CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

CHAPTER-2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

PACKAGING AND STORGE TEMPERATURE

If red sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) stored for 21 days when packaged
after hot water dipping (HWD) at 53˚C for 4 minutes in low density polyethylene
(LDPE), packed in low density polyethylene with out applying hot water dipping and
unpackaged one which was considered as control or check. HWD and packaged
treatments were performed best as compared to unpackaged one. The weight loss was
less than 1% in packaged and 10% in unpackaged. HWD had no significant effect on the
quality of fruits (Raffo et al., 2006).
Packaging material used for tomato postharvest quality was 20 mm (PE20) and 10
u (PE50) and (PP) 25 u and then sealed compared with unwrapped fruits considered as
control. Results indicated that (PE50) and (PP) film, devoid off the development of red
color up to 30 days of storage. They were also still firm even after 60 days of storage and
these tomato also possessed lowest weight loss and highest soluble solid (Batu &
Thompson, 1998).
The harvested tomatoes were stored at 7, 15 and 25˚C, for a period of 10 days.
The soluble phenolics and ascorbic acid contents of tomatoes showed slight increases
during storage, regardless of temperature. The mean lycopene content of tomatoes stored
at 15 and 25˚C on the 10th day of storage was, approximately, 2-fold (7.5mg/100g) than of
the tomatoes stored at 7˚C (3.2mg/100g). The soluble antioxidant activity increased from
17–27% during the storage period of tomatoes (Ramandeep and Geoffrey, 2006).
Antioxidant activity in 10 sweet pepper cultivars grown over 10 consecutive years
and found that cv. Flamingo had the highest ascorbic acid content followed by Bombay
and parker. All cv. fulfilled 100 % requirement of vitamin C, but there was no effect of
harvest year on antioxidant activity (Deepa et al., 2006).
Change in antioxidant compounds in pepper fruits at different ripening stages, as
affected by salinity and harvested fruits at three maturity stages; green, breaker and red.
For nutritional point of view the red stage was most appropriate state of maturation, since
red stage pepper had the highest antioxidant activity for both hydrophilic and lipophilic
fraction (Navarro et al., 2006). In another study found that highest amount of ascorbic
acid was in green chillies greater than citrus and highest amount of carotenoids in red
chillies greater than carrot.
Red pepper had significantly total phenolic content than the green pepper. It is
reported that green, yellow, orange and red colored pepper if analyzed for their
antioxidant activity, red pepper contained a higher level of beta-carotene content 0.54 ug/
g the yellow pepper had lowest beta-carotene content 0.2 ug/ g. All four colored peppers

6
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

had capacity of preventing the oxidation of cholesterol during heating. The green pepper
showed slightly higher capability in preventing the oxidation of cholesterol or
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C 22:6) compared to the other three peppers (Sim et al.,
2007).
Oxidative carotenoid degradation causes paprika color loss during storage.
Ethoxyquin, a synthetic antioxidant is used in the spice industry to prevent carotenoid
loss during postharvest handling but ethoxyquin treated paprika is unaccepted for some
market and consumers. Naturally derived antioxidant i.e. ascorbic acid, δ-tocopherol and
mixed tocopherol were tested as color protestants in two paprika cultivar. Extractable
color, surface color and carotenoid concentration were determined before storage and
then monthly. After four month storage at ambient temperature, the control treatment loss
63 % of initial extractable color, the δ-tocopherol treated sample lost 32 % and the
ethoxyquin lost 6 % color (Osuna-Garcia et al., 1997).
A 45 days storage experiment of citrus fruits conducted under polyethylene bags
of 0.0256mm, 0.0508mm thickness and the unpackaged one considered as control and
stored at controlled room temperature. Maximum weight loss observed in control and
minimum weight loss in thick polyethylene packaging. The TSS increased during storage
and ascorbic acid decreased from 1.59 to 0.63 % during storage. Organoleptic properties
evaluation revealed that individual packaging had significant effect on the external
appearance, taste and texture. Thick packaging performed significant effect in prolonging
the shelf life of citrus fruits (Hussain et al., 2004).
Postharvest quality parameters in fresh or transformed horticultural crops detected
and found that conventional indicators of quality, sugars can be conveniently analyzed by
several physico-chemical or biochemical methods. Vitamin represented the important
nutritional quality factor in horticultural crops and the detection of ascorbic and/ or beta-
carotene is valuable in predicting vegetable shelf life. The activity of enzymes, such as
ascorbate oxidase, polyphenol oxidase and peroxidase also represented sensitive
parameters for quality control, since protein expression strictly depends on environmental
conditions. This procedure reveals that there were consistent differences in composition
regarding Phenolics or sugars in different tissues of the same vegetable and that one
tissue may more prone than other to variations in the concentration of marker
compounds. Continuous studies in the research of these parameters have provided
deterioration ensuring the supply of fresh vegetable to the consumer (Ninfali &
Bacchiocca, 2004)
Tomatoes (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) and sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum
L.) treated with vapors of methyl jasmonate (MeJA) or methyl salicylate (MeSA) had
markedly increased resistance to chilling injury and decreased incidence of decay during
and after low temperature storage. Accumulation of classes I and II small heat shock
protein (HSP) mRNAs was increased significantly by treatment of tomato fruit with
MeJA and MeSA. Treated fruit also accumulated higher levels of transcripts from the
HSP 70 family as compared to untreated fruit. MeJA treatment also substantially
enhanced mRNA levels of pathogenesis-related (PR)-2a, PR-2b and PR-3b. MeSA treated
fruit had significantly increased accumulation of PR-2b and PR-3a mRNAs compared to
the control fruit. Two transcripts, 1.5 kb and 3.5 kb, of alternative oxidase (AOX) were
detected by Northern blot analysis from sweet pepper fruit stored at 0°C. Both transcripts
reached maximal levels first in MeSA treated fruit, second in MeJA treated fruit and last

