Education in Nigeria: Reflections and Global Perspectives

Copyright © 2023 by Daniel A. Nomishan.

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Rev. date: 05/25/2023

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

Foreword

Chapter 1      Student Diversity and Learning

Chapter 2      Choosing Teaching as a Profession

Chapter 3      Education Reform and School Curriculum in Nigeria

Chapter 4      Teaching Effectiveness

Chapter 5      Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education

Chapter 6      Resource and Classroom Management

Chapter 7      Education of Students with Special Needs

Chapter 8      Organizing The Classroom and Planning to Teach

Chapter 9      Professional Development and Teacher Input

Chapter 10    Educational Administration and Leadership

Chapter 11    Assessment of Instruction and of Learning

Chapter 12    Toward More Effective Schools and Teaching

Glossary

References

About the Author

PREFACE

T he second edition of, Education in Nigeria: Reflections and Global Perspectives , provides a broad overview of education in Nigeria. It also recognizes the vital role education plays in the development of Nigeria and has attempted to air the concerns and call of the Nigerian public as well as educators for reform in the educational system in Nigeria. The book further recognizes that Nigerian education continues to be evolved, first into a system of Western European education and then into a global system of education. This edition continues to examine the status of education in Nigeria and thereby seeks solutions by extensively exploring Nigeria’s and global historical perspectives, current trends, and future directions regarding students and learning, teachers and teaching, the school curriculum, and administration of schools. It is expected that the comprehensive, foundational nature of the text will be beneficial to individuals in teacher preparation programs (program used interchangeably with programme, throughout the text) as well as those who plan to work with children in pre-kindergarten (nursery) through secondary settings.

The chapter content of the book focuses on the variation of thought as to the principal objectives of educators to help students in Nigeria develop habits, skills, and ideas, and help them to think. It adds to the importance of providing education to all, especially at the time when Nigeria is attempting to firmly establish democracy. Education is necessary for any nation to become truly democratic as it needs to maintain an educated electorate. It is education that prepares people to make informed decisions that would affect them. All children in Nigeria should, therefore, receive an education to prepare them to become effective members of the community in which they live and of the world society. This, and the previous edition of the book is based on an examination of, and the reflection on education in Nigeria and globally.

IMPACT OF DIVERSITY ON TEACHING AND STUDENT LEARNING

The classroom in Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa is a microcosm of the society with hundreds of ethnic groups and mini cultures. Ethnicity is used in this book, not tribes because the author strongly believes that tribal grouping was a colonial designation that has negative connotation. Nigeria is in Western Africa and is the most populous nation in Africa. With a population of over 200 million inhabitants, Nigeria occupies an area of approximately 923,728 square kilometres (approximately 356,668 square miles). It is a diverse country with over 250 ethnic groups living in thirty-six states and the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja. Among the largest ethnic groups are Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Ibibio, Ijaw, and Nupe. Nigeria derives her economic wealth mainly from oil resource. However, most of the people of Nigeria live in poor rural areas and depend on petty trading and the cultivation of food and cash crops, such as cassava, yams, rice, and soybeans in the middle belt, ground nuts (peanuts) and cotton in the north, and cassava, rice, timber, tobacco, and cocoa in the south. Teaching and schooling discussed in this book covers this demography and diversity and beyond. The English language is the medium of instruction with the vernacular languages being taught along with English in the early years. Most children are, therefore, English language learners (www.infoplease.com, 2013; www.wikipedia.com, 2013).

Children in Nigerian schools come from families that may have low through upper socioeconomic status (SES). Most children from the poorer and middle-class families attend public schools. Parents of children in rural areas are mostly peasant farmers and petty traders, compared to most families in urban localities who may be well-educated and/or wealthy. The concomitant effect of this disparity is that children in the rural areas do not have a solid foundation in early education; are not exposed to technology; and are unfamiliar with the basic tools of learning. This can present a challenge to teachers as they attempt to help all students learn.

GENDER AND EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY

Explored, to some extent in this volume, are the various cultural and socioeconomic issues that prevent women from having adequate access to education. The idea that a woman’s place is in the kitchen as a reason for girls not being given the priority for education in parts of Nigeria has been proven wrong as educated women in Nigeria now serve the nation side-by-side with their male counterparts. For example, women in Nigeria currently occupy positions as Federal Ministers, managing directors, state commissioners, and university vice chancellors (presidents). There are also many Nigerian women who are medical doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, company executives, and so forth.

