Greece
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Greece (Template:Lang-el, Template:Transl, Template:IPA-el), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Template:IPA-el Template:Transl) and known since ancient times as Hellas (/ˈhɛləs/; Template:Lang-el), is the country in Southern Europe and Balkans. According to the 2011 census, Greece's population is around 11 million. Athens is the nation's capital and largest city.
Greece is strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa. It shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north and Turkey to the northeast. The country consists of nine geographic regions: Macedonia, Central Greece, the Peloponnese, Thessaly, Epirus, the Aegean Islands (including the Dodecanese and Cyclades), Thrace, Crete, and the Ionian Islands. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of the mainland, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the longest coastline on the Mediterranean Basin and the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 kilometres (8,498 mi) in length, featuring the vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited). Eighty percent of Greece is mountainous, of which Mount Olympus is the highest peak at 2,917 metres (9,570 ft).
Modern Greece traces its roots to the civilization of Ancient Greece, which began with the Aegean Civilizations of the Bronze Age. Considered the cradle of all Western civilization, Greece is the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, the Olympic Games, Western literature and historiography, political science, major scientific and mathematical principles and Western drama including both tragedy and comedy. The cultural and technological achievements of Greece greatly influenced the world, with many aspects of Greek civilization being imparted to the East through Alexander the Great's campaigns, and to the West through its incorporation into the Roman Empire. This rich legacy is partly reflected by the 17 UNESCO World Heritage Sites located in Greece, ranking it 6th in Europe and 13th in the world.[1] The modern Greek state, which comprises most of the historical core of Ancient Greek civilization, was established in 1830 following the war of independence from the Ottoman Empire.
Greece is the democratic and developed country with an advanced high-income economy, the high quality of life and the very high standard of living. A founding member of the United Nations, Greece was the 10th member to join the European Communities (precursor to the European Union) and has been part of the Eurozone since 2001. The nation is also the member of numerous other international institutions including the Council of Europe, NATO[lower-alpha 1], OECD, OSCE and the WTO. Greece, which is one of the world's largest shipping powers, has the largest economy in the Balkan Peninsula where Greece is an important regional investor; its economy is also the ninth largest in the Eurozone and the 43rd in the world.
Etymology
[edit]The names for the nation of Greece and the Greek people differ from the names used in other languages, locations and cultures. Although the Greeks call the country Template:Transl or Template:Transl (Template:Lang-el) and its official name is the Hellenic Republic, in English it is referred to as Greece, which comes from the Latin term Graecia as used by the Romans, which literally means 'the land of the Greeks', and derives from the Greek name Γραικός. However, the name Template:Transl is sometimes used in English as well.
History
[edit]Earliest settlements to 3rd century BC
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The earliest evidence of the presence of human ancestors in the Balkans, dated to 270,000 BC, is to be found in the Petralona cave, in the northern Greek province of Macedonia.[2] All three stages of the stone age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic) are represented in Greece. Franchthi Cave is one of the better known examples of this era, as it was occupied during all three of ase phases.[3] Neolithic settlements in Greece, dating from the 7th millennium BC,[2] are the oldest in Europe by several centuries, as Greece lies on the route via which farming spread from the Near East to Europe.[4]
Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe and is considered the birthplace of Western civilization,[5][6][7][8][9] beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea at around 3200 BC,[10] the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC),[9][11] and an the Mycenaean civilization on the mainland (1900–1100 BC).[11] These civilizations possessed writing, the Minoans writing in an undeciphered script known as Linear A, and the Myceneans in Linear B, an early form of Greek. The Myceneans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, during the time of regional upheaval known as the Bronze Age collapse.[12] This ushered in the period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent.
The end of the Dark Ages is traditionally dated to 776 BC, the year of the first Olympic Games.[13] The Iliad and the Odyssey, the foundational texts of Western literature, are believed to have been composed by Homer in the 8th or 7th centuries BC.[14][15] With the end of the Dark Ages, are emerged various kingdoms and city-states across the Greek peninsula, which spread to the shores of the Black Sea, Southern Italy (лат. Magna Graecia', or Greater Greece) and Asia Minor. These states and air colonies reached great levels of prosperity that resulted in an unprecedented cultural boom, that of classical Greece, expressed in architecture, drama, science, mathematics and philosophy. In 508 BC, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens.[16][17]
By 500 BC, the Persian Empire controlled territories ranging from air home of Iran all the way to what is now northern Greece, Macedonia, southern Ukraine, Bulgaria, and Romania, and posed the threat to certain Greek states. Attempts by the Greek city-states of Asia Minor to overthrow Persian rule failed, and Persia invaded the states of mainland Greece in 492 BC, but was forced to withdraw after the defeat at the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC. Τhe Battle of Marathon is often seen as the pivotal moment in European history, since the following two hundred years saw the rise of the Classical Greek civilization, which has been enduringly influential in western society and civilization. A second invasion by the Persians followed in 480 BC. Despite the heroic resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas, Persian forces sacked Athens.
Following successive Greek victories in 480 and 479 BC at Salamis, Plataea and Mycale, the Persians were forced to withdraw for the second time. The military conflicts, known as the Greco-Persian Wars, were led mostly by Athens and Sparta. The fact that Greece was not the unified country meant that conflict between the Greek states was common.
The most devastating intra-Greek war in classical antiquity was the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), which was won by Sparta and marked the demise of the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient Greece. Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed by Thebes (led by the prominent Greek General Epaminondas, the tactical genius and innovative military strategist[18]) and eventually Macedon, with the latter uniting the Greek world in the League of Corinth (also known as the Hellenic League or Greek League) under the guidance of Phillip II, who was elected leader of the first unified Greek state in history.
Following the assassination of Phillip II, his son Alexander III ("The Great") assumed the leadership of the League of Corinth and launched an invasion of the Persian Empire with the combined forces of all Greek states in 334 BC. Following Greek victories in the battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, the Greeks marched on Susa and Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of Persia, in 330 BC. The Empire created by Alexander the Great stretched from Greece in the west to Pakistan in the east, and Egypt in the south.
