Friends and Foes: Bacteria of the Hydroponic Plant Microbiome
Optimizing Brassica oleracea L. Breeding Through Somatic Hybridization Using Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS) Lines: From Protoplast Isolation to Plantlet Regeneration
Physiological Effects and Mechanisms of Chlorella vulgaris as a Biostimulant on the Growth and Drought Tolerance of Arabidopsis thaliana
Are Cactus Spines Modified Leaves? Morphological and Anatomical Characterization of Saguaro Seedlings (Carnegiea gigantea) with Special Focus on Aerial Organ Primordia
Vanilla planifolia: Artificial and Insect Pollination, Floral Guides and Volatiles

Journal Description

Plants

Plants is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on plant science published semimonthly online by MDPI. The Australian Society of Plant Scientists (ASPS), the Spanish Phytopathological Society (SEF), the Spanish Society of Plant Biology (SEBP), the Spanish Society of Horticultural Sciences (SECH) and the Italian Society of Phytotherapy (S.I.Fit.) are affiliated with Plants and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), PubMed, PMC, PubAg, AGRIS, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Plant Sciences) / CiteScore - Q1 (Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics)
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 18.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.4 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2024).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 4.0 (2023); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.4 (2023)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2223-7747

Latest Articles

18 pages, 2608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Divergent Photosynthetic Strategies of Lupinus polyphyllus and Helleborus viridis During Cold Acclimation and Freezing–Thaw Recovery

by Pengyuan Xie, Yining Zhao, Xin Zhao, Linbo Xu, Kai Wang, Ruidong Jia, Yaping Kou, Hong Ge, Wenjun Wang and Shuhua Yang

Plants 2025, 14(4), 607; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040607 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Low temperatures can significantly affect the growth of ornamental plants, emphasizing the importance of improving their cold tolerance. However, comparative studies on the photosynthetic responses of sun and shade plants to low temperatures remain limited. In this study, gas exchange, chlorophyll fluorescence in Photosystem II (PSII) and Photosystem I (PSI), the antioxidant system, the osmoregulator substance, and lipid peroxidation were investigated in the shade plant Helleborus viridis (Hv) and the sun plant Lupinus polyphyllus (Lp) during cold acclimation (CA) and the freezing–thaw recovery (FTR). The CA treatment significantly declined the net photosynthetic rate (Pn) and the maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm) in Hv and Lp, indicating the photoinhibition occurred in both species. However, Hv exhibited a much better photosynthetic stability to maintain Pn, Fv/Fm, and carboxylation efficiency (CE) than Lp during CA, suggesting that Hv had a greater photosynthetic resilience compared to Lp. Furthermore, Hv preferred to maintain Pn, Fv/Fm, the actual photosynthetic efficiency of PSII (Y(II)), and the actual photosynthetic efficiency of PSI (Y(I)) to consistently provide the necessary energy for the carbon assimilation process, while Lp tended to divert and dissipate excess energy by thermal dissipation and cyclic electron flow during CA. Moreover, there were higher soluble sugar contents in Hv in comparison to Lp. These traits allowed Hv to recover photosynthetic efficiency and maintain cellular integrity better than Lp after the freezing stress. In conclusion, CA significantly reduced the photosynthetic capacity and led to the divergent photosynthetic strategies of both species, which finally resulted in a different freezing tolerance after the freezing–thaw recovery. These findings provide insights into the divergent photoprotective strategies of sun and shade plants in response to cold temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Basis and Physiological Responses of Horticultural Plants and Crops to Abiotic Stresses)

20 pages, 2582 KiB

Open AccessReview

Recent Advances in Transcriptome Analysis Within the Realm of Low Arsenic Rice Breeding

by Guanrong Huang, Guoping Yu, Huijuan Li, Haipeng Yu, Zengying Huang, Lu Tang, Pengfei Yang, Zhengzheng Zhong, Guocheng Hu, Peng Zhang and Hanhua Tong

Plants 2025, 14(4), 606; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040606 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Arsenic (As), a toxic element, is widely distributed in soil and irrigation water. Rice (Oryza sativa L.), the staple food in Southern China, exhibits a greater propensity for As uptake compared to other crops. Arsenic pollution in paddy fields not only impairs rice growth but also poses a serious threat to food security and human health. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanism underlying the response to As toxicity has not been completely revealed until now. Transcriptome analysis represents a powerful tool for revealing the mechanisms conferring phenotype formation and is widely employed in crop breeding. Consequently, this review focuses on the recent advances in transcriptome analysis within the realm of low As breeding in rice. It particularly highlights the applications of transcriptome analysis in identifying genes responsive to As toxicity, revealing gene interaction regulatory modules and analyzing secondary metabolite biosynthesis pathways. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms underlying rice As tolerance are updated, and the recent outcomes in low As breeding are summarized. Finally, the challenges associated with applying transcriptome analysis to low-As breeding are deliberated upon, and future research directions are envisioned, with the aim of providing references to expedite high-yield and low-arsenic breeding in rice. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Genetic Mechanisms of Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Crops, Third Edition)