EFFECTS OF CULTURE AND RELIGION ON SCHOOLING

The book traces the history of education in Nigeria from before the arrival of western education when children received traditional African education. At that time, children were taught to have an acceptable moral upbringing; taught socialization skills by encouraging them to play together with peers—local games, wrestling, dancing, and so on—and to respect others and themselves; and also encouraged to work hard on whatever they do. It relates how there were specific skills required of girls and boys; with boys being taught how to plough the fields to grow crops and to hunt while the girls were educated in how to prepare food and learn to take care of the farms. Unlike what pertains today, there were no formal, organized schools, and classrooms. Though there may still be some resistance in the education of the girl child in parts of Nigeria, especially in the far North of the country, the book reflects on promising signs that a larger percent of girls now has access to schooling. Student diversity and learning is examined in chapter 1.

In Nigeria, as is the case in any country, children come to school with a desire to learn. To help students learn, we must have well trained teachers and help them remain in teaching for as long as it takes. Becoming a teacher is covered in Chapter 2. The chapter develops an understanding of what teaching is and whether teaching can be classified as a profession. The job of the teacher was compared to that of other professionals such as accountants, engineers, doctors, and lawyers. The establishment of excellent standard-based teacher education programs, regulated and monitored by governments and organizations, was brought out in the chapter. Strategies for developing teaching and raising it to a standard like other professions are also covered in chapter 2.

Whether students can attain an education that they need depends on many factors. The factors of curriculum and the teaching strategies used in the classroom should be in line with the way to help students are examined in Chapters 3 and 4 of the book. Chapter 3 examines what curriculum is and why it is important. It also looks at the components of the curriculum such as curriculum policies, curricular goals, and programs of study and how these have changed over the years in Nigeria and elsewhere; discusses the role of the Federal Government in education in Nigeria and in the United States; and discusses formal or explicit curriculum—subject matter areas and the hidden curriculum —social and ethical values held by the society. Chapter 4 looks at the definitions of teaching and what effective teaching may mean.

The strong pedagogical content emphasized throughout the text is designed to: help you connect theory to practice and help you become a reflective educator who is knowledgeable, skilful, caring, and ethical; facilitate pre-service and in-service teachers’ success as learners; and designed to increase awareness and level of knowledge about students and how they learn. The theme throughout the book, noticed in most chapters, is the stress placed on the teacher job description with instruction at the centre and interwoven by the skills and understanding of child development, knowledge of content, planning and decision-making, and the skills of human relations and classroom management.

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON NIGERIAN EDUCATION

In chapter 5, we examine the impact of world history of education as well as general philosophies and how they affect education and schooling in Nigeria. This chapter also examines the history of education as well as philosophical foundations of education. It looks at the beginnings of education around the world including that in Asia, Middle East, Europe, and America and the influence it has had on modern education and education in Nigeria. Studying the historical perspectives of education helps us to better understand our current educational practices and enables us to plan for the future. Also discussed in chapter 5 are key daughters and sons of Nigeria who have shaped education in the nation, including Grace Alele-Williams, Babatunde Fafunwa, Chike Obi, Afadzwana Ivase, Ishaya Audu, Alvan Ikoku, and Tai Solarin.

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS

Examining the philosophical foundations brings us closer to an understanding of how children and adults learn and how we can apply such knowledge to instruction. Besides discussing the ancient philosophies and philosophers, the chapter also examined more recent educational philosophers and how their work provides a guide about creativity, thinking, and methods of teaching. As is the theme throughout this book, we have attempted to show the implications of the history and philosophy of education to the Nigerian situation.

RESOURCE AND CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Chapter 6 deals with the aspects of resource management such as time, infrastructure, libraries, equipment and supplies, budgeting, support personnel, and organizational skills needed to make classroom management effective. Appropriate and adequate school buildings are essential to learning. All infrastructures should be constructed so that students and all who work in them are always safe. There are guidelines that must be followed when school buildings are constructed. In many developing countries these guidelines may not always be adhered to. In Nigeria, for example, one can still find school buildings that are mud huts and have thatched roofs.

Based on the discussion of curriculum reform in Chapter 3, Chapter 7 takes us into strategies for catering to the needs of students with disabilities, such as learning disabilities, emotional and behavioural disorders, physical disabilities, mental challenges, autism, and Down Syndrome. The book points out that this is a novice area of education in Nigeria and how every effort is being made to set goals for special education, what quality will be appropriate, and how classrooms in Nigeria and elsewhere in the world are developing strategies for remediation. Chapter 7 specifically examines how these strategies will be used to: (1) sequence and task-analyse curricula for special needs students, (2) increase time for direct teaching of essential skills, (3) extend practice for skill mastery, and so forth. Chapter 7 also starts to address the concept of the education of children in Nigeria who are gifted and talented.