7
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

in control fruit. These results suggest that the treatment of tomatoes and sweet peppers
with MeJA or MeSA induces the synthesis of some stress proteins, such as HSP, PR-
proteins, and AOX, which leads to increased chilling tolerance and resistance to decay
(Wang, Fung and Ding, 2005).
Stomata of red hot chilli monitored under scanning electron microscopy. Stomata
apertures observed only at the pedicel surface and were absolutely absent on the fruit
surface. Hydro-cooled chilli at 0 and 2 oC resulted in significantly closing stomata while
the same process at 4 oC was only partially closing them as compared to untreated. The
darkening was significantly reduced by hydro-cooling whereas slightly decreased by
forced-air cooling. These results suggest that hydro-cooling is a suitable technique for
keeping the quality of red hot chili after harvest (Taksinamanee at el., 2006)[a].
Exporting of fresh chilli faces a big problem especially the darkening at pedicel.
Chillies hydro-cooled at 0 oC were packed in plastic tray wrapped with 15 μm
polyvinylchloride (PVC) film, 70 µm polyethylene (PE) bag and shell clam PE box then
stored at 5ºC. Hydro-cooled chilli and packed in plastic packaging maintained the fruit
firmness higher than control. However, there were no consistency patterns of changes in
ascorbate peroxidase activity during storage of red hot chilli in each treatment. The
overall quality of red hot chilli was highest in hydro-cooled chilli kept in shall clam PE
box (Taksinamanee et al., 2006)[b].
If red sweet peppers (Capsicum annuum L.) stored for 21 days packaged in low
density polyethylene (LDPE), unpackaged and hot water dipping (53 oC for 4 min.) then
packaged in low density polyethylene. HWD and packaged treatments were performed
best as compared to unpackaged one. The weight loss was less than 1 % in packaged and
10 % in unpackaged. HWD had no significant effect on the quality of fruits (Raffo et al.,
2006).
The harvested tomatoes were stored at 7, 15 and 25 oC, for a period of 10 days.
The soluble phenolics and ascorbic acid contents of tomatoes showed slight increases
during storage, regardless of temperature. The mean lycopene content of tomatoes stored
at 15 and 25 oC on the 10th day of storage was, approximately, 2-fold (7.5 mg/100 g) than
of the tomatoes stored at 7 oC (3.2 mg/100 g). The soluble antioxidant activity increased
from 17–27% during the storage period of tomatoes (Ramandeep and Geoffrey, 2006).
Peppers harvested at green stage and stored at 22 oC for only 10 days. If harvested
at green ripe stage and stored at 22 oC, they stored for only 5 days. Green ripe fruits
stored at 7 oC in perforated polyethylene bags maintained their shelf life for 20 days.
Result indicated that optimum ripeness stage for harvest was green ripe as the peppers
develop enhanced quality characteristics at this stage (González et al., 2005).
There are no data for (Xanthomonas vesicatoria) and (Vermicularia capsici) but
provided that CO2 is absent, the growth of other organism is suppressed by [O2] present in
7-13 oC water saturated air at pressure of 2.0-2.7 kPa.
This low pressure range should be tested at non-chilling temperature as high as
12-13 oC to determine if decay in peppers can be controlled without causing low-[O2] or
low-temperature injury. Peppers tolerated a 2-day exposure to a pressure of 2.67 kPa at
10 oC with no adverse effects (Burg, 2004), but longer exposure
The storage of peppers was improved by treatments that restrict water loss,
including pre-packaging in perforated polyethylene, modified atmospheric packaging and
waxing (Hughes el al., 1981; Hardenburg et al., 1986).

8
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Packaging system was used to compare the atmospheric composition within

sealed packs containing tomato fruits. The films used were 20 micron (PE20) and 50
micron (PE50) polyethylene, 10 micron polyvinylcholoride (PVC) and 25 micron
polypropylene (PP) compared with unwrapped fruit as a control. Sealed packaging,
especially using with PE50 and PP films, delayed the development of the red color of
tomatoes until 30 days of storage and those tomatoes were also still very firm even after
60 days of storage. Tomatoes sealed within PE50 and PP films had also the lowest weight
loss and the highest soluble solids after 60 days of storage (Batu and Thompson, 1998).
Control atmospheres containing 2-5% oxygen and 10% carbon dioxide slightly
extend storage life. Less than 2% oxygen causes low carbon dioxide damage, and more
than 2-10% carbon dioxide eventually causes calyx discoloration (Hatton el al., 1975;
Dilley, 1978; Leshuk and Saltveit, 1990).
Bell pepper (C. annuum L.) at three maturation stages, were evaluated sensorily
on flavor attributes. Green bell peppers scored mainly on the attributes bitterness, grassy
and green bell pepper aroma, whereas the attributes sweetness, sourness, and red bell
pepper aroma were distinctive for the red ones. Sugars and organic acids were determined
by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC); fructose, glucose, total sugar, and
dry matter content were related to the attribute sweetness in the red maturation stage.
Citric and ascorbic acid, as well as calculated concentrations of undissociated ascorbic
and dissociated citric 1 and citric 2, showed close relationships with the attribute
sourness. Moreover, pH and HPLC concentrations of malic, oxalic, fumaric, and
pyroglutamic acid and calculated contents of dissociated malic 2, pyroglutamic 1, and
oxalic 2 appeared to be negatively related with sourness (Luning et al., 1994).
The main post harvest storage diseases of peppers are alternaria rot (Alternaria
tenuis), anthracnose (Collectrotricum gloeosporioides), bacterial soft rot (Erwinia
carotovora), Cladosporium rot (Collectrotricum herbarum), grey mould rot (Botrytis
cinerea), bacterial spot (Xanthomonos versicatoria), phoma rot (Phoma destructor),
sunken spot (Vermicularia capsici) and rhizopus rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) (McColloch et
al., 1966; Ryall and Lipton, 1972; Eckert et al., 1975; Hardenburg et al., 1986).
Chilling damage occurs below 7 oC (Hardenburg et al., 1986), and sometimes at
less than 11.1-12.8 oC (Pushka and Srivastava, 1963). Chilling damage occurred at 7 oC in
low pressure (LP), but only became apparent 1-2 days after peppers were removed
(Burge, 1976a).
No benefit resulted when pepper cultivar ‘Bellboy’ was stored at 8.8 oC in
controlled atmospheric storage at 2% [O2] supplemented with 0, 3, 6 or 9% [CO2], or in
LP at 20.3, 10.1 and 5.1 kPa, (Hughes et al., 1981).
Normal atmospheric storage was compared to low pressure storage at pressure of
2.0, 5.3 and 10.7 Kpa. Peppers stored in normal atmospheric storage were pre-treated
with chlorine and/or Benlate; the remainder and all peppers stored in low pressure storage
were untreated and unwaxed. After 50 days, the percentage of saleable peppers was 80%
at 5.3 kPa, 87% at 5.3-10.7 kPa, 47% at 2 kPa respectively; and none in normal
atmospheric storage regardless of the pre-treatment (Jamieson, 1980).
Direct relationship was found between ascorbic acid content and capsicum
maturity. Total pigment contents increased between two and seventy fold as the result of
transition from the immature to the fully ripe condition (Rahman et al., 1978).
The storage temperature was not specified. Excellent results with peppers stored

9
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

at 10.13 kPa (76 mm Hg) were reported by Staby (1976a).