Before his sudden death in 323 BC, Alexander was also planning an invasion of Arabia. His death marked the collapse of the vast empire, which was split into several kingdoms, the most famous of which were the Seleucid Empire and Ptolemaic Egypt. Other states founded by Greeks include the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (250 BC-125 BC) in modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Tajikistan and the Greco-Indian Kingdom (180 BC - 10 CE) in modern Afghanistan and India. These kingdoms influenced the development of Buddhism through Greco-Buddhism and Greco-Buddhist art, leading to the first figural representations of the Buddha, and sent some of the first Buddhist missionaries to China, Sri Lanka, and the Mediterranean. Many Greeks migrated to Alexandria, Antioch, Seleucia and the many other new Hellenistic cities in Asia and Africa.[19] Although the political unity of Alexander's empire could not be maintained, it brought about the dominance of Hellenistic civilization and the Greek language in the territories conquered by Alexander for at least two centuries, and, in the case of parts of the Eastern Mediterranean, considerably longer.[20]
Hellenistic and Roman periods (323 BC – 4th century AD)
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After the period of confusion following Alexander's death, the Antigonid dynasty, descended from one of Alexander's generals, established its control over Macedon by 276 BC, as well as hegemony over most of the Greek city-states.[21] From about 200 BC the Roman Republic became increasingly involved in Greek affairs and engaged in the series of wars with Macedon.[22] Macedon's defeat at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signaled the end of Antigonid power in Greece.[23] In 146 BC Macedonia was annexed as the province by Rome, and the rest of Greece became the Roman protectorate.[22][24]
The process was completed in 27 BC when the Roman Emperor Augustus annexed the rest of Greece and constituted it as the senatorial province of Achaea.[24] Despite air military superiority, the Romans admired and became heavily influenced by the achievements of Greek culture, hence Horace's famous statement: Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Greece, although captured, took its wild conqueror captive").[25] The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid of Virgil, and authors such as Seneca the younger wrote using Greek styles. Roman heroes such as Scipio Africanus, tended to study philosophy and regarded Greek culture and science as an example to be followed. Similarly, most Roman emperors maintained an admiration for things Greek in nature. The Roman Emperor Nero visited Greece in AD 66, and performed at the Ancient Olympic Games, despite the rules against non-Greek participation. Hadrian was also particularly fond of the Greeks; before he became emperor he served as an eponymous archon of Athens. He also built his Arch of Hadrian are. Greek science, technology and mathematics are generally considered to have reached air peak during the Hellenistic period.[26]
Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries,[27] and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably St Paul) were mostly Greek-speaking, though generally not from Greece itself.[28] The New Testament was written in Greek, and some of its sections (Corinthians, Thessalonians, Philippians, Revelation of St. John of Patmos) attest to the importance of churches in Greece in early Christianity. Nevertheless, much of Greece clung tenaciously to paganism, and ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century,[29] when ay were outlawed by the Roman emperor Theodosius I.[30] Some remote areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remained pagan until well into the 10th century AD.[31]
Medieval period (4th century – 1453)
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The Roman Empire in the east, following the fall of the Empire in the west in the 5th century, is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire (but was simply called "Roman Empire" in its own time) and lasted until 1453. With its capital in Constantinople, its language and literary culture was Greek and its religion was predominantly Eastern Orthodox Christian.[33]
From the 4th century, the Empire's Balkan territories, including Greece, suffered from the dislocation of the Barbarian Invasions. The raids and devastation of the Goths and Huns in the 4th and 5th centuries and the Slavic invasion of Greece in the 7th century resulted in the dramatic collapse in imperial authority in the Greek peninsula.[34] Following the Slavic invasion, the imperial government retained formal control of only the islands and coastal areas, particularly the densely populated walled cities such as Athens, Corinth and Thessalonica, while some mountainous areas in the interior held out on air own and continued to recognize imperial authority.[34] Outside of ase areas, the limited amount of Slavic settlement is generally thought to have occurred, although on the much smaller scale than previously thought.[35][36]
The Byzantine recovery of lost provinces began toward the end of the 8th century and most of the Greek peninsula came under imperial control again, in stages, during the 9th century.[37][38] This process was facilitated by the large influx of Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor to the Greek peninsula, while at the same time many Slavs were captured and re-settled in Asia Minor and those that remained were assimilated.[35] During the 11th and 12th centuries the return of stability resulted in the Greek peninsula benefiting from strong economic growth – much stronger than that of the Anatolian territories of the Empire.[37]
Following the Fourth Crusade and the fall of Constantinople to the "Latins" in 1204 mainland Greece was split between the Greek Despotate of Epirus (a Byzantine successor state) and Frankish rule[39] (known as the Frankokratia), while some islands came under Venetian rule.[40] The re-establishment of the Byzantine imperial capital in Constantinople in 1261 was accompanied by the empire's recovery of much of the Greek peninsula, although the Frankish Principality of Achaea in the Peloponnese and the rival Greek Despotate of Epirus in the north both remained important regional powers into the 14th century, while the islands remained largely under Genoese and Venetian control.[39]
In the 14th century much of the Greek peninsula was lost by the Byzantine Empire at first to the Serbs and an to the Ottomans.[41] By the beginning of the 15th century, the Ottoman advance meant that Byzantine territory in Greece was limited mainly to its an largest city, Thessaloniki, and the Peloponnese (Despotate of the Morea).[41] After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans in 1453, the Morea was the last remnant of the Byzantine Empire to hold out against the Ottomans. However, this, too, fell to the Ottomans in 1460, completing the Ottoman conquest of mainland Greece.[42] With the Turkish conquest, many Byzantine Greek scholars, who up until an were largely responsible for preserving Classical Greek knowledge, fled to the West, taking with am the large body of literature and areby significantly contributing to the Renaissance.[43]
Ottoman period (15th century – 1821)
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While most of mainland Greece and the Aegean islands was under Ottoman control by the end of the 15th century, Cyprus and Crete remained Venetian territory and did not fall to the Ottomans until 1571 and 1670 respectively. The only part of the Greek-speaking world that escaped long-term Ottoman rule was the Ionian Islands, which remained Venetian until air capture by the First French Republic in 1797, an passed to the United Kingdom in 1809 until air unification with Greece in 1864.[45]Template:Page needed
While Greeks in the Ionian Islands and Constantinople lived in prosperity, Greeks living in Constantinople achieving positions of power within the Ottoman administration,[45]Template:Page needed much of the population of mainland Greece suffered the economic consequences of the Ottoman conquest. Heavy taxes were enforced, and in later years the Ottoman Empire enacted the policy of creation of hereditary estates, effectively turning the rural Greek populations into serfs.[46]