The book reflects on claims that the standard of education in Nigeria, especially of graduates from public schools, is falling with a view to finding solutions to remedy the situation. It examines the efforts being made at the state, federal, and international level to provide a curriculum that is comparable to that found in any nation in the world. The second edition re-emphasises the factors that do influence teaching and learning; who and what shapes the curriculum; and how training, retraining or professional development can more drastically transform education in Nigeria. Chapter 8 discusses the organization of the classroom and planning for effective instruction. While Chapter 2 examines how quality teacher preparation is necessary for the implementation of the curriculum, Chapter 9 shows how professional development, beyond the initial training, can enhance and facilitate teaching and learning.

THE FUTURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN NIGERIA

Chapter 13 provides suggestions for improving education in Nigeria. It emphasizes teacher efficacy, quality teaching through quality teacher preparation, and successful leadership. The chapter, as reflected throughout the book, has also surmised that teacher efficacy—the belief that they can teach all children—is possible only with thorough teacher preparation and development. It incorporates the assertion by several sources, that the lowering standard of education in Nigeria is not necessarily attributable to the curriculum, but to teacher quality. Therefore, teacher education programs must be designed to produce teachers of the highest quality.

The book features a summary at the end of each chapter as well as key terms (defined in the glossary in the back of the book), projects and portfolio tasks, and discussion/activities that are designed to help you reflect on the chapter content. By completing the discussion questions and the activities, projects, and portfolio tasks, you will be able to extend your content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge, reflect on strategies and curriculum adaptation, and how best to develop professionally. The second edition includes more terms, quotes (www.brainyquotes.com; www.famousquotesandauthors.com) and research citations, projects and portfolio tasks, and assessment questions. It is hoped that this will guide and encourage prospective teachers in their plan to enter the profession of teaching as well as strengthen the determination of the in-service teacher to be the best teacher that they can be.

KEY CHANGES IN THIS EDITION

To keep the book affordable to student users, we have attempted to reduce the size and, therefore, the cost of this second edition. For example, based on solicited and unsolicited feedback and to conserve space for this edition, much of the material in chapters 5, 7, and 10 have been omitted. Also, the content of former chapter 12, Teacher and Student Research is now part of chapter 8. Former chapter 13 is now chapter 12.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Much of the content of this book is built on the ideas and research that are the outcome of my many years of personal and professional experiences. There are, however, countless important individuals whose ideas have greatly influenced mine. I attempt here to mention a few such persons. I would first like to acknowledge my wife, Mernan, and my nephew Iorrumun who helped with surveys, interviews and field observation for the original book and Saundra DiPento for her immeasurable support.

My gratitude goes to Barrister I. A. Nomishan and my former colleagues at Fitchburg State University, Massachusetts who participated in validation processes and have provided input during the development of this book project; and to candidates for teacher and administrator licensure from whom I have learned as their instructor and/or supervisor and for allowing me to use their sample work as part of the material found in this book.

In addition, I am indebted to three outstanding Nigerian educators: Professors Joseph Antyo, of the University of Mkar, Mkar, Oche Ochife of College of Education, Katsina-Ala, and Nancy Agbe of Benue State University and a former member of the National Universities Commission who spent hours editing the previous edition and/or providing useful suggestions on the status of education in Nigeria. To principals and school administrators in Nigeria, the United States and South Africa, especially Joan Jafthas, Candace Wright, William Terrill, Suzanne Mahoney, James Gwer, Paula Joan, Tony Gasbarro, and others, who permitted me and my students to enter their classrooms and schools for surveys, ethnographic procedures, and field experiences, I say: Thank you. While the list is not exhaustive, I would like to thank the following classroom teachers: Judith Seguin, Kathy Colonis, Patricia Gendron, Anthony Djerbaka, John Gorman, Theresa Gusek, Susan Ndur, Deborah Turner, Andrea Nevard, Jane Kennedy, Laura Rainville, and Lynn Oppenheim.

D. A. Nomishan

FOREWORD

Prof. Nancy Agbe, Benue State University

FMR Vice Chancellor, University of Mkar, Mkar

T his book, Education in Nigeria: Reflections and Global Perspectives, is a timely call for reform in the education sector. It has examined education in Nigeria and has sought solutions by considering Nigeria’s and global historical perspectives, current trends, and future direction in respect to all facets of education or learning including curriculum. A very key component is the teacher preparation programme which is supposed to re-position teachers and make them more effective. To have an effective teacher force is to have well taught and groomed students who are a very essential part of the society.

The author has considered diligently the place of gender and educational opportunity, comparing the past few decades with what it is today, in respect of opportunities that the female folk has or does not have. Today, women have great opportunities to be educated and now serve the nation just as their male counterparts do. The author looks also at the effects of culture and religion on schooling, resources and classroom management and the future of teacher education in Nigeria.

The author has painstakingly considered some parameters of effective teaching and learning. These include, educational administration, teacher job satisfaction, school climate, teacher professional development, instruction, and learning. These areas should not be overlooked by governments and other providers of education who seek to reform the sector.