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16 pages, 861 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Synthetic Review of Feedbacks and Drivers of Shrub–Grass Interaction in the Process of Grassland Shrub Encroachment

by Huiyang Hou, Haoran Yan, Xue Bai, Yuzhen Zhang, Yanjun Guo, Jianwei Zhou and Shaobo Gao

Plants 2025, 14(4), 605; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040605 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Many grasslands around the world are affected by shrub encroachment. The essence of shrub encroachment into a grassland habitat is a change in the direction and intensity of shrub–grass interactions, which leads to an alteration in the grassland community structure. Recent research progress can be summarized as encompassing the primary factors influencing shrub encroachment and the physical, biological, and chemical ways through which they affect grassland community succession and shrub–grass interactions. The purpose of this study was to explore how shrub–grass interactions and relationships change under the influence of various environmental factors and their impact on grassland communities to provide a theoretical basis for grassland restoration and the management of shrubs within grassland from the perspective of shrub–grass interaction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Management of Invasive Plants—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 11115 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ATP Synthase Members of Chloroplasts and Mitochondria in Rubber Trees (Hevea brasiliensis) Response to Plant Hormones

by Bingbing Guo, Songle Fan, Mingyang Liu, Hong Yang, Longjun Dai and Lifeng Wang

Plants 2025, 14(4), 604; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040604 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

ATP synthase is a key enzyme in photophosphorylation in photosynthesis and oxidative phosphorylation in respiration, which can catalyze the synthesis of ATP and supply energy to organisms. ATP synthase has been well studied in many animal species but has been poorly characterized in plants. This research identified forty ATP synthase family members in the rubber tree, and the phylogenetic relationship, gene structure, cis-elements, and expression pattern were analyzed. These results indicated that the ATP synthase of mitochondria was divided into three subgroups and the ATP synthase of chloroplast was divided into two subgroups, respectively. ATP synthase in the same subgroup shared a similar gene structure. Evolutionary relationships were consistent with the introns and exons domains, which were highly conserved patterns. A large number of cis elements related to light, phytohormones and stress resistance were present in the promoters of ATP synthase genes in rubber trees, of which the light signal accounts for the most. Transcriptome and qRT-PCR analysis showed that HbATP synthases responded to cold stress and hormone stimulation, and the response to ethylene was most significant. HbMATPR3 was strongly induced by ethylene and salicylic acid, reaching 122-fold and 17-fold, respectively. HbMATP7-1 was 41 times higher than the control after induction by jasmonic acid. These results laid a foundation for further studies on the function of ATP synthase, especially in plant hormone signaling in rubber trees. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Genetics, Genomics and Biotechnology)

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18 pages, 2658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reaction Mechanism of Aluminum Toxicity on Leaf Growth of Shatian Pomelo Seedlings

by Dan Tan, Jingfu Yan, Yali Yang, Shaoxia Yang, Lubin Zhang, Yingbin Xue and Ying Liu

Plants 2025, 14(4), 603; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040603 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

This study aimed to examine the effects of aluminum (Al) stress on the leaves of Shatian pomelo (Citrus maxima “Shatian Yu”) and its underlying response mechanisms. Leaf phenotype analysis, physiological response index determination, transcriptome analysis, and genome verification were employed to investigate the effects of Al toxicity in detail. Al toxicity stress inhibited leaf growth and development, reducing leaf area, girth, and both dry and fresh weights. Antioxidant enzyme activity and soluble protein content in leaves significantly increased with rising Al stress levels. Additionally, Al toxicity caused an accumulation of Al ions in leaves and a decline in boron, magnesium, calcium, manganese, and iron ion content. RNA sequencing identified 4868 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) under 0 mM (Control) and 4 mM (Al stress) conditions, with 1994 genes upregulated and 2874 downregulated, indicating a complex molecular regulatory response. These findings were further validated by real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). The results provide critical insights into the molecular mechanisms of Shatian pomelo leaf response to Al toxicity and offer a theoretical basis and practical guidance for improving citrus productivity in acidic soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms of Plant Tolerance to Environmental Stresses)