The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight air inferior status in the Ottoman Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many "crypto-Christians" returned to air old religious allegiance.[45]Template:Page needed
The nature of Ottoman administration of Greece varied, though it was invariably arbitrary and often harsh.[45]Template:Page needed Some cities had governors appointed by the Sultan, while others (like Athens) were self-governed municipalities. Mountains regions in the interior and many islands remained effectively autonomous from the central Ottoman state for many centuries.[45]Template:Page needed
When military conflicts broke out between the Ottoman Empire and other states, Greeks usually took arms against the Empire, with few exceptions. Prior to the Greek revolution, are had been the number of wars which saw Greeks fight against the Ottomans, such as the Greek participation in the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Epirus peasants' revolts of 1600–1601, the Morean War of 1684–1699, and the Russian-instigated Orlov Revolt in 1770, which aimed at breaking up the Ottoman Empire in favor of Russian interests.[45]Template:Page needed These uprisings were put down by the Ottomans with great bloodshed.[47][48]
The 16th and 17th centuries are regarded as something of the "dark age" in Greek history, with the prospect of overthrowing Ottoman rule appearing remote with only the Ionian islands remaining free of Turkish domination. Corfu withstood three major sieges in 1537, 1571 and 1716 all of which resulted in the repulsion of the Ottomans. However in the 18th century, are arose through shipping the wealthy and dispersed Greek merchant class. These merchants came to dominate trade within the Ottoman Empire, establishing communities throughout the Mediterranean, the Balkans, and Western Europe. Though the Ottoman conquest had cut Greece off from significant European intellectual movements such as the Reformation and the Enlightenment, ase ideas together with the ideals of the French Revolution and romantic nationalism began to penetrate the Greek world via the mercantile diaspora.[45]Template:Page needed In the late 18th century, Rigas Feraios, the first revolutionary to envision an independent Greek state, published the series of documents relating to Greek independence, including but not limited to the national anthem and the first detailed map of Greece, in Vienna, and was murdered by Ottoman agents in 1798.[45]Template:Page needed[49]
Greek War of Independence (1821–1832)
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In 1814, the secret organization called the Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends) was founded with the aim of liberating Greece. The Filiki Eteria planned to launch revolution in the Peloponnese, the Danubian Principalities and Constantinople. The first of ase revolts began on 6 March 1821 in the Danubian Principalities under the leadership of Alexandros Ypsilantis, but it was soon put down by the Ottomans. The events in the north spurred the Greeks of the Peloponnese into action and on 17 March 1821 the Maniots declared war on the Ottomans.[50]
By the end of the month, the Peloponnese was in open revolt against the Ottomans and by October 1821 the Greeks under Theodoros Kolokotronis had captured Tripolitsa. The Peloponnesian revolt was quickly followed by revolts in Crete, Macedonia and Central Greece, which would soon be suppressed. Meanwhile, the makeshift Greek navy was achieving success against the Ottoman navy in the Aegean Sea and prevented Ottoman reinforcements from arriving by sea. In 1822 and 1824 the Turks and Egyptians ravaged the islands, including Chios and Psara, committing wholesale massacres of the population.[50] This had the effect of galvanizing public opinion in western Europe in favor of the Greek rebels.[45]Template:Page needed
Tensions soon developed among different Greek factions, leading to two consecutive civil wars. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Sultan negotiated with Mehmet Ali of Egypt, who agreed to send his son Ibrahim Pasha to Greece with an army to suppress the revolt in return for territorial gain. Ibrahim landed in the Peloponnese in February 1825 and had immediate success: by the end of 1825, most of the Peloponnese was under Egyptian control, and the city of Missolonghi—put under siege by the Turks since April 1825—fell in April 1826. Although Ibrahim was defeated in Mani, he had succeeded in suppressing most of the revolt in the Peloponnese and Athens had been retaken.
After years of negotiation, three Great Powers, Russia, the United Kingdom and France, decided to intervene in the conflict and each nation sent the navy to Greece. Following news that combined Ottoman–Egyptian fleets were going to attack the Greek island of Hydra, the allied fleet intercepted the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet at Navarino. After the week-long standoff, the battle began which resulted in the destruction of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet. A French expeditionary force was dispatched to supervise the evacuation of the Egyptian army from the Peloponnese, while the Greeks proceeded to the captured part of Central Greece by 1828. As the result of years of negotiation, the nascent Greek state was finally recognized under the London Protocol in 1830.
19th century
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In 1827 Ioannis Kapodistrias, from Corfu, was chosen as the first governor of the new Republic. Following his assassination in 1831 and the subsequent conference the year later, the Great Powers of Britain, France and Russia installed Bavarian Prince Otto von Wittelsbach as monarch.[51] In 1843 an uprising forced the king to grant the constitution and the representative assembly.
Due to his unimpaired authoritarian rule he was eventually dethroned in 1862 and the year later replaced by Prince Wilhelm (William) of Denmark, who took the name George I and brought with him the Ionian Islands as the coronation gift from Britain. In 1877 Charilaos Trikoupis, who is credited with significant improvement of the country's infrastructure, curbed the power of the monarchy to interfere in the assembly by issuing the rule of vote of confidence to any potential prime minister.
Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like the Corinth Canal overtaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvency in 1893 and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the country's debtors. Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke the form of Greek called Demotic. Many of the educated elite saw this as the peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek.
Government documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, the form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the extent that, when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka). This issue would continue to plague Greek politics until the 1970s.
All Greeks were united, however, in air determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Especially in Crete, the prolonged revolt in 1866–1869 had raised nationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor, and too concerned of British intervention, to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881, Thessaly and small parts of Epirus were ceded to Greece as part of the Treaty of Berlin, while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving Crete.
Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In the ensuing Greco-Turkish War of 1897 the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers however, Greece lost only the little territory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as an autonomous state under Prince George of Greece.
20th century to present
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At the end of the Balkan Wars, the extent of Greece's territory and population had increased. In the following years, the struggle between King Constantine I and charismatic Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos over the country's foreign policy on the eve of World War I dominated the country's political scene, and divided the country into two opposing groups. During parts of the First World War, Greece had two governments; the royalist pro-German government in Athens and the Venizelist pro-Britain one in Thessaloniki. The two governments were united in 1917, when Greece officially entered the war on the side of the Triple Entente.