I, therefore, recommend this book as a working tool for achieving teacher efficacy necessary for quality teaching which in turn is achieved through quality teacher preparation, and successful leadership. This book addresses the basics that must be handled for effective education system.

Prof. Nancy Agbe

CHAPTER 1

STUDENT DIVERSITY AND LEARNING

Children are born passionately eager to make as much sense as they can of things around them. If we attempt to control, manipulate, or divert this process, the independent scientist in the child disappears.

~ John Holt

D ecades ago, in Nigeria, most children in schools were boys; only a very few girls went to school. We have come a long way since, with education now designed to benefit all children and adults. Whether all children in Nigeria have the same opportunity for education is or not is the pressing question that made the undertaking of the research studies that form the major part of this book project necessary. It is always assumed that there exists ample educational opportunity for all Nigerians, irrespective of gender, ethnicity, age, language, lifestyle, religion, political inclination, and disability. This describes diversity . According to the United Nations Organization, this opportunity is a right as reflected in the declaration found in Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which reads:

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all based on merit.

(2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote understanding, tolerance, and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.

(3) Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children. (Piaget, 1976, pp. 41-41; The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 2014) The elements of this section of the declaration are relevant to the education of the young child in Nigeria. The proposals that education should be compulsory is reflected in Nigeria’s attempts to provide universal basic education. The purpose of education, as stated above, in promoting understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups is also germane to the education of all children in Nigeria. This chapter discusses and reflects on student diversity in the classroom and family backgrounds, cultural diversity in the classroom, the ways children learn, the ways of teaching in diverse settings, and how these areas are related to the desire to provide education for all children in Nigeria.

EFFECT OF DIVERSITY ON TEACHING AND LEARNING

The classroom in Nigeria and elsewhere in Africa is a microcosm of the society with hundreds of ethnic groups and mini cultures. The use of ethnicity in this book rather than tribes is based on the strong belief that tribal grouping is a colonial designation that has negative connotation. In Nigeria, there are more than two hundred and fifty such groups with distinct dialects or languages. Instruction in classrooms is in the English language which is also Nigeria’s lingua franca. English as a medium of instruction and the place of vernacular languages will be examined later in this book.

The population of Nigeria may be divided broadly into non-political regional groupings—the south, central, and the north. This designation is pertinent since political demarcations in Nigeria change so very often. In general, people from the south have had exposure to western education and schooling much longer than those in the central and north of the country. Western education started along the coastal areas of Nigeria in West Africa. Because the benefits of education have been felt much longer in the south than the rest of the country, there is a greater desire to attend school there. The population density in the south is also greater than that in the rest of Nigeria, making schools there much more crowded. It is not unusual to find primary and secondary classrooms in the south and parts of central Nigeria with as many as forty children, whether in the city or in the rural areas. Higher classroom sizes of over 100 students for the far-northern state maybe due to lack of classroom space and arising demand for education there (Nomishan, 1995, 2007c;www.statistica.com/6688/education-en-nigeria;www.unisef.org/nigeria/education/).

Children in cities, towns, and the suburbs come from a mixture of families that may have low or high socioeconomic status (SES). The SES of the parents in rural villages is at the lowest end. Parents of children in such rural areas are mostly peasant farmers and petty traders, compared to most families in urban localities who may be well-educated and/or wealthy. The concomitant effect of this disparity is that children in the rural areas do not have a solid foundation in early education; are not exposed to technology; and are unfamiliar with the basic tools of learning. This can present a challenge to teachers as they attempt to help all students learn. Other forms of diversity that may present this challenge include, but are not limited to, socio-economic status, language differences, physical appearance, gender, age, and regional grouping (Nomishan & DiPento, 1990).

EFFECTS OF SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS ON STUDENTS

The socioeconomic status of a family is determined by the family’s income and wealth which do make a difference in the economic, social, and political resources (Hall, Quinn, & Gollnik, 2008, pp. 40-46). This pertains in Nigeria as it is in the United States and Great Britain. The influence a teacher has on a student can impact the student’s desire to go to school and in her/his learning. Where students cannot consider teachers as role models because the teachers are from different backgrounds than those of the students, learning becomes even more unreachable (Stone, 1981, p. 10).

In general, the school a child attends in Nigeria is determined by the SES of the parent or family. Children of families in the higher socioeconomic status tend to be enrolled into private and parochial (mission/religious) schools. Children of families at the lower end of the SES are often found in public school classrooms where fees are lower. Family members in the lower socioeconomic class tend to have lower incomes or may be unemployed. As mentioned earlier, some may be peasant farmers or petty traders and have incomes that are insufficient to maintain their families. The result is that their children may be away from school for a larger part of the school year, retarding their educational progress.