Low pressure storage was limited by decay. Respiration was reduced by as much
as 67-75% at low pressure storage (Bangerth, 1974).
Peppers began to deteriorate after 16 days in normal atmosphere were in poor
condition by 21 days. Those kept at a pressure of 10.7 kPa were still in excellent
conditions after 28 days, while at 6.7 and 16.0 kPa they were only in fair condition.
Peppers were marketable with excellent taste and quality after 46 days in low pressure
storage at 10.7 kPa, except for a trace of mould, which appeared on stem ends. Storage
was limited by decay. A chlorine rinse prior to storage reduced the incidence of decay and
a Benlate dip was effective for up to 7 weeks during low pressure storage. Storage of
peppers in normal atmosphere and in low pressure storage at a pressure of 10 kPa was
compared during a 23-day test at 10-12 oC. The peppers remained firmer and greener in
low pressure with slightly higher ascorbic acid contents and significantly lower ethylene
production (Bangerth, 1973). Non-waxed peppers were stored at 7.2 oC either in normal
atmosphere or in low pressure storage at pressure of 6.7, 10.7or 16.0 kPa (Burg, 1970).
Ripening limits the normal atmosphere (NA) storage of green peppers at 7.2-10
0
C for 2-3 weeks which is very good time to transport the green chillies for distant market
within the country and abroad (Lutz and Hardenburg, 1968).
At atmospheric pressure, film wrapping reduced wastage, mainly due to less
water loss, while storage in 2% [O2] + 6% [CO2] resulted in a significant increase in
decay during subsequent shelf life at 20 oC. Weight loss in LP was at least five times
higher per day compared to normal atmosphere, and 7-10 times greater than that needed
to remove respiratory heat by evaporative cooling indicated that the humidity was not
properly maintained in this low pressure storage study.

PACKAGING MATERIALS
Pepper fruit were harvested at three ripeness stages: green; green ripe; and
beginning changing to orange. Samples of all three stages were stored at room
temperature (22°C) and evaluations made of quality changes to the fruit during a 15 day
period. Ripe green peppers were stored at 7°C over a 35 day period in perforated
polyethylene bags. Results indicate that optimum ripeness stage for harvest is green ripe
as the peppers develop enhanced quality characteristics and have a longer, 10 day, shelf
life at 22°C. Peak chilli quality under storage conditions was attained using refrigeration
of green ripe fruits for 20 days followed by ripening for 5 days at 22°C (González et al.,
2005).

CHILLING INJURY
Lutz and Hardenburg (1968) studies that ripening limits the normal atmosphere
(NA) storage of green peppers to 2-3 weeks at 7.2-10 °C. Chilling damage occurs below
7 °C (Hardenburg et al., 1986), and sometimes at less than 11.1-12.8 °C (Pushka and
Srivastava, 1963).
Chilling damage occurred at 7 °C in low pressure (LP), but only became apparent
1-2 days after peppers were removed (Burge, 1976a) CA atmospheres containing 2-5%
[O2] + 2-10% [CO2] slightly extend storage life. Less than 2% [O2] causes low [O2]
damage, and more than 2-10% [CO2] eventually causes calyx discoloration (Hatton et
al., 1975; Dilley, 1978; Leshuk and Saltveit, 1990).

10
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

PACKAGING
The storage of peppers was improved by treatments that restrict water loss,
including pre-packaging in perforated polyethylene, MA packaging and waxing (Hughes
et al., 1981; Hardenburg et al., 1986).
Ali and Keith (1998) performed an experiment on packaging system was used to
compare the atmospheric composition within sealed packs containing tomato fruits. The
films used were 20 micron (PE20) and 50 micron (PE50) polyethylene, 10 micron
polyvinylcholoride (PVC) or 25 micron polypropylene (PP) compared with unwrapped
fruit as a control. Sealed packaging, especially using with PE50 and PP films, delayed the
development of the red color of tomatoes until 30 days of storage and those tomatoes
were also still very firm even after 60 days of storage. Tomatoes sealed within PE50 and
PP films had also the lowest weight loss and the highest soluble solids after 60 days of
storage.
Non-waxed peppers were stored at 7.2 °C either in NA or in LP at pressure at 6.7,
10.7or 16.0 kPa 50, 80 or 120 mm Hg (Burg, 1970). Peppers began to deteriorate after 16
days in NA were in poor condition by 21 days. Those kept at a pressure of 12.7 kPa (80
mm Hg) were still in excellent conditions after 28 days, while at 6.7 and 16.0 kPa (50 and
120 mm Hg) they were only in fair condition. Peppers were marketable with excellent
taste and quality after 46 days’ LP storage at 12.7 kPa (80 mm Hg), except for a trace of
mould, which appeared on stem ends. Storage was limited by decay. A chlorine rinse
prior to storage reduced the incidence of decay, and a Benlate dip was effective for up to
7 weeks during LP storage.
Storage of Neusiedler Ideal peppers in NA and in LP at a pressure of 10 kPa (75
mm Hg) was compared during a 23-day test at 10-12 °C. The peppers remained firmer
and greener in LP with slightly higher ascorbic acid contents and significantly lower
ethylene production (Bangerth, 1973).
LP storage was limited by decay. Respiration was reduced by as much as 67-75%
at a low pressure (Bangerth, 1974).
NA storage was compared to LP at lower pressure, 2.0, 5.3 and 10.7 Kpa (20, 40
and 80 mm Hg), in laboratory tests run by Grumman Allied Industries. Some of the
peppers stored in NA were pre-treated with chlorine and/ or Benlate; the remainder and
all peppers stored in LP were untreated and unwaxed. After 50 days, the percentage of
saleable peppers was 80-87% at 5.3-10.7 kPa (40-80 mm Hg), respectively; 47% at 2 kPa
(15 mm Hg); and none in NA regardless of the pre-treatment (Jamieson, 1980a).
The storage temperature was not specified. Excellent results with peppers stored
at 10.13 kPa (76 mm Hg) were reported by Staby (1976a).
Hughes et al. (1981) reported that no benefit resulted when pepper cultivar
‘Bellboy’ was stored at 8.8 °C in CA at 2% [O2] supplemented with 0, 3, 6 or 9% [CO2],
or in LP at 20.3, 10.1 and 5.1 kPa 9152, 76 and 38 mm Hg).
At atmospheric pressure, film wrapping reduced wastage, mainly due to less
water loss, while storage in 2% [O2] + 6% [CO2] resulted in a significant increase in
decay during subsequent shelf life at 20 °C. Weight loss in LP was at least five times
higher per day compared to NA, and 7-10 times greater than that needed to remove
respiratory heat by evaporative cooling indicated that the humidity was not properly
maintained in this LP study.