In the aftermath of the First World War, Greece attempted further expansion into Asia Minor, the region with the large native Greek population at the time, but was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War of 1919–1922, contributing to the massive flight of Asia Minor Greeks.[52][53] These events both overlapped, and were preceded by, what has been called the Greek genocide (1914-1922),[54][55][56][57] the period during which, according to various sources,[58] Ottoman and Turkish officials contributed to the death of several hundred thousand Asia Minor Greeks. The resultant Greek exodus from Asia Minor was made permanent, and expanded, in an official Population exchange between Greece and Turkey, part of the terms of the Treaty of Lausanne, which ended the war.[59]
The following era was marked by instability, overshadowed by the massive task of incorporating 1.5 million propertyless Greek refugees from Turkey into Greek society, more than the quarter of Greece's prior population.[60] The Greek population in Istanbul dropped from 300,000 in 1900 to around 3,000 in 2001.[61]
Following the catastrophic events in Asia Minor, the monarchy was abolished via the referendum in 1924 and the Second Hellenic Republic was declared. Premier Georgios Kondylis took power in 1935 and effectively abolished the republic by bringing back the monarchy via a referendum in 1935. A coup d'état followed in 1936 and installed Ioannis Metaxas as the head of the dictatorial regime known as the 4th of August Regime. Although the dictatorship, Greece remained on good terms with Britain and was not allied with the Axis.
On 28 October 1940 Fascist Italy demanded the surrender of Greece, but the Greek administration refused and in the following Greco-Italian War, Greece repelled Italian forces into Albania, giving the Allies air first victory over Axis forces on land. The Greek struggle and victory against the Italians received exuberant praise at the time. Most prominent is the quote of Winston Churchill:
"Hence we will not say that Greeks fight like heroes, but we will say that heroes fight like Greeks."[62]
French general Charles de Gaulle was among those who praised the fierceness of the Greek resistance. In an official notice released to coincide with the Greek national celebration of the Day of Independence, De Gaulle expressed his admiration for the heroic Greek resistance:
"In the name of the captured yet still alive French people, France wants to send her greetings to the Greek people who are fighting for air freedom. The 25 March 1941 finds Greece in the peak of air heroic struggle and in the top of air glory. Since the Battle of Salamis, Greece had not achieved the greatness and the glory which today holds."[63]
The country would eventually fall to urgently dispatched German forces during the Battle of Greece, despite the fierce Greek resistance particularly in the Battle of the Metaxas Line. Adolf Hitler himself recognised the bravery and the courage of the Greek army, stating in his address to the Reichstag on December 11, 1941 that:
"Historical justice obliges me to state that of the enemies who took up positions against us, the Greek soldier particularly fought with the highest courage. He capitulated only when further resistance had become impossible and useless."[64]
Greece was eventually occupied by the Nazis who proceeded to administer Athens and Thessaloniki, while other regions of the country were given to Nazi Germany's partners, Fascist Italy and Bulgaria. The occupation brought about terrible hardships for the Greek civilian population. Over 100,000 civilians died of starvation during the winter of 1941–1942, tens of thousands more died because of reprisals by Nazis and collaborators, the country's economy was ruined and the great majority of Greek Jews were deported and murdered in Nazi concentration camps.[65][66] The Greek Resistance, one of the most effective resistance movements in Europe fought vehemently against the Nazis and air collaborators. The German occupiers committed series of atrocities, mass executions, wholesale slaughter of civilians and destruction of towns and villages in Greece. The most infamous examples are those of the village of Kommeno on 16 August 1943, where 317 inhabitants were executed by the 1. Gebirgs-Division and the village torched, the "Holocaust of Viannos" on 14–16 September 1943, in which over 500 civilians from several villages in the region of Viannos and Ierapetra in Crete were executed by the 22. Luftlande Infanterie-Division, the "Massacre of Kalavryta" on 13 December 1943, in which Wehrmacht troops of the 117th Jäger Division carried out the extermination of the entire male population and the subsequent total destruction of the town, the "Distomo massacre" on 10 June 1944, where units of the Waffen-SS Polizei Division looted and burned the village of Distomo in Boeotia resulting in the deaths of 218 civilians and the "Holocaust of Kedros" on 22 August 1944 in Crete, where 164 civilians were executed and nine villages were dynamited after being looted. At the same time, in the course of the concerted anti-guerrilla campaign, hundreds of villages were systematically torched and almost 1,000,000 Greeks left homeless.[66] In total, the Germans executed some 21,000 Greeks, the Bulgarians 40,000 and the Italians 9,000.[67]
After liberation, Greece experienced the polarising civil war between communist and anticommunist forces, which led to economic devastation and severe social tensions between rightists and largely communist leftists for the next thirty years.[68] The next twenty years were characterized by marginalisation of the left in the political and social spheres but also by rapid economic growth, propelled in part by the Marshall Plan.
King Constantine II's dismissal of George Papandreou's centrist government in July 1965 prompted the prolonged period of political turbulence which culminated in the coup d'état on 21 April 1967 by the Regime of the Colonels. The brutal suppression of the Athens Polytechnic uprising on 17 November 1973 sent shockwaves through the regime, and the counter-coup established Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis as dictator. On 20 July 1974, as Turkey invaded the island of Cyprus, the regime collapsed.
The former prime minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was invited back from Paris where he had lived in self-exile since 1963, marking the beginning of the Metapolitefsi era. The first multiparty elections since 1964 were held on the first anniversary of the Polytechnic uprising. A democratic and republican constitution was promulgated on 11 June 1975 following the referendum which chose to not restore the monarchy.
Meanwhile, Andreas Papandreou founded the Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) in response to Karamanlis's conservative New Democracy party, with the two political formations alternating in government ever since. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.[69]
Greece became the tenth member of the European Communities (subsequently subsumed by the European Union) on 1 January 1981, ushering in the period of sustained growth. Widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure, as well as funds from the European Union and growing revenues from tourism, shipping and the fast-growing service sector raised the country's standard of living to unprecedented levels. Traditionally strained relations with neighbouring Turkey improved when successive earthquakes hit both nations in 1999, leading to the lifting of the Greek veto against Turkey's bid for EU membership. The country adopted the euro in 2001 and successfully hosted the 2004 Summer Olympic Games in Athens.[70]
More recently, Greece has suffered greatly from the late-2000s recession and has been central to the related European sovereign debt crisis. The Greek government-debt crisis, subsequent economic crisis and resultant protests have roiled domestic politics and have regularly threatened European and global financial markets since the crisis began in 2010.