A dwindling economy and lack of educational opportunity in Nigeria has made it impossible for people to enter the workforce after post-secondary school education, including those graduating from tertiary institutions. However, the rich seem to be getting richer as the poor are getting poorer. The result is that the rich send their children to private and religious institutions while the poor contend with low class, poorly equipped public schools. Barr and Parrett (1994) refer to this disparity between those who have an education and those who do not have it as apartheid of ignorance (p. 9). The authors say that there is ample evidence that the children caught up in this apartheid of ignorance are capable of learning and it is the responsibility of the schools and the communities to provide equal educational opportunity for all their children.

GENDER AND EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY

In Nigeria, the condition of educational facilities has been deteriorating over the years and many who should go to school are not able to do so (Nomishan, 1995, 2007c). According to the United Nations Human Development Report of 2005, Nigeria was classified as a low development country in respect of equality in educational accessibility, especially education for girls and women (UNDP, 2005).

Various cultural and socioeconomic issues that prevent women from having adequate access to education have been advanced as reasons for this societal attitude. There was the belief that the job of women was to take care of the home and it was not necessary for them to receive formal education. The girl child was to be prepared to be given away in marriage! This has since changed, with women in Nigeria now serving the nation side-by-side with their male counterparts. For example, women in Nigeria currently occupy positions as Federal Ministers, managing directors, state commissioners, and university vice chancellors (presidents). There are also many Nigerian women who are medical doctors, engineers, teachers, lawyers, company executives, and so forth.

There remains a concern in the education of male and female children in Nigeria and parts of Africa. Education of the girl child is still not a priority in some parts of Nigeria. The children can attend single sex schools (all girls or all boys) or coeducational (both sexes) schools. The move to coeducational schools is almost the norm in the year 2019 as it was five years ago. The idea that all schools should be coeducational and that the existing single sex schools should be integrated is still being debated in Nigeria. The pros and cons of the two types of school settings are yet to be reconciled. Proponents of coeducational schooling argue that such school settings are like what is found in the society—males and females serving together in the workplace and that both sexes attending school together prepares each group to experience what is found in the real world. In coeducational schools, social learning occurs in cooperative learning groups and through healthy competition among students of both sexes.

Those who favour single sex schooling point out that the physical differences between males and females can be a deterrent to learning by girls. Boys, especially big boys, tend to bully girls which may make girls not want to attend school. Instances of bullying may also be more rampant when girls and boys attend the same school. We should not use bullying as an excuse to advocate for single sex schools; other ways of preventing bullying in the classroom are available other than segregating students along gender lines (Migliore, 2003). Besides, in recent years, there have been incidences of cyber-bullying by boys and girls—boys bullying boys and girls bullying girls—that resulted in negative consequences, including death of the victim. In the United States of America, laudable steps are being taken by Melania Trump to prevent cyber bullying (…). The extent to which her laudable program is working remains to be seen.

Another argument made by Migliore refers to differences in the socialization patterns among males and females resulting from their up-bringing. Because girls are stereotypically considered better in some areas than boys or have been boxed into sex roles, the curriculum for girls should be different from that for boys. This kind of argument seems to be reinforcing sex role stereotypes, an archaic thought process. In Nigeria, the argument against co-education may be based on religious grounds in areas where co-congregation of males and females is discouraged. This is particularly true in the far northern states of Nigeria. However, there is a greater push to educate all children, including females.

All of us do not have equal talent, but all of us should have equal opportunity.

~ FMR President John F. Kennedy

EFFECTS OF CULTURE AND RELIGION ON SCHOOLING

Before the arrival of western education, children received traditional African education. Children were taught to have a moral upbringing; were taught socialization skills by encouraging them to play with contemporaries; self-respect; and to work hard on whatever they do (Taiwo, 1980, p. 181). There were specific skills required of girls and boys. Boys were taught how to plough the fields to grow crops while the girls were educated in how to prepare food and learn to maintain the farms. There were no formal, organized schools, and classrooms.

Later, Taiwo explains, religious missionaries brought western education to African shores. The primary objective of the religious organizations was to teach the indigenous people reading and writing so they could read the Qur’an or the Bible. Christian religious missionaries later extended the reading-writing curriculum to include other subjects. Islamic organizations, especially in the north of Nigeria and Africa, continued to provide education designed to prepare local preachers. The beginning of full participation of the people into politics saw a greater need for western education. Reading, writing, and arithmetic became the basis of education.