18 pages, 607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Amnat Charoen Healers in Thailand and Their Medicinal Plants

by Auemporn Junsongduang, Surapon Saensouk and Henrik Balslev

Plants 2025, 14(4), 602; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040602 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Medicinal plants remain vital in the Phu Tai community in Amnat Charoen in Thailand. Traditional healers’ knowledge is largely undocumented in the literature. Our objective was to document their medicinal plant practices to preserve this valuable knowledge. Our informants were 15 Phu Tai healers. We calculated use values (UV), family importance values (FIV), and informant agreement ratios (IAR) to gauge the significance of the 211 medicinal plants used by the healers. The most important plant families were Fabaceae and Zingiberaceae (FIV = 93). Kha min (Curcuma longa) was the most important medicinal species (UV = 0.66). The decoction was the most common preparation method (85%). Skin/subcutaneous cellular tissue disorders had the highest informant agreement ratio (IAR = 0.73). Shrubs were the most common life form (36%) among the medicinal plants; the majority were collected from community forests (51%) and were native to Thailand (86%). The most frequently used plant part for medicine was the leaf (27%). Medicinal plants that can be purchased were Ueang mai na (Hellenia speciosa), Thep tharo (Cinnamomum parthenoxylon), and Som khon (Talinum paniculatum). Interestingly, monks served as traditional healers. The healer’s age and education were not correlated with the number of medicinal plants they knew. The Amnat Charoen healers possess a rich traditional knowledge of medicinal plants. The information reported here is invaluable for further research in the field of cross-cultural ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genetic Resources and Ethnobotany in Aromatic and Medicinal Plants)

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20 pages, 697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phytochemical Analysis and Allelopathic Potential of an Aggressive Encroacher Shrub, Euryops floribundus (Asteraceae)

by Masibonge Gxasheka, Zukile Mbita, Kagiso Laka, Mthunzi Mndela and Phesheya Dlamini

Plants 2025, 14(4), 601; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040601 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Euryops floribundus is an encroaching shrub species that poses a threat to grassland diversity and productivity in the Eastern Cape region of South Africa. This shrub inhibits understory herbaceous plant recruitment and establishment, thereby exposing soils to erosion, owing potentially to toxins it secretes. However, the allelochemicals of E. floribundus and their potential effects on the germination and establishment of plants remains poorly understood. We investigated the phytochemical classes of leaves and twigs of E. floribundus and evaluated the effects of extracts from these plant parts on seed germination and seedling growth of Lactuca sativa through a laboratory experiment. In the laboratory, we analysed phytochemicals in leaf and twig extracts and tested their allelopathic effects on Lactuca sativa seed germination and growth using the Petri dish method. In this proof-of-concept study, we identified 12 phytochemical classes of E. floribundus. Quantitative analysis showed that the leaves had significantly higher levels of flavonoids, phenolics, and tannins than twigs. As a result, leaf extracts caused 100% inhibition of seed germination, while twig extracts inhibited seed germination by 90% at 50 g L⁻¹. Both leaf and twig extracts also significantly reduced radicle and plumule growth, with a stronger effect observed from the leaves than twigs. This study provides new insights into the phytochemical composition and strong allelopathic potential of E. floribundus, contributing to a better understanding of the mechanisms driving its encroachment in semi-arid grasslands. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)

14 pages, 1972 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New Method for Enhancing Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Embryo Dehydration: An Important Step Towards Proficient Cryopreservation

by Amirhossein Bazrafshan, Sisunandar Sudarma, Sundaravelpandian Kalaipandian, Julianne M. Biddle, Zhihua Mu, Eveline Yee Yan Kong, Naga Prafulla Chandrika Nulu and Steve W. Adkins

Plants 2025, 14(4), 600; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040600 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

The coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), a valuable tropical crop, is rapidly declining in genetic diversity due to natural disasters, pest and disease attack, and land clearing for other crops. Seed banking is impractical for coconut conservation due to its large, recalcitrant seed, and maintaining field gene bank collections is costly and vulnerable to environmental pressures. Cryopreservation offers a promising alternative method for conserving coconut genetic diversity, but the success in recovering cryopreserved materials remains limited, with few studies consistently reporting high rates of recovery. This highlights the need for improved cryopreservation protocols, particularly in tissue dehydration, which is one of the critical steps in the process of cryopreservation and plant recovery. A desiccator was developed that enabled rapid embryo dehydration with ultra-dry airflow. The desiccator reduced embryo moisture content to 20% (the predetermined viability threshold) within 6 h representing a 2-h improvement when compared to a previous dehydration approach, while maintaining a high germination rate (71%). Smaller embryos (500 to 550 mg fresh weight) desiccated faster than larger embryos (800 to 900 mg fresh weight) but germination was reduced (30%), making small embryos unsuitable for cryopreservation. A 5-day sucrose (0.4 M) pre-treatment further reduced the dehydration time to 4 h, while maintaining a high germination rate (70%). These advances in the use of a sucrose pre-treatment, the rapid embryo dehydration, and selection of large embryos size will help to enhance the success of coconut embryo cryopreservation and recovery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Tissue Culture and Plant Regeneration)

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15 pages, 4391 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Detection of Apple Leaf Diseases Based on LightYOLO-AppleLeafDx

by Hongyan Zou, Peng Lv and Maocheng Zhao

Plants 2025, 14(4), 599; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040599 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Early detection of apple leaf diseases is essential for enhancing orchard management efficiency and crop yield. This study introduces LightYOLO-AppleLeafDx, a lightweight detection framework based on an improved YOLOv8 model. Key enhancements include the incorporation of Slim-Neck, SPD-Conv, and SAHead modules, which optimize the model’s structure to improve detection accuracy and recall while significantly reducing the number of parameters and computational complexity. Ablation studies validate the positive impact of these modules on model performance. The final LightYOLO-AppleLeafDx achieves a precision of 0.930, [email protected] of 0.965, and [email protected]:0.95 of 0.587, surpassing the original YOLOv8n and other benchmark models. The model is highly lightweight, with a size of only 5.2 MB, and supports real-time detection at 107.2 frames per second. When deployed on an RV1103 hardware platform via an NPU-compatible framework, it maintains a detection speed of 14.8 frames per second, demonstrating practical applicability. These results highlight the potential of LightYOLO-AppleLeafDx as an efficient and lightweight solution for precision agriculture, addressing the need for accurate and real-time apple leaf disease detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Modeling)

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21 pages, 967 KiB

Open AccessReview

Brassinosteroids in Micronutrient Homeostasis: Mechanisms and Implications for Plant Nutrition and Stress Resilience

by Laiba Usmani, Adiba Shakil, Iram Khan, Tanzila Alvi, Surjit Singh and Debatosh Das

Plants 2025, 14(4), 598; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040598 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Brassinosteroids (BRs) are crucial plant hormones that play a significant role in regulating various physiological processes, including micronutrient homeostasis. This review delves into the complex roles of BRs in the uptake, distribution, and utilization of essential micronutrients such as iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), and boron (B). BRs influence the expression of key transporter genes responsible for the absorption and internal distribution of these micronutrients. For iron, BRs enhance the expression of genes related to iron reduction and transport, improve root architecture, and strengthen stress tolerance mechanisms. Regarding zinc, BRs regulate the expression of zinc transporters and support root development, thereby optimizing zinc uptake. Manganese homeostasis is managed through the BR-mediated regulation of manganese transporter genes and chlorophyll production, essential for photosynthesis. For copper, BRs influence the expression of copper transporters and maintain copper-dependent enzyme activities crucial for metabolic functions. Finally, BRs contribute to boron homeostasis by regulating its metabolism, which is vital for cell wall integrity and overall plant development. This review synthesizes recent findings on the mechanistic pathways through which BRs affect micronutrient homeostasis and discusses their implications for enhancing plant nutrition and stress resilience. Understanding these interactions offers valuable insights into strategies for improving micronutrient efficiency in crops, which is essential for sustainable agriculture. This comprehensive analysis highlights the significance of BRs in micronutrient management and provides a framework for future research aimed at optimizing nutrient use and boosting plant productivity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Brassinosteroids: Signaling and Role in Plant Responses to Biotic and Abiotic Stresses)

14 pages, 7420 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nitrogen Addition on Leaf Functional Traits of Dominant Species in Bayanbulak Grassland, Xinjiang, China

by Xiaoyu Ding, Junjie Liu, Yao Wang, Juan Wang, Chao Liu, Mengtian Qin, Yujiao Xu, Yonggang Ma, Jianjun Yang and Zhonglin Xu

Plants 2025, 14(4), 597; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040597 - 17 Feb 2025