11
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Ramandeep and Geoffrey, (2006) studied that nutritional implication of storage on

tomatoes. The harvested tomatoes were stored at 7, 15 and 25 °C, for a period of 10 days.
The soluble phenolics and ascorbic acid contents of tomatoes showed slight increases
during storage, regardless of temperature. The mean lycopene content of tomatoes stored
at 15 and 25 °C on the 10th day of storage was, approximately, 2-fold (7.5 mg/ 100 g)
than of the tomatoes stored at 7 °C (3.2 mg/100 g). The soluble antioxidant activity
increased from 17–27% during the storage period of tomatoes.

POSTHARVEST DISEASES
The main storage disease of peppers are alternaria rot (A. tenuis), anthracnose (C.
gloeosporioides), bacterial soft rot (E. carotovora), Cladosporium rot (C. herbarum), grey
mould rot (B. cinerea), bacterial spot (X. versicatoria), phoma rot (Phoma destructor),
sunken spot (Vermicularia capsici) and rhizopus rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) (McColloch et
al., 1966; Ryall and Lipton, 1972; Eckert et al., 1975; Hardenburg et al., 1986).
There are no data for X. vesicatoria and V. capsici, but provided that CO 2 is
absent, the growth of other organism is suppressed by the [O 2] present in 7-13 °C water-
saturated air at pressure of 2.0-2.7 kPa (15-20 mm Hg).
This low pressure range should be tested at non-chilling temperature as high as
12-13 °C to determine if decay in peppers can be controlled without causing low-[O2] or
low-temperature injury. Peppers tolerated a 2-day exposure to a pressure of 2.67 kPa (20
mm Hg) at 10 °C with no adverse effects (Burg, 2004), but longer exposure periods and
higher temperatures have not yet been tested.

SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE
Green bell peppers were collected in bags and treated with 0, 5, 10, 20, and
50 mg L-1 ClO2 gas at 10 ± 0.5 °C for over 40 days, and the changes in postharvest
physiology and preservation quality of the peppers were evaluated during the
storage. The rot rates of the treated samples were 50 % lesser than those of the
control after 40 days of storage. The highest inhibitory effect was obtained after 50
mg L-1 ClO2 gas treatment, where the peppers did not decay until day 30 and
showed only one-fourth of the rot rate of the control at day 40 of storage. The
respiratory activity of the peppers was significantly inhibited by 20 and 50 mg L-1
ClO2 treatments, whereas no significant effects on respiratory activity were
observed with 5 and 10 mg L-1ClO2 treatments. Except for 50 mg L-1 ClO2,
malondialdenyde (MDA) contents in the peppers treated with 5, 10, or 20 mg L-1
ClO2 were not significantly different from those in the control (Du et al., 2007).

The effects of treatment of chlorine dioxide (CIO2) gas on postharvest physiology

and preservation quality of green bell peppers were studied. Green bell peppers were
collected in bags and treated with 0, 5, 10, 20, and 50 mg L−1 CIO2 gas at 10 ± 0.5 °C for
over 40 days, and the changes in postharvest physiology and preservation quality of the
peppers were evaluated during the storage. The inhibition of rot of the peppers was
observed for all the tested CIO2 gas treatments. The rot rates of the treated samples were
50% lesser than those of the control after 40 days of storage. The highest inhibitory effect
was obtained after 50 mg L−1 CIO2 gas treatment, where the peppers did not decay until
30 days and showed only one-fourth of the rot rate of the control at 40 days of storage.

12
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The respiratory activity of the peppers was significantly (P<0.05) inhibited by 20 and 50
mg L−1 CIO2 treatments, whereas no significant effects on respiratory activity were
observed with 5 and 10 mg L−1 CIO2 treatments (P>0.05). Except for 50 mg L−1 CIO2,
malondialdenyde (MDA) contents in the peppers treated with 5, 10, or 20 mg L −1 CIO2
were not significantly (P>0.05) different from those in the control. Degradation of
chlorophyll in the peppers was delayed by 5 mg L−1 CIO2, but promoted by 10, 20, or 50
mg L−1 CIO2. The vitamin C content, titratable acidity and total soluble solids of the
peppers treated by all the tested CIO2 gas did not significantly change during the storage.
The results suggested that CIO2 gas treatment effectively delayed the postharvest
physiological transformation of green peppers, inhibited decay and respiration,
maintained some nutritional and sensory quality, and retarded MDA accumulation.

In perspective of breeding high-yield hybrid pepper varieties, combining ability

analysis of net photosynthesis rate at different phases of flowering and fruit setting in
pepper was made with 15 cross combinations from 6 parents by (1/2) n (n-1) diallel
crosses. There are relatively large differences not only in general combining ability
(GCA) effect among different parents and at different phases of flowering and fruit
setting, but also in specific combining ability (SCA) effect among different hybrids.
There are relatively large GCA effects in late parents but relatively less GCA effects in
early parents. No obvious laws have been found in the relationship between SCA effects
and maturity of hybrids. Variances of SCA are larger than those of GCA. Heritability is
less but influence of environment is larger. Correlation analysis of combining ability
between net photosynthesis rate and agronomic character or resistances to main diseases
has showed that correlation coefficients of GCA are relatively large at the medium phase
and the late phase of flowering and fruit setting. Net photosynthesis rate is more relative
to leaf characters and fruit characters. Correlation coefficients of SCA are relatively large
at the early phase and the late phase of flowering and fruit setting. Net photosynthesis
rate is more relative to leaf characters and plant characters at the early phase but to plant
characters and fruit characters at the late phase. Correlation coefficients of SCA between
net photosynthesis rate and resistances to main diseases are larger than those of GCA.
The combining abilities of net photosynthesis rate at different phases of flowering and
fruit setting are positively correlated with those of yield per plant. The combining ability
is an important parameter of breeding of high photosynthesis hybrid pepper varieties.
The respiration rates of fresh-cut bell peppers under diverse high and low O 2
levels, with or without 20 kPa CO2, at 2, 7 and 14 °C, were studied. Weight loss and off-
odor development were also monitored. A constant respiration rate of pepper dices
throughout 3 days under different conditions was found. Fresh-cut peppers exposed to 0,
0.5, 1, 3 and 9 kPa O2 (all CO2-free), and to 0 kPa O2 + 20 kPa CO2, had a lower
respiration rate than peppers in the range 20–100 kPa O2 with or without CO2. Under high
O2, 20 kPa CO2 increased the respiration rate by about 20–40% compared to that in free-
CO2 atmospheres, this effect being lower at low temperature. High O2 had little (at 14 °C)
or no effect (at 2 and 7 °C) in stimulating both CO2 production and O2 consumption
compared to normal air. High CO2 in the range 20–100 kPa O2 increased the respiratory
activity of pepper dices, probably because physiological injury occurred at 14 °C.
However, 20 kPa CO2 combined with superatmospheric O2 neither induced a poor visual
appearance nor off-odors. Consequently 50–80 kPa O2 combined with 20 kPa CO2 could

13
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

be used in innovative modified atmosphere packaging of pepper dices to avoid

fermentation and inhibit growth of spoilage microorganisms.