Culture and religion may affect schooling among children in Nigeria. Culture has been defined by Ryan and Cooper (2013) as consisting of beliefs about what is right and wrong, and what is good and bad (p. 33). They also see culture as including the dominant ideas, stories and myths, artistic works, social habits, and organization of a group. When we speak of Nigerian culture, we may be referring to the African culture. However, there are subcultures that may be unique to specific ethnic groups in Nigeria. For example, the Tiv culture where it is acceptable for a child to express salutation of a parent in a standing posture may differ significantly from the Yoruba culture that requires a child or young person to lower his head or bow, almost prostrate, before parents or elders/ guardians during salutations. Such sub-cultural differences may be reflected in school and classroom diversity.

A school has a culture that is unique to that school. One view of the culture of a school may be based on the extent to which the school emphasizes high standards of academic achievement, school attendance, and the school’s vision. (c.f., Theory Z discussed in Chapter 4). Some schools in Nigeria are established to provide general education while others are established to prepare students for a vocation. There are technical or vocational schools, religious schools, commercial schools, and others. Nigeria also has comprehensive schools, like magnet schools in the United States, which offer education in several specialized areas. Thus, these schools have a unique culture. A classroom with a culture grounded in learning is desirable and may have influenced the increase in new private schools in Nigeria. As in the United States, it is believed that private or religious schools do a better job of preparing students for college/university than do public schools (Oredein, 2005; Sadker & Zittleman, 2010).

As mentioned earlier, children in school classrooms come from different levels of socio-economic status that can affect their capacity to be successful in school. Those from upper socio-economic strata may have had the benefit of pre-school (nursery) education not readily available to children of poor/rural families. All children, irrespective of their family background, possess different talents and abilities that can affect their aptitude for meeting the requirements for performance set by the schools and by teachers. It is necessary that teachers design the curriculum to help children rise to the same level as their peers. In Nigeria, students may also speak the language different from the one used for instruction (the English language) and exhibit cultural behaviours viewed as inappropriate in the school or curriculum. This can contribute to the children falling behind in their learning. Beginning learning in the vernacular language of the child such as Tiv, Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, or Ibibio before mastery of the English language may be beneficial. The National Language Policy to stop using English as a language of instruction in Nigeria at the primary and junior secondary level has been approved by Federal Government of Nigeria, with full implementation still pending (https://aljazeera.com/news/2022/12/1/;eric.edu.gov;files.eric.edu.gov).

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION

Multicultural education is probably not a term with which most teachers in Nigeria are familiar. While most students found in classrooms are Nigerians, they may come from one of over 250 ethnic groups, each with a unique language and sub-culture within the African culture. This makes multicultural teaching and learning in Nigeria the more relevant. To understand multicultural teaching, we must first look at what the concept means. This section explains what multicultural education on the global stage looks like and then examines it from the Nigerian perspective.

Multicultural education has been defined in different ways. Banks and Banks (1995) define multicultural education as follows:

Multicultural education is a field of study and an emerging discipline whose major aim is to create equal educational opportunities for students from diverse racial, ethnic, social class, and cultural groups. One of its important goals is to help all students to acquire the knowledge, attitudes, and skills needed to function effectively in a pluralistic democratic society and to interact, negotiate, and communicate with peoples from diverse groups to create a civic and moral community that works for the common good. (p. xi)

Whether in Nigeria or elsewhere, all teachers should deliver instruction from a multicultural (multi-ethnic) perspective since all classrooms are culturally and ethnically diverse. On this point, Banks and Banks (1995) stress that:

Multicultural education not only draws content, concepts, paradigms, and theories from specialized interdisciplinary fields such as ethnic studies and women studies (and from history and the social and behavioural sciences), it also interrogates, challenges, and reinterprets content, concepts, and paradigms from the established disciplines. Multicultural education applies content from these fields and disciplines to pedagogy and curriculum development in educational settings. Consequently, we may define multicultural education as a field of study designed to increase educational equity for all students that incorporates, for this purpose, content, concepts, principles, theories, and paradigms from history, the social and behavioural sciences, and particularly from ethnic studies and women studies. (p. xii)

The concept of multicultural education expressed in the above definitions is an attempt to expand the culture emphasis to include the cultural diversity that exists in classrooms everywhere. In the Nigerian context, we can stress the linguistic and ethnic dimension of multicultural education. Almost all Nigerian students are English Language Learners (ELL), some of whom enter school with little or no knowledge of the English language. It is incumbent on the teachers to better understand the way all children learn, behave toward adults and peers, and the way they interact in the society. As teachers, we should be aware of the strengths of children from other cultures or ethnic groups; seek ways of empowering students through their cultural knowledge and language acquisition in relation to classroom knowledge. We should also ask the question whether it is appropriate for us to use non-standard English or social English (Pidgin English or "ago") as a teaching/learning tool or prohibit the use of vernacular languages in school. Finding solutions to these concerns will be essential in the quest to find ways to facilitate in the learning process.