Abstract

Nitrogen inputs exert significant impacts on plant species composition and ecosystem stability within alpine grasslands. The exploration of leaf functional traits holds great potential in uncovering plants’ adaptive strategies and competitive edges, and is pivotal in comprehending the ramifications of nitrogen inputs on biodiversity. In this study, the Bayanbulak grassland was selected as the research subject to investigate the impact of nitrogen addition on leaf functional traits of different plant functional groups. Specifically, various gradients of nitrogen addition were established to observe changes in leaf dry matter content (LDMC) and leaf area (LA) among three distinct plant functional groups. Furthermore, structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to analyze the pathways through which nitrogen addition influenced the LDMC of these plant functional groups. The results were as follows: (1) LA and leaf length (LL) of Poaceae changed significantly (p < 0.05) under different N addition gradients, and leaf nutrient contents of Poaceae, Rosaceae and Fabaceae showed significant changes under different N addition gradients. (2) Pearson correlation analyses showed that total nitrogen (TN), total carbon (TOC) and leaf width (LW) of Rosaceae leaves had a significant positive correlation, and the TOC and total phosphorus (TP) of Fabaceae leaves showed a significant negative correlation. (3) SEM of the three plant functional groups showed direct and indirect effects of N addition on leaf dry matter content of Poaceae and Rosaceae, and only indirect effects on Fabaceae. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant Ecology)

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Abstract

Sexual dimorphism in dioecious plants serves as a critical adaptive strategy in complex environments. This study systematically investigated the effects of topographic factors (elevation, slope, aspect, and convexity), soil nutrients (C, N, P), and interspecific competition intensity on the reproductive strategies and vegetative growth of the clonal dioecious plant, Acer barbinerve. Using Spearman’s correlation analysis, multiple regression models, and PLS-PM path models, key findings include the following: (1) female sexual reproduction biomass showed a significant positive correlation with the topography principal component (topo_PC1), with a notable gender–topography interaction, whereas male sexual reproduction was negatively regulated by elevation; (2) clonal reproduction in both sexes was significantly suppressed by interspecific competition, but females additionally exhibited positive topographic responses; and (3) male vegetative growth was significantly impacted by environmental stress, while females maintained relative stability. These results demonstrate that females optimize reproductive investment through topography-mediated resource acquisition, whereas males are more susceptible to resource competition constraints. This sex-specific adaptive strategy corroborates the dimorphic niche hypothesis, highlighting how environmental heterogeneity drives divergent life history allocations in dioecious species. The findings provide novel insights into the ecological mechanisms underlying sexual dimorphism and inform gender ratio management in ecological restoration practices. Full article

20 pages, 4364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Combining Physiology and Transcriptome to Reveal Mechanisms of Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ in Response to Alkali Stress

by Xiaogang Sun, Chunyao Zhu, Baizhou Li, Wei Ning and Jiahui Yin

Plants 2025, 14(4), 593; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14040593 - 15 Feb 2025

Abstract

As an ornamentally and medicinally worthy plant, Hosta plantaginea (Lam.) Aschers. has the adapted capacity to survive cold temperate monsoon climates in Northeastern China. However, its use is limited by the soil alkalization of urban gardens. Our pre-experiment found that Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ has the potential to be alkali-tolerant. Hence, tissue-cultured seedlings of Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ were used as experimental material. Its related growth, physiology, and transcripts were examined to reveal the molecular mechanism of Hosta plantaginea in response to alkali stress. The results show that the development of Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ was affected by alkali stress. In comparison with the control, malondialdehyde (MDA) content increased by 4.28-fold at the 24th hour, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity increased by 49% at the 6th hour, and peroxidase (POD) activity and soluble sugar (SS) content increased by 67% and 30% at the 12th hour, respectively. The RNA-seq analysis revealed that Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ gene expressions at 0 h, 6 h, 12 h, 21 h and 48 h differed after 200 mmol/L NaHCO₃ treatment. During 48 h under alkali stress, 2366 differentially expressed genes were found. The transcription factors MYB, AP2/ERF, and WRKY were activated in differentially expressed genes. The KEGG analysis found that phytohormone signaling pathways, starch and sucrose metabolism, and phenylpropane production were activated in Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ in response to alkali stress. In summary, Hosta ‘Golden Cadet’ can reduce membrane damage by improving osmoregulation and antioxidant capacity, increase sucrose and starch metabolism, and regulate phenylpropane biosynthesis by activating transcription factors and inducing related phytohormone signaling, mitigating the effects of alkali toxicity. These findings guide an investigation into the mechanism of alkali tolerance in Hosta plants, screening alkali tolerance genes, and selecting and breeding novel alkali-tolerant Hosta plantaginea cultivars. Full article

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