Chilling Injury Occurrence

(Lutz and Hardenburg, 1968) studies that ripening limits the NA storage of green
peppers to 2-3 weeks at 7.2-10 °C. Chilling damage occurs below 7 °C (Hardenburg et
al., 1986), and sometimes at less than 11.1-12.8 °C (Pushka and Srivastava, 1963).
Chilling damage occurred at 7 °C in LP, but only became apparent 1-2 days after peppers
were removed (Burge, 1976a).

WATER LOSS MECHANISM

Stomata of red hot chilli were monitored under scanning electron microscopy.
Stomata apertures were observed only at the pedicel surface and were absolutely absent
on the fruit surface. Hydro-cooled chilli at 0 and 2 oC resulted in significantly closing
stomata while the same process at 4 oC was only partially closing them. The darkening
was significantly reduced by hydro-cooling whereas slightly decreased by forced-air
cooling. These results suggest that hydro-cooling is a suitable technique for keeping the
quality of red hot chili after harvest (Taksinamanee at el., 2006)[a].
Exporting of fresh chilli faces a big problem especially the darkening at pedicel.
The darkening disorder at pedicel of hot chili mainly causes by a water loss from stomata
apertures. From this problem, hydro-cooling in combination with package for extending
the fresh quality of red hot chili was investigated. The chili fruit were selected for
uniformity of size and color then hydro-cooled at 0 ºC. Pre-cooled chillies were packed in
plastic tray wrapped with 15 μm polyvinylchloride (PVC) film, 70 µm polyethylene (PE)
bag and shell clam PE box then stored at 5 ºC. Non pre-cooled and unpacked chili fruit
was set as a control treatment. Weight loss of hydro-cooled chilli and packed in all kind
of packages significantly decreased as compared to control fruit. There was only slightly
difference in water loss among packaging treatments. Hydro-cooled chilli and packed in
plastic packaging maintained the fruit firmness higher than control. However, there were
no consistency patterns of changes in ascorbate peroxidase activity during storage of red
hot chilli in each treatment. The overall quality of red hot chilli was highest in hydro-
cooled chilli kept in shall clam PE box (Taksinamanee at el., 2006)[b].
Physical (weight, firmness) and compositional (sugars, organic acids, ascorbic
acid, phenolic compounds and carotenoids) changes of red sweet peppers (Capsicum
annuum L.) were monitored during 21 days of cold storage (at 7.5 °C); fruits were stored
without packaging, packaged in low density polyethylene bags, after hot water dipping
(53 °C for 4 min) and then packaging. Packaging prevented water loss, and preserved the
firmness of the fresh product. Sugars (fructose and glucose) content was practically
constant throughout the whole storage time, for all treatments. A moderate accumulation
of citric acid was observed during storage, but no marked effects of packaging and hot
water dipping on citric and malic acid content. Ascorbic acid content slightly increased in
unpackaged and packaged fruits, but not in treated+packaged peppers. Hydroxycinnamics
total content seemed not to be affected by cold storage, packaging or hot water treatment,
whereas glycosylated flavonoids showed somewhat lowered levels during storage,
particularly in the case of unpackaged and packaged+treated fruits. Regarding
carotenoids content, the effect of the considered storage conditions seemed to be much

14
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

smaller than that due to ripening stage. Provitamin A content showed an increasing trend
in unpackaged and packaged fruits; packaged+treated peppers were characterized by a
lower retention of provitamin A and a higher level of capsanthin and cucurbitaxanthin A
with respect to not treated fruits. On the whole, packaging and hot water treatment did
not produce noticeable adverse effects on the majority of the examined compositional
quality parameters (Raffo et al., 2006).
Quantitative variations in total solids, ascorbic acid and total pigment content of
fifteen capsicum cultivars grown under field conditions were assessed. A progressive
increase of total solids was found in all cultivars at all stages of fruit maturation and
ripening. A direct relationship was found between ascorbic acid content and capsicum
maturity. Total pigment contents increased between two and seventy fold as the result of
transition from the immature to the fully ripe condition (Rahman et al.,1978).
Bell pepper (C. annuum cv. Mazurka and cv. Evident), at three maturation stages,
were evaluated sensorily on flavor attributes. Green bell peppers scored mainly on the
attributes bitterness, grassy, cucumber, and green bell pepper aroma. Sugars and organic
acids were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and
concentrations of different ions of the acids were calculated from their dissociation
equilibria. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated that HPLC data of
fructose, glucose, total sugar, and dry matter content were related to the attribute
sweetness in the red maturation stage. HPLC concentrations of citric and ascorbic acid, as
well as calculated concentrations of undissociated ascorbic and dissociated citric 1 and
citric 2, showed close relationships with the attribute sourness. Moreover, pH and HPLC
concentrations of malic, oxalic, fumaric, and pyroglutamic acid and calculated contents
of dissociated malic 2, pyroglutamic 1, and oxalic 2 appeared to be negatively related
with sourness (Luning et al., 1994).

PHENOLIC COMPOUNDS
Peppers also contain various phenolics and flavonoids (Materska & Perucka
2005). These compounds served as antioxidants (Harborne & Williams 2000) as well as
performed plant defense mechanism against any extraneous agents (Delgado-Vargas &
Paredes-Lopez 2003) and can reduce harmful oxidation reactions in human body; thus
consumption of peppers may prevent various diseases associated with free radical
oxidation, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, and neurological disorders (Shetty
2004).
A wide variety of phenolic substances derived from spice possess potent
antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic activities. Curcumin, a yellow colouring agent,
contained in turmeric (Curcuma longa L., Zingiberaceae), [6]-gingerol, a pungent
ingredient present in ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae) and capsaicin, a
principal pungent principle of hot chilli pepper (Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae). The
chemopreventive effects exerted by these phytochemicals are often associated with their
antioxidative and anti-inflammatory activities. Cyclo-oxygenase-2 (COX-2) has been
recognized as a molecular target of many chemopreventive as well as anti-inflammatory
agents (Surh, 2002).