The Nigerian classroom is likely to have students who are from any one of the 250 ethnic groups or nations such as Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba, Fulani, Kanuri, Tiv, Ijaw, Urobo, and so on. However, there may also be students who are of Chinese, American, Korean, and Indian origin. A Nigerian classroom, like those in the United States, will consist of students who may display differing behaviours and characteristics (Banks & Banks, 2005; Gollnick & Chinn, 2006) and students whose motivation to learn is diverse (Elliott & Knight, 2005; Garcia, 2002). Effective multicultural teaching will positively address these factors and thereby help children learn.

MULTICULTURAL TEACHING

It is generally agreed that children from different cultural backgrounds think and learn differently. The way they behave, speak, or receive information may vary according to their larger culture or subculture. For example, the Tiv child is brought up not to look an adult (teacher) in the face as this is considered a sign of disrespect; an American child who avoids looking the teacher (adult) in the eye when spoken to is being shifty, a sign that they may be showing lack of care. Students are at a loss when they are asked to nod if they understand the statement made by the teacher or shake their head if they are not sure about the statement; in America, Nigeria, and many cultures, a head nod indicates affirmation, though elsewhere—Bulgaria, Greece, Iran, and Turkey—it may show one is not sure or even no. It is essential that teachers understand the multicultural perspectives as they plan to teach and diversify their strategies for teaching (Davidman & Davidman, 1994; Vold & Nomishan, 1989). Teaching multiculturally takes different forms, as shown below.

One strategy that teachers can demonstrate multiculturalism is through the content of the curriculum. There are ample opportunities to teach students about stereotypes, bias, and prejudice that students encounter in the society. For example, the social studies provide opportunities for children to be seen as people and to help them attain self-reliance (Ellis, 2007, p. 27). The subject of social studies, Ellis continues, also enables students to more extensively study about other peoples and cultures. Other content areas such as literature, folklore anthropologies, and even fiction can be used to help children develop respect for people different than they are; develop the attitude whereby they value and respect self and others; and learn to learn from others, avoiding stereotypical behaviours (Ellis, 2007, pp. 27-30). The teacher is also able to attempt to create a classroom environment that enhances multicultural education. Such a classroom culture is possible where the school as a whole values multiculturalism (Pai & Adler, 2001, p. 33).

MULTICULTURALISM IN THE CONTENT AREAS

Everywhere in the world, the emphasis is on educating young people so that they can function effectively as members of the global society. This goal fits in with Murphy’s (2006) concept of multiculturalism as the interdisciplinary study of other cultures—their politics, economy, society, culture, art, music, and language (p. 364). The interdisciplinary nature of multiculturalism lends itself to multicultural teaching of any subject (Nomishan, 1987b). For example, cultural or sub-cultural teaching of mathematics in Nigeria can be illustrated by the Tiv ishiva where marbles are moved like chess pieces. In this example, one scores when one aligns their pieces in threes, as in base three numeration system. Multicultural teaching may not be undertaken because the teacher is not familiar with the strategies for teaching culturally diverse students. In the United States, such situations are mostly found at schools where minority children attend predominantly white schools (Nomishan, 1990). The students find themselves both at risk and at a loss. This is more so where the schools suppress the bases for racial prejudices, calling it woke and of no value (Algar, 2023). The campaign to ban and burn books in the United States is an outgrowth of the call to keep wokeism and critical race theory (CRT) out of the public-school classroom. In Nigeria where most schools are predominantly African, at-risk students may be those coming from poor rural areas with poor educational backgrounds, and children from marginalized ethnic groups.

…are genuinely working in order to produce not only intelligent men and women, who will be cultured and skilled, but also the leaders who will adapt themselves to their environment, adjust themselves to the outside world and give direction and purpose to their people for the building of a modern nation, whose nationals must realize that they are destined to give leadership in many directions of human endeavour.

~ Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe, FMR President of Nigeria,

speaking of progressive elements of Nigeria

HOW CHILDREN LEARN

The ways children learn is important because it can guide in the strategies that can be employed to help them better understand what is taught. Such ways are based on the theories of learning, the principles which cause individuals to change and develop. The importance of learning is stressed by Paul (1995) when he said that what matters most is not what is taught, but what is learned, indicating that students often learn something different from what is taught (p. 274). Bukatko and Daehler (1995) define learning as the relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience (p. 44). We have all observed learning by children as early as possible from birth through adulthood. Learning is not restricted to classroom learning. It includes learning in other areas such as when an infant grabs a cup of water or a mother’s breast nipple and takes it to her or his mouth; a toddler attempts to tie his shoes; and a pre-teenager learns to shoot a football (soccer ball) into the net. John Holt (1967) reminds us that A child has no stronger desire than to make sense of the world, to move freely in it, to do the things he sees bigger people doing (p. 8). We will, therefore, be helping a lot with the child’s learning when we provide opportunity for them to observe and practice the skills that they need to learn. Young children can do this by partnering with adults or other children, also called piggybacking, a system that has been successfully used in schools in Fitchburg, Massachusetts (Suskind, 1998). Interactive partnerships have also been shown to work well for students with disabilities as well (Hunt, Farron-Davis, Wrenn, Hirose-Hatae, & Goetz, 1997).