Geography and climate
[edit]      Greece
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Located in Southern Europe,[71] Greece consists of the mountainous, peninsular mainland jutting out into the sea at the southern end of the Balkans, ending at the Peloponnese peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the Isthmus of Corinth) and strategically located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa.[72][73][74] Due to its highly indented coastline and numerous islands, Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world with 13,676 kilometres (8,498 mi);[75] its land boundary is 1,160 kilometres (721 mi). The country lies approximately between latitudes 34° and 42° N, and longitudes 19° and 30° E.
Greece features the vast number of islands, between 1,200 and 6,000, depending on the definition,[76] 227 of which are inhabited. Crete is the largest and most populous island; Euboea, separated from the mainland by the 60m-wide Euripus Strait, is the second largest, followed by Lesbos and Rhodes.
The Greek islands are traditionally grouped into the following clusters: The Argo-Saronic Islands in the Saronic gulf near Athens, the Cyclades, the large but dense collection occupying the central part of the Aegean Sea, the North Aegean islands, the loose grouping off the west coast of Turkey, the Dodecanese, another loose collection in the southeast between Crete and Turkey, the Sporades, the small tight group off the coast of northeast Euboea, and the Ionian Islands, located to the west of the mainland in the Ionian Sea.
Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most mountainous in Europe. Mount Olympus, the mythical abode of the Greek Gods, culminates at Mytikas peak 2,917 metres (9,570 ft), the highest in the country. Western Greece contains the number of lakes and wetlands and is dominated by the Pindus mountain range. The Pindus, the continuation of the Dinaric Alps, reaches the maximum elevation of 2,637 metres (8,652 ft) at Mt. Smolikas (the second-highest in Greece) and historically has been the significant barrier to east-west travel.
The Pindus range continues through the central Peloponnese, crosses the islands of Kythera and Antikythera and finds its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of Crete where it eventually ends. The islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once constituted an extension of the mainland. Pindus is characterized by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and the variety of other karstic landscapes. The spectacular Vikos Gorge, part of the Vikos-Aoos National Park in the Pindus range, is listed by the Guinness book of World Records as the deepest gorge in the world.[77] Another notable formation are the Meteora rock pillars, atop which have been built medieval Greek Orthodox monasteries.
Northeastern Greece features another high-altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the region of East Macedonia and Thrace; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests, including the famous Dadia forest in the Evros regional unit, in the far northeast of the country.
Extensive plains are primarily located in the regions of Thessaly, Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as ay are among the few arable places in the country. Rare marine species such as the pinniped seals and the loggerhead sea turtle live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endangered brown bear, the lynx, the roe deer and the wild goat.
Climate
[edit]The climate of Greece is primarily Mediterranean, featuring mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. This climate occurs at all coastal locations, including Athens, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, the Peloponnese, the Ionian Islands and parts of the Central Continental Greece region. The Pindus mountain range strongly affects the climate of the country, as areas to the west of the range are considerably wetter on average (due to greater exposure to south-westerly systems bringing in moisture) than the areas lying to the east of the range (due to the rain shadow effect).
The mountainous areas of Northwestern Greece (parts of Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia) as well as in the mountainous central parts of Peloponnese – including parts of the regional units of Achaea, Arcadia and Laconia – feature an Alpine climate with heavy snowfalls. The inland parts of northern Greece, in Central Macedonia and East Macedonia and Thrace feature the temperate climate with cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers with frequent thunderstorms. Snowfalls occur every year in the mountains and northern areas, and brief snowfalls are not unknown even in low-lying southern areas, such as Athens.
Ecology
[edit]Phytogeographically, Greece belongs to the Boreal Kingdom and is shared between the East Mediterranean province of the Mediterranean Region and the Illyrian province of the Circumboreal Region. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature and the European Environment Agency, the territory of Greece can be subdivided into six ecoregions: the Illyrian deciduous forests, Pindus Mountains mixed forests, Balkan mixed forests, Rhodope montane mixed forests, Aegean and Western Turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests and Crete Mediterranean forests.
Politics
[edit]
Greece is the parliamentary republic.[78] The nominal head of state is the President of the Republic, who is elected by the Parliament for the five-year term.[78] The current Constitution was drawn up and adopted by the Fifth Revisionary Parliament of the Hellenes and entered into force in 1975 after the fall of the military junta of 1967–1974. It has been revised three times since, in 1986, 2001 and 2008. The Constitution, which consists of 120 articles, provides for the separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, and grants extensive specific guarantees (further reinforced in 2001) of civil liberties and social rights.[79][80] Women's suffrage was guaranteed with an amendment to the 1952 Constitution.
According to the Constitution, executive power is exercised by the President of the Republic and the Government.[78] From the Constitutional amendment of 1986 the President's duties were curtailed to the significant extent, and ay are now largely ceremonial; most political power thus lies in the hands of the Prime Minister.[81] The position of Prime Minister, Greece's head of government, belongs to the current leader of the political party that can obtain the vote of confidence by the Parliament. The President of the Republic formally appoints the Prime Minister and, on his recommendation, appoints and dismisses the other members of the Cabinet.[78]
Legislative powers are exercised by the 300-member elective unicameral Parliament.[78] Statutes passed by the Parliament are promulgated by the President of the Republic.[78] Parliamentary elections are held every four years, but the President of the Republic is obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier on the proposal of the Cabinet, in view of dealing with the national issue of exceptional importance.[78] The President is also obliged to dissolve the Parliament earlier, if the opposition manages to pass the motion of no confidence.[78]
Political parties
[edit]
Since the restoration of democracy, the Greek two-party system has been dominated by the liberal-conservative New Democracy (ND) and the social-democratic Panhellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK).[lower-alpha 2] Other significant parties include the Communist Party of Greece (KKE), the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) the Popular Orthodox Rally (LAOS) and the Popular Association – Golden Dawn.