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

(Capsicum annuum L., Solanaceae)

(Cucurma longa L., Zingiberaceae)

(Zingibel officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae)

COLOR
Green, yellow, orange, and red bell peppers are commonly available in markets
and green bell pepper is the most produced and consumed one (Frank et al., 2001). The
color of sweet bell peppers is the major factor associated with the consumer purchasing
decisions. Besides color, differences in common nutrient compositions of different
colored peppers have been reported, such as the content of vitamin C (Simonne et al.,
1997; Frank et al., 2001).
The yellow-orange color of peppers is formed by α-and β-carotene, zeaxanthin,
lutein, and β-cryptoxanthin (Howard, 2001). The red color of peppers is due to the
presence of carotenoid pigments of capsanthin, capsorubin and capsanthin 5, 6-epoxide.
The different colors of peppers may be due to different levels of those compounds. As
those compounds have antioxidant function, the different colors of bell peppers may have
different antioxidant activity.

ABIOTIC STRESS TOLERANCE

Abiotic stresses, including drought, high salinity and extreme temperatures,
greatly impair the growth and development of soil plants. Among these abiotic stresses,
drought or water deficit is the most severe environmental factor responsible for the
reduction of crop yield in many parts of the world. A number of genetic and cellular
events that occur under such stress have been widely documented (Zhu, 2002; Bray,
1997).

STRUCTURE OF CAPSAICIN PRESENT IN CHILLIES

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Chemical structure of Capsaicin (trans-8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide).

GENERAL USES
Peppers are eaten raw in salads and salsa, processed by canning, freezing,
pickling, and dehydrated and powdered to produce paprika and chili powder. Unlike the
U.S., most European paprika is mildly pungent. Chili powder prepared at different levels
of pungency is usually comprised of ground, dried, pungent peppers mixed with other
spices, such as oregano, cumin, and garlic. Various pepper forms, usually chili types, are
extensively used in combination with other spices such as turmeric, cumin, and coriander
to produce curry powder, the pungency of which depends on the pepper cultivars used.
For instance, Cayenne powder is a high-pungency condiment produced from dried mature
fruit of cayenne-type cultivars

QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS AND CRITERIA

Good quality sweet bell peppers should be of uniform shape, size and color
typical of the variety. The flesh (pericarp) should be firm, relatively thick with a bright
skin color and sweet flavor, and free from defects such as cracks, decay, and sunburn.
Peppers that are shriveled and dull-looking or pitted should be avoided. The same quality
criteria apply to fresh chili peppers. Dry lines or striations across the skin indicate a hotter
pepper. These lines are not an indication of poor quality.

HORTICULTURAL MATURITY INDICES

Criteria for the maturity of green peppers include fruit size, firmness, and color.
For colored peppers the additional criteria of having a minimum of 50% coloration is
important.
Chilli peppers are harvested by hand. They are generally picked when ripe and
then dried and allowed to equilibrate in moisture content in covered piles. The major
peppers dried are hot red peppers for cayenne and occasionally pimientos for paprika.
The pods may be sliced before drying. This shortens drying time and improves color and
flavor.
Seeds may be removed by screening and water sprays. Whole peppers are also
dried until brittle and the seeds/pulp are completely dry. The dried product is used in
flavoring and improving the appearance of various products, included canned products.
Some sliced peppers are partially dried and mixed with salt for preservation for ultimate
use in various processed products.
The growth and harvest index of 472 accessions (selected for adaptability and
productivity) belonging to 4 types of chilli pepper were evaluated in Colombia. Recently
set fruits with ovaries that still had not passed the apex of the calyx were identified and
harvested twice a week. The physiological and chemical variables of these fruits were
evaluated during unripe, physiological maturity and maturity stages. Fruits from CS-032
(Capsicum annuum) required 46 days to reach maturity, which was higher compared to
other accessions (35-38 days). Most accessions showed non-climatic behaviour, except
fruits from CS-170 (C. baccatum). (Méndez et al., 2004).

GRADES, SIZES AND PACKAGING

Grades for fresh sweet bell peppers include U.S. Fancy, U.S. No.1 and U.S. No. 2.

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Not all sweet peppers are graded; ungraded peppers are “unclassified.” Differences
between grades are based primarily on external appearance. Sizes include Small,
Medium, Large, and Extra Large/Jumbo. Cardboard boxes commonly hold 6.8 to 15.9 kg
(15 to 35 lb) of randomly packed peppers. Very high quality peppers are often marketed
in 5 kg (11 lb) flat cartons with one or two layers of fruit. There are no U.S. grades for
chili peppers.

OPTIMUM STORAGE CONDITIONS

Fresh peppers can be kept for 2 to 3 weeks at 7 °C with 90 to 95% RH. Storage-
life can be extended another week by packaging in moisture-retentive films at 7 to 10 °C.
Peppers are subject to chilling injury when stored below 7 °C and to accelerated ripening
and bacterial soft rot when stored above 13 °C. Storage at 5 °C reduces water loss and
ripening, but after 2 weeks chilling injury will appear. Some pepper cultivars can be
sensitive to chilling if stored at 7 °C, so a good storage temperature range should be 7 °C
to 13 °C.
CURRENT TREND IN FOOD
During the past decade, it has been reported that the consumption of certain foods
may have a positive effect on an individual’s health. Foodstuffs supply not only energy,
essential amino acids, fiber, vitamins, and minerals but also some active compounds such
as antioxidants (tocopherols, carotenoids, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, etc.) that may
have different beneficial functions in the body.
Dietary components, which are capable of acting as antioxidants, are likely to be
beneficial by augmenting cellular defenses and protecting the cell against damage caused
by free radicals, by acting as radical scavengers, reducing agents, potential complexes of
prooxidant metals, and quenchers of singlet oxygen formation (Doblado et al., 2005;
Oboh, 2005, 2006).
Genotoxicity studies evaluating capsaicin effects are sparse and contradictory.
While some studies demonstrated a marked mutagenic and genotoxic activity of the
compound in the presence or absence of an external metabolic activation system, others
failed to provide evidence for its genotoxic potential (Surh & Lee, 1996).
Carcinogenicity studies in mice demonstrated that capsaicin can induce duodenal
adenocarcinomas (Toth, Rogan & Walker, 1994; Toth, Rogan, Walker, 2002) and act as a
promoter of stomach and liver tumors (Agrawal et al., 1986). Conversely, other studies
pointed out for antimutagenic, antigenotoxic and anticarcinogenic proprieties of capsaicin
(reviewed in (Surh & Lee, 1996; Surah, 1999).
Epidemiological studies have yielded contradictory results for the association of
chilli pepper consumption and cancer. A Mexican case-control study from found that
chilli pepper is a strong risk factor for gastric cancer. Chilli pepper consumers were at
5.5-fold greater risk for gastric cancer than non-consumers and persons who rated
themselves as heavy consumers of chilli were at 17-fold greater risk (López-Carrillo et al.
1994).
An earlier study carried out in Italy, however, revealed a protective effect of chilli
on the relative risk of gastric cancer (Buiatti et al., 1989).