The principles of learning or how children learn has been the study of psychologists for years. The Russian psychologist, Ivan Pavlov, promoted what is now called classical conditioning after studying animals and how they responded to stimuli. The operant conditioning theory is based on the more recent theories of learning advanced by B.F. Skinner (1953, 1974) and others. The theory of behaviourism, discussed below is an outgrowth of these earlier theories. More recently nonverbal human behaviours have been linked to cognitive, affective, and social development that may affect nonverbal communication and hence, learning in the inclusive classroom (Rosa, 2002). Teachers in inclusive classrooms often use behaviour modification or applied behaviour analysis, which are also based on classical and operant conditioning principles. Behaviour modification is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 7. Suffice it to say that behaviour modification seeks what teachers can do to change children’s behaviour to help them learn. Rather than pushing to get rid of behaviour modification, we should find ways to make it work.

MOTIVATION FOR LEARNING

It is always the desire of teachers that students learn in school and perform well. Knowing how students learn is one factor in helping them to learn. Another principle is the belief, shared by Elliott and Knight (2005), that motivation is related to achievement, emphasizing that little learning takes place when students are unmotivated. In this section we look at the role of motivation in the education of the child. An attempt is made to answer such questions as: What is motivation and how is it related to learning and performance? Can a child be motivated? How can teachers provide an environment for students to be motivated? How can motivation be assessed and maintained?

The concern about motivation is often fuelled by the desire of teachers to see that each student masters the subject matter of the curriculum. Effective teachers do everything in their power to create an atmosphere in which students will be motivated. One reason is because they and students tend to get frustrated in the face of lack of success (Eggen & Kauchak, 2012, p. 50). Though the concept of motivation has been studied extensively, there is no universally agreed upon definition of it. Motivation has been variously defined as: … the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 5), the process of creating a mental set that is accompanied by a desire to learn (Ellis, 2007), the development of an ‘inner trust’ that makes individuals feel compelled to attempt learning (Hansen & Higgins, 1978, p. 173), a state reached by an individual to make them open for learning (Reiser & Dick, 1996), the inner force that moves a person to take action toward a specific end (Levine, 1989, p. 210), and the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal (Robbins, 2003, pp. 154-156). Motivation can be reached through different strategies.

Strategies or things that are done to attempt to create or produce motivation may be referred to as motivators. The theories behind motivation will be discussed more fully in the next chapter. In this section we will try to examine examples and instances of teachers working toward motivating students to learn. Pintrich and Schunk (2002, p. 6) have said that motivation affects all classroom activities because it can influence learning of previously learned behaviours.... They continue to express that Learning and performance are related in reciprocal fashion to motivation because what one does and learns influences one’s subsequent task motivation (p. 6). What this means is that there are things that must be present for motivation to occur. Such things include the task chosen, effort, persistence by the student, and the desired level of achievement. A student who is motivated may also work hard enough to overcome any deficiencies resulting from ineffective instruction (Elliott & Knight, 2005, pp. 8-10).

From several of the definitions of motivation stated above, motivation is a process, not a product; it starts with a need accompanied by behaviours that lead to the satisfaction of the need (Robbins, 2005, p. 48). The definitions also involve efforts toward attaining a goal. Henson and Higgins’ definition included the elements of intensity, direction, and persistence. They explain that a child displays intensity by the way he or she works hard to accomplish a task or activity. It may also be shown in how creative an individual is accomplishing very difficult tasks. Many African students can relate to this type of motivation when they do everything to succeed such as trying to complete homework under a candlelight, the handset screen light or a dimly lighted lantern, because there is no electric lighting.

Another element required by motivation as seen in the definitions is activity. The activity performed by the student could be in the student’s effort, persistence, and other overt actions as well as in planning, rehearsing, organizing, monitoring, making discussions, solving problems, and assessing progress (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 6). Once the task or activity has started, can we stick with it and sustain efforts toward accomplishment? This requires motivation. We know that one is motivated when we observe how one responds to the difficulties, problems, failures, and setbacks one encounters as one works toward a goal (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 6). One example is that of Curt Schilling playing with an injured ankle to lead his Boston Red Sox team to a baseball championship in 2004.

Henson and Higgins (1978, pp. 173-178) have provided tips and guidelines for