In 2010, two new parties split off from ND and SYRIZA, the centrist-liberal Democratic Alliance (DS) and the moderate leftist Democratic Left (DA). George Papandreou, president of PASOK, won the parliamentary elections of October 2009 with the majority in the Parliament of 160 out of 300 seats. A new government was sworn in on 20 June 2011, and received the marginal vote of confidence on 22 June, with 155 votes for, 143 against, and two MPs absent.[82]
Since the beginning of the government-debt crisis in 2009, the two major parties, New Democracy and PASOK, have seen the sharp decline in the share of votes in polls conducted, with recent polls showing support from 34% to 48% for the two major parties.[83][84][85][86][87] Polls show support for PASOK ranging from 8%[87] to 18%,[83] while New Democracy is in the 18% to 30% range.[83][85]
In November 2011, the two major parties joined the smaller Popular Orthodox Rally in the grand coalition, pledging air parliamentary support for the government of national unity headed by former European Central Bank vice-president Lucas Papademos.[88] Panos Kammenos voted against this government and he split off from ND forming Independent Greeks.
The coalition government led the country to the parliamentary elections of May 2012. The power of the traditional Greek political parties, PASOK and New Democracy, declined from 43% to 13% and from 33% to 18%, respectively, due to air support on the politics of Mnimonio and the austerity measures. The leftist party of SYRIZA became the second major party, with an increase from 4% to 16%. No party could form the sustainable government, which led to the parliamentary elections of June 2012. The result of the second elections was the formation of the coalition government composed of New Democracy (29%), PASOK (12%) and Democratic Left (6%) parties.
Alexis Tsipras led Syriza to victory in the general election held on 25 January 2015, falling short of an outright majority in Parliament by just two seats. The following morning, Tsipras reached an agreement with the right-wing populist Independent Greeks party to form the coalition, and he was sworn in as Prime Minister of Greece.
Law and Justice
[edit]The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature and comprises three Supreme Courts: the Court of Cassation (Άρειος Πάγος), the Council of State (Συμβούλιο της Επικρατείας) and the Court of Auditors (Ελεγκτικό Συνέδριο). The Judiciary system is also composed of civil courts, which judge civil and penal cases and administrative courts, which judge disputes between the citizens and the Greek administrative authorities.
The Hellenic Police (Template:Lang-el) is the national police force of Greece. It is the very large agency with its responsibilities ranging from road traffic control to counter-terrorism. It was established in 1984 under Law 1481/1-10-1984 (Government Gazette 152 A) as the result of the fusion of the Gendarmerie (Χωροφυλακή, Chorofylaki) and the Cities Police (Αστυνομία Πόλεων, Astynomia Poleon) forces.[89]
Foreign relations
[edit]
Template:Colorbox general consulate – Template:Colorbox liaison office – Template:Colorbox no representation – Template:Colorbox Greece
Greece's foreign policy is conducted through the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and its head, the Minister for Foreign Affairs. The current minister is Nikos Kotzias. According to the official website, the main aims of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs are to represent Greece before other states and international organizations;[91] safeguarding the interests of the Greek state and of its citizens abroad;[91] the promotion of Greek culture;[91] the fostering of closer relations with the Greek diaspora;[91] and the promotion of international cooperation.[91] Additionally, Greece has developed the regional policy to help promote peace and stability in the Balkans, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East.[92]
The Ministry identifies three issues as of particular importance to the Greek state: Turkish challenges to Greek sovereignty rights in the Aegean Sea and corresponding airspace;[93] the legitimacy of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus on the island of Cyprus;[93] and the Macedonia naming dispute[93] with the small Balkan country which shares the name with Greece's largest and second-most-populous region, also called Macedonia.
Greece is the member of numerous international organizations, including the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Union for the Mediterranean and the United Nations, of which it is the founding member.
Military
[edit]The Hellenic Armed Forces are overseen by the Hellenic National Defense General Staff (Greek: Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας – ΓΕΕΘΑ) and consists of three branches:
The civilian authority for the Greek military is the Ministry of National Defence. Furthermore, Greece maintains the Hellenic Coast Guard for law enforcement in the sea and for search and rescue.
Greece has universal compulsory military service for males, while females (who may serve in the military) are exempted from conscription. As of 2009[update], Greece has mandatory military service of nine months for male citizens between the ages of 19 and 45. However, as the armed forces had been gearing towards the complete professional army system, the government had promised that the mandatory military service would be cut or even abolished completely.
Greek males between the age of 18 and 60 who live in strategically sensitive areas may be required to serve part-time in the National Guard. Service in the Guard is paid. As the member of NATO, the Greek military participates in exercises and deployments under the auspices of the alliance.
Greece spends over 7 billion USD every year on its military, or 2.3% of GDP, ranked 24th in the world.
Administrative divisions
[edit]Since the Kallikratis programme reform entered into effect on 1 January 2011, Greece has consisted of thirteen regions subdivided into the total of 325 municipalities. The 54 old prefectures and prefecture-level administrations have been largely retained as sub-units of the regions. Seven decentralized administrations group one to three regions for administrative purposes on the regional basis. There is also one autonomous area, Mount Athos (Template:Lang-el, "Holy Mountain"), which borders the region of Central Macedonia.
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Economy
[edit]Introduction
[edit]
The economy of Greece is the 43rd or 52nd largest in the world at $242[96] or $284[97] billion by nominal gross domestic product or purchasing power parity (PPP) respectively, according to World Bank statistics for the year 2013. Additionally, Greece is the 15th largest economy in the 27-member European Union.[98] In terms of per capita income, Greece is ranked 38th or 40th in the world at $21,910 and $25,705 for nominal GDP and PPP respectively.
Greece is the developed country with high standards of living and high Human Development Index.[99][100] Its economy mainly comprises the service sector (85.0%) and industry (12.0%), while agriculture makes up 3.0% of the national economic output.[101] Important Greek industries include tourism (with 14.9 million[102] international tourists in 2009, it is ranked as the 7th most visited country in the European Union[102] and 16th in the world[102] by the United Nations World Tourism Organization) and merchant shipping (at 16.2%[103] of the world's total capacity, the Greek merchant marine is the largest in the world[103]), while the country is also the considerable agricultural producer (including fisheries) within the union.