CURRENT STUATUS IN PAKSITAN

In Pakistan its cultivation is on an area of 38.4 thousand hectares with 90.4 thousand

18
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

tones of production (Govt. of Pakistan, 2005), mainly grown in Sindh as a major kharif
crop. Its production not only fulfils 88 percent of the country’s requirement but also helps
in earning foreign exchange. Pakistan earned 3.2 million dollar during 2004-05 by
exporting red chillies to Middle East, USA and other European countries (Govt. of
Pakistan, 2004-05). The Pakistan export of chillies had been due to detection of aflatoxin
in red powder by the Portuguese food authorities (Russel and Peterson, 2007). Due to this
threat hot pepper international trade market for Pakistan is badly vectored and even the
price of hot pepper due to rejection of consignments of Pakistani hot pepper price is very
much contradictory. Chillies production in Pakistan has been decreased 49.6% (Govt. of
Pakistan, 2006) due to several types of biotic and abiotic stresses.

Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CA-Storage)

CA atmospheres containing 2-5% [O2] + 2-10% [CO2] slightly extend storage life.
Less than 2% [O2] causes low [O2] damage, and more than 2-10% [CO2] eventually
causes calyx discoloration (Hatton el al., 1975; Dilley, 1978; Leshuk and Saltveit, 1990).

Behavior of Pepper in Different Packaging Materials

The storage of peppers is improving by treatments that restrict water loss,
including pre-packaging in perforated polyethylene, MA packaging and waxing (Hughes
el al., 1981; Hardenburg et al., 1986).

Ali and Keith (1998) performed an experiment on packaging system was used to
compare the atmospheric composition within sealed packs containing tomato fruits. The
films used were 20 micron (PE20) and 50 micron (PE50) polyethylene, 10 micron
polyvinylcholoride (PVC) or 25 micron polypropylene (PP) compared with unwrapped
fruit as a control. Sealed packaging, especially using with PE50 and PP films, delayed the
development of the red color of tomatoes until 30 days of storage and those tomatoes
were also still very firm even after 60 days of storage. Tomatoes sealed within PE50 and
PP films had also the lowest weight loss and the highest soluble solids after 60 days of
storage.

Waxing on Fresh Peppers

Non-waxed peppers were stored at 7.2 °C either in NA or in LP at pressure at 6.7,
10.7or 16.0 kPa 50, 80 or 120 mm Hg (Burg, 1970). Peppers began to deteriorate after 16
days in NA were in poor condition by 21 days. Those kept at a pressure of 12.7 kPa (80
mm Hg) were still in excellent conditions after 28 days, while at 6.7 and 16.0 kPa (50 and
120 mm Hg) they were only in fair condition. Peppers were marketable with excellent
taste and quality after 46 days’ LP storage at 12.7 kPa (80 mm Hg), except for a trace of
mould, which appeared on stem ends. Storage was limited by decay. A chlorine rinse
prior to storage reduced the incidence of decay, and a Benlate dip was effective for up to
7 weeks during LP storage.

Low Pressure Storage (LP-Storage)

Storage of peppers in NA and in LP at a pressure of 10 kPa (75 mm Hg) was
compared during a 23 days test at 10-12 °C. The peppers remained firmer and greener in

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

LP with slightly higher ascorbic acid contents and significantly lower ethylene production
(Bangerth, 1973).LP storage was limited by decay. Respiration was reduced by as much
as 67-75% at a low pressure (Bangerth, 1974). NA storage was compared to LP at lower
pressure, 2.0, 5.3 and 10.7 Kpa (20, 40 and 80 mm Hg), in laboratory tests run by
Grumman Allied Industries. Some of the peppers stored in NA were pre-treated with
chlorine and/ or Benlate; the remainder and all peppers stored in LP were untreated and
unwaxed. After 50 days, the percentage of saleable peppers was 80-87% at 5.3-10.7 kPa
(40-80 mm Hg), respectively; 47% at 2 kPa (15 mm Hg); and none in NA regardless of
the pre-treatment (Jamieson, 1980). The storage temperature was not specified. Excellent
results with peppers stored at 10.13 kPa (76 mm Hg) were reported by Staby (1976a).
Hughes et al. (1981) reported that no benefit resulted when pepper cultivar
‘Bellboy’ was stored at 8.8 °C in CA at 2% [O2] supplemented with 0, 3, 6 or 9% [CO2],
or in LP at 20.3, 10.1 and 5.1 kPa 9152, 76 and 38 mm Hg).

Normal Atmosphere Storage (NA-Storage)

At atmospheric pressure, film wrapping reduced wastage, mainly due to less
water loss, while storage in 2% [O2] + 6% [CO2] resulted in a significant increase in
decay during subsequent shelf life at 20 °C. Weight loss in LP was at least five times
higher per day compared to NA, and 7-10 times greater than that needed to remove
respiratory heat by evaporative cooling indicated that the humidity was not properly
maintained in this LP study.
Ramandeep and Geoffrey, (2006) studied that nutritional implication of storage on
tomatoes. The harvested tomatoes were stored at 7, 15 and 25 °C for a period of 10 days.
The soluble phenolics and ascorbic acid contents of tomatoes showed slight increases
during storage, regardless of temperature. The mean lycopene content of tomatoes stored
at 15 and 25 °C on the 10th day of storage was, approximately, 2-fold (7.5 mg/ 100 g)
than of the tomatoes stored at 7 °C (3.2 mg/100 g). The soluble antioxidant activity
increased from 17–27 % during the storage period of tomatoes.

Storage Diseases of Peppers

The main storage disease of peppers are alternaria rot (A. tenuis), anthracnose (C.
gloeosporioides), bacterial soft rot (E. carotovora), Cladosporium rot (C. herbarum), grey
mould rot (B. cinerea), bacterial spot (X. versicatoria), phoma rot (Phoma destructor),
sunken spot (Vermicularia capsici) and rhizopus rot (Rhizopus stolonifer) (McColloch et
al., 1966; Ryall and Lipton, 1972; Eckert et al., 1975; Hardenburg et al., 1986).
There are no data for X. vesicatoria and V. capsici, but provided that CO 2 is
absent, the growth of other organism is suppressed by the [O 2] present in 7-13 °C water-
saturated air at pressure of 2.0-2.7 kPa (15-20 mm Hg).
This low pressure range should be tested at non-chilling temperature as high as
12-13 0C to determine if decay in peppers can be controlled without causing low-[O2] or
low-temperature injury. Peppers tolerated a 2-day exposure to a pressure of 2.67 kPa (20
mm Hg) at 10 0C with no adverse effects (S.P. Burg, 2004), but longer exposure periods
and higher temperatures have not yet been tested.

