB Fabrication

A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically

PCB design introduction

5.3 Printing Artwork

Material and Equipment

Fig. 23 A Closer View of a Printed PCB Pad and Traces

Material and Equipment

Peeling off the Protective Film from the PCB Board

makes a better developer as less likely to be over-developed. Higher concentration will

Developing PCB board

Remove Transparency and do Coating

Material and Equipment

Various Etching chemicals