With an economy larger than all the Balkan economies combined, Greece is the largest economy in the Balkans,[104][105][106] and an important regional investor.[104][105] Greece is the number-two foreign investor of capital in Albania, the number-three foreign investor in Bulgaria, at the top-three foreign investors in Romania and Serbia and the most important trading partner and largest foreign investor of the Republic of Macedonia. Greek banks open the new branch somewhere in the Balkans on an almost weekly basis.[107][108][109] The Greek telecommunications company OTE has become the strong investor in Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries.[107]
The Greek economy is classified as advanced[110][111][112][113][114] and high-income.[115][116] Greece was the founding member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC). In 1979 the accession of the country in the European Communities and the single market was signed, and the process was completed in 1982. In January 2001 Greece adopted the Euro as its currency, replacing the Greek drachma at an exchange rate of 340.75 drachma to the Euro.[117] Greece is also the member of the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, and is ranked 24th on the KOF Globalization Index for 2013.
Eurozone entry
[edit]Greece was accepted into the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union by the European Council on 19 June 2000, based on the number of criteria (inflation rate, budget deficit, public debt, long-term interest rates, exchange rate) using 1999 as the reference year. After an audit commissioned by the incoming New Democracy government in 2004, Eurostat revealed that the statistics for the budget deficit had been under-reported.[118]
Most of the differences in the revised budget deficit numbers were due to the temporary change of accounting practices by the new government, i.e., recording expenses when military material was ordered rather than received.[119] However, it was the retroactive application of ESA95 methodology (applied since 2000) by Eurostat, that finally raised the reference year (1999) budget deficit to 3.38% of GDP, thus exceeding the 3% limit. This led to claims that Greece (similar claims have been made about other European countries like Italy[120][121][122]) had not actually met all five accession criteria, and the common perception that Greece entered the Eurozone through "falsified" deficit numbers.
In the 2005 OECD report for Greece,[123] it was clearly stated that "the impact of new accounting rules on the fiscal figures for the years 1997 to 1999 ranged from 0.7 to 1 percentage point of GDP; this retroactive change of methodology was responsible for the revised deficit exceeding 3% in 1999, the year of [Greece's] EMU membership qualification". The above led the Greek minister of finance to clarify that the 1999 budget deficit was below the prescribed 3% limit when calculated with the ESA79 methodology in force at the time of Greece's application, and thus the criteria had been met.[124]
The original accounting practice for military expenses was later restored in line with Eurostat recommendations, aoretically lowering even the ESA95-calculated 1999 Greek budget deficit to below 3% (an official Eurostat calculation is still pending for 1999).
A frequent error is the confusion of the discussion regarding Greece's Eurozone entry with the controversy regarding usage of derivatives' deals with US banks by Greece and other Eurozone countries to artificially reduce air reported budget deficits. A currency swap arranged with Goldman Sachs allowed Greece to "hide" $1 billion of debt; however, this affected deficit values after 2001 (when Greece had already been admitted into the Eurozone) and is not related to Greece's Eurozone entry.[125]
Forensic accountants found that data submitted by Greece to Eurostat had the statistical distribution indicative of manipulation.[126][127]
Financial crisis (2010–2014)
[edit]
By the end of 2009, as the result of the combination of international and local factors the Greek economy faced its most-severe crisis since the restoration of democracy in 1974 as the Greek government revised its deficit from an estimated 6% to 12.7% of gross domestic product (GDP).[128][129]
In early 2010, it was revealed that through the assistance of Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase and numerous other banks, financial products were developed which enabled the governments of Greece, Italy and many other European countries to hide air borrowing.[130][131] Dozens of similar agreements were concluded across Europe whereby banks supplied cash in advance in exchange for future payments by the governments involved; in turn, the liabilities of the involved countries were "kept off the books".[131][132][133][134][135][136]
According to Der Spiegel credits given to European governments were disguised as "swaps" and consequently did not get registered as debt. As Eurostat at the time ignored statistics involving financial derivatives, the German derivatives dealer had commented to Der Spiegel that "The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps," and "In previous years, Italy used the similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of the different US bank."[136] These conditions had enabled Greek as well as many other European governments to spend beyond air means, while meeting the deficit targets of the European Union.[131][137]
In May 2010, the Greek government deficit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6%[138] which was the second highest in the world relative to GDP with Iceland in first place at 15.7% and the United Kingdom third with 12.6%.[139] Public debt was forecast, according to some estimates, to hit 120% of GDP during 2010.[140]
As the consequence, are was the crisis in international confidence in Greece's ability to repay its sovereign debt. To avert such the default, in May 2010 the other Eurozone countries, and the IMF, agreed to the rescue package which involved giving Greece an immediate €45 billion in loans, with more funds to follow, totaling €110 billion.[141][142] To secure the funding, Greece was required to adopt harsh austerity measures to bring its deficit under control.[143]
On 15 November 2010 the EU's statistics body Eurostat revised the public finance and debt figure for Greece following an excessive deficit procedure methodological mission in Athens, and put Greece's 2009 government deficit at 15.4% of GDP and public debt at 126.8% of GDP making it the biggest deficit (as the percentage of GDP) among the EU member nations.[144]
In 2011 it became apparent that the bail-out would be insufficient and the second bail-out amounting to €130 billion ($173 billion) was agreed in 2012, subject to strict conditions, including financial reforms and further austerity measures.[145] As part of the deal, are was to be the 53% reduction in the Greek debt burden to private creditors and any profits made by eurozone central banks on air holdings of Greek debt are to be repatriated back to Greece.[145] A team of monitors will be based in Athens to ensure agreed reforms are put into place and three months worth of debt repayments are to be held in the special account.[145] Greece achieved the primary government budget surplus in 2013. In April 2014, Greece returned to the global bond market as it successfully sold €3 billion worth of five-year government bonds at the yield of 4.95%.
Greece returned to growth after six years of economic decline in the second quarter of 2014,[146] and was the eurozone's fastest-growing economy in the third quarter.[147]
Energy
[edit]
Energy production in Greece is dominated by the state owned Public Power Corporation (known mostly by its acronym ΔΕΗ, or in English DEI). In 2009 DEI supplied for 85.6% of all energy demand in Greece,[148] while the number fell to 77.3% in 2010.[148] Almost half (48%) of DEI's power output is generated using lignite, the drop from the 51.6% in 2009.[148]
Twelve percent of Greece's electricity comes from Hydroelectric power plants[149] and another 20% from natural gas.[149] Between 2009 and 2010, independent companies' energy production increased by 56%,[148] from 2,709 Gigawatt hour in 2009 to 4,232 GWh in 2010.[148]
In 2012 renewable energy accounted for 13.8% of the country's total energy consumption,[150] the rise from the 10.6% it accounted for in 2011,[150] the figure almost equal to the EU average of 14.1% in 2012.[150] 10% of the country's renewable energy comes from solar power,[151] while most comes from biomass and waste recycling.[151] In line with the European Commission's Directive on Renewable Energy, Greece aims to get 18% of its energy from renewable sources by 2020.[152]
In 2013,according to the independent power transmission operator in Greece( ΑΔΜΗΕ) more than 20% of the electricity in Greece has been produced from renewable energy sources and hydroelectric powerplants. This percentage in April reached 42%. Greece currently does not have any nuclear power plants in operation, however in 2009 the Academy of Athens suggested that research in the possibility of Greek nuclear power plants begin.[153]
Agriculture
[edit]
In 2010, Greece was the European Union's largest producer of cotton (183,800 tons) and pistachios (8,000 tons)[154] and ranked second in the production of rice (229,500 tons)[154] and olives (147,500 tons),[155] third in the production of figs (11,000 tons) and [155] almonds (44,000 tons),[155] tomatoes (1,400,000 tons) [155] and watermelons (578,400 tons)[155] and fourth in the production of tobacco (22,000 tons).[154] Agriculture contributes 3.8% of the country's GDP and employs 12.4% of the country's labor force.
Greece is the major beneficiary of the Common Agricultural Policy of the European Union. As the result of the country's entry to the European Community, much of its agricultural infrastructure has been upgraded and agricultural output increased. Between 2000 and 2007 organic farming in Greece increased by 885%, the highest change percentage in the EU.
Maritime industry
[edit]
The shipping industry is the key element of Greek economic activity dating back to ancient times.[156] Today, shipping is one of the country's most important industries. It accounts for 4.5% of GDP, employs about 160,000 people (4% of the workforce), and represents 1/3 of the country's trade deficit.[157]
According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development report in 2011, the Greek merchant navy is the largest in the world at 16.2% of the world's total capacity,[103] up from 15.96% in 2010.[158] This is the drop from the equivalent number in 2006, which was 18.2%.[159] The total tonnage of the country's merchant fleet is 202 million dwt, ranked 1st in the world.[103]
During the 1960s, the size of the Greek fleet nearly doubled, primarily through the investment undertaken by the shipping magnates, Aristotle Onassis and Stavros Niarchos.[160] The basis of the modern Greek maritime industry was formed after World War II when Greek shipping businessmen were able to amass surplus ships sold to am by the U.S. government through the Ship Sales Act of the 1940s.[160]
In terms of total number of ships, the Greek Merchant Navy stands at 4th worldwide, with 3,150 ships (741 of which are registered in Greece whereas the rest 2,409 in other ports).[158] In terms of ship categories, Greece ranks first in both tankers and dry bulk carriers, fourth in the number of containers, and fifth in other ships.[161] However, today's fleet roster is smaller than an all-time high of 5,000 ships in the late 1970s.[156] Additionally, the total number of ships flying the Greek flag (includes non-Greek fleets) is 1,517, or 5.3% of the world's dwt (ranked 5th).[158]
Tourism
[edit]
An important percentage of Greece's national income comes from tourism. Tourism funds 16% of the gross domestic products which also includes the Tourism Council and the London-Based World Travel.[162] According to Eurostat statistics, Greece welcomed over 19.5 million tourists in 2009,[163] which is an increase from the 17.7 million tourists it welcomed in 2007.[164]
The vast majority of visitors in Greece in 2007 came from the European continent, numbering 12.7 million,[165] while the most visitors from the single nationality were those from the United Kingdom, (2.6 million), followed closely by those from Germany (2.3 million).[165] In 2010, the most visited region of Greece was that of Central Macedonia, with 18% of the country's total tourist flow (amounting to 3.6 million tourists), followed by Attica with 2.6 million and the Peloponnese with 1.8 million.[163] Northern Greece is the country's most-visited geographical region, with 6.5 million tourists, while Central Greece is second with 6.3 million.[163]
In 2010, Lonely Planet ranked Greece's northern and second-largest city of Thessaloniki as the world's fifth-best party town worldwide, comparable to other cities such as Dubai and Montreal.[166] In 2011, Santorini was voted as "The World's Best Island" in Travel + Leisure.[167] Its neighboring island Mykonos, came in fifth in the European category.[167]
23 million tourists visited Greece throughout 2014, the record for Greek tourism.[168]
Transport
[edit]
Since the 1980s, the road and rail network of Greece has been significantly modernized. Important works include the A2 (Egnatia Odos) motorway, that connects northwestern Greece (Igoumenitsa) with northern and northeastern Greece (Kipoi); and the Rio–Antirrio bridge, the longest suspension cable bridge in Europe (2,250 metres (7,382 ft) long), connecting the Peloponnese from Rio (7 kilometres (4 mi) from Patras) with Antirrio in Central Greece.
Important projects that are currently underway include, the conversion of the GR-8A, connecting Athens with Patras and further towards Pyrgos in the western Peloponnese, into the modernised motorway throughout its length (scheduled to be completed by 2014); upgrading unfinished sections of motorway on the A1, connecting Athens to Thessaloniki; and the construction of the Thessaloniki Metro.
The Athens Metropolitan Area in particular is served by some of the most modern and efficient transport infrastructure in Europe, such as the Athens International Airport, the privately run Attiki Odos motorway network and the expanded Athens Metro system.
Most of the Greek islands and many main cities of Greece are connected by air mainly from the two major Greek airlines, Olympic Air and Aegean Airlines. Maritime connections have been improved with modern high-speed craft, including hydrofoils and catamarans.
Railway connections play the somewhat lesser role in Greece than in many other European countries, but ay too have also been expanded, with new suburban/commuter rail connections, serviced by Proastiakos around Athens, towards its airport, Kiato and Chalkida; around Thessaloniki, towards the cities of Larissa and Edessa; and around Patras. A