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Physiological Disorders of Peppers

Maturity Indices
Harvesting
Grading and Sorting
Blanching
Surface Sterilization
Packing
Transportation
Storing
Ethylene Biosynthesis
Ethylene controlling

Scientific Name and Introduction: Pepper (Capsicum Annul, L), also called bell pepper,
chili, chilies, aji, pimiento, paprika, and capsicum is a warm-season crop that is a member
of the Solanaceae family. Sweet bell peppers are green at the immature stage (when most
are sold) and turn red, gold, purple, orange, and/or brown as they ripen. Because sugar
content increases as they ripen, colored peppers tend to be sweeter than green peppers.
The most notable feature of peppers is flavor, which can be sweet, mild or strongly
pungent. Sweet bell peppers are available year-round, with California Wonder being the
most common cultivar.
Chili peppers occur in a number of varieties that vary greatly from mild to very hot,
which is determined by capsaicin content. These include: Ancho, anaheim, cayenne,
cherry hot pepper, cheese, fresno (red and green), habanero (red, green and orange),
jalapeno, poblano, serrano (green and red), yellow, chiltepin, cuban, long wax, new
mexican, tabasco, thai, etc. Some chili peppers are dried and sold individually or tied
together in ornamental arrangements.
Peppers are eaten raw in salads and salsa, processed by canning, freezing, pickling,
and dehydrated and powdered to produce paprika and chili powder. Unlike the U.S., most
European paprika is mildly pungent. Chili powder prepared at different levels of
pungency is usually comprised of ground, dried, pungent peppers mixed with other
spices, such as oregano, cumin, and garlic. Various pepper forms, usually chili types, are
extensively used in combination with other spices such as turmeric, cumin, and coriander
to produce curry powder, the pungency of which depends on the pepper cultivars used.
For instance, Cayenne powder is a high-pungency condiment produced from dried mature
fruit of cayenne-type cultivars
Quality Characteristics and Criteria: Good quality sweet bell peppers should be of
uniform shape, size and color typical of the variety. The flesh (pericarp) should be firm,
relatively thick with a bright skin color and sweet flavor, and free from defects such as
cracks, decay, and sunburn. Peppers that are shriveled and dull-looking or pitted should
be avoided. The same quality criteria apply to fresh chili peppers. Dry lines or striations
across the skin indicate a hotter pepper. These lines are not an indication of poor quality.
Horticultural Maturity Indices: Criteria for the maturity of green peppers include fruit
size, firmness, and color. For colored peppers the additional criteria of having a minimum
of 50% coloration is important.
Chili peppers are harvested by hand. They are generally picked when ripe and then
dried and allowed to equilibrate in moisture content in covered piles. The major peppers

21
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

dried are hot red peppers for cayenne and occasionally pimientos for paprika. The pods
may be sliced before drying. This shortens drying time and improves color and flavor.
Seeds may be removed by screening and water sprays. Whole peppers are also dried until
brittle and the seeds/pulp are completely dry. The dried product is used in flavoring and
improving the appearance of various products, included canned products. Some sliced
peppers are partially dried and mixed with salt for preservation for ultimate use in various
processed products.
Grades, Sizes and Packaging: Grades for fresh peppers include U.S. Fancy, U.S.
No.1 and U.S. No. 2. Not all sweet peppers are graded; ungraded peppers are
“unclassified.” Differences between grades are based primarily on external appearance.
Sizes include Small, Medium, Large, and Extra Large/Jumbo. Cardboard boxes
commonly hold 6.8 to 15.9 kg (15 to 35 lb) of randomly packed peppers. Very high
quality peppers are often marketed in 5 kg (11 lb) flat cartons with one or two layers of
fruit. There are no U.S. grades for chili peppers.
Pre-cooling Conditions: After harvest, fresh market peppers should be rapidly cooled to
no lower than 7 °C (45 °F) at high RH to reduce water loss and shrivel. Pre-cooling can
be done using forced-air, hydro-cooling or vacuum-cooling. Properly vented cartons are
required to facilitate forced-air cooling. If hydro-cooling is used, care should be taken to
prevent development of decay. High RH is necessary to avoid desiccation. Waxing has
been used to reduce desiccation, but it tends to increase bacterial soft rot. Shelf-life varies
among different pod types. Deterioration is often due to moisture loss, with some pod
types more prone to desiccation than others.
Optimum Storage Conditions: Fresh peppers can be kept for 2 to 3 weeks at 7 °C (45
°F) with 90 to 95% RH. Storage-life can be extended another week by packaging in
moisture-retentive films at 7 to 10 °C (45 to 50 °F). Peppers are subject to chilling injury
when stored below 7 °C (45 °F) and to accelerated ripening and bacterial soft rot when
stored above 13 °C (55 °F). Storage at 5 °C (41 °F) reduces water loss and ripening, but
after 2 weeks chilling injury will appear. Some pepper cultivars can be sensitive to
chilling if stored at 7 °C (45 °F), so a good storage temperature range should be 7 °C (45
°F) to 13 °C (55 °F).
Controlled Atmospheres (CA) Considerations: Peppers derive a slight benefit from CA
storage (Saltveit, 1997). Low O2 atmospheres (2 to 5% for bell and 3 to 5% for chili)
retard ripening and respiration during transit and storage, and have a slight benefit on
quality. At 10 °C (50 °F), high CO2 (> 5%) can cause calyx discoloration, skin pitting,
discoloration and softening in both bell and chili peppers. A 3% O 2 + 5% CO2 atmosphere
is more beneficial for red than green peppers stored at 5 to 10 °C (41 to 50 °F) for 3 to 4
weeks. Before processing, chili peppers can be stored under 3 to 5% O2 + 15 to 20% CO2
for up to 3 weeks at 5 °C (41 °F) without appreciable chilling injury or quality loss.
Freshly harvested chili or other hot peppers should be stored under the same temperature
and RH conditions as sweet peppers.
Chilling Sensitivity: Peppers are sensitive to chilling injury when stored below 7 °C (45
°F). Symptoms include surface pitting, water-soaked areas, decay (especially Alternaria)
and discoloration of the seed cavity. Symptoms can appear after a few days at 0 °C (32
°F) or a few weeks at 5 °C (34 °F). Sensitivity varies with cultivar; ripe or colored
peppers are less chilling sensitive than green peppers.

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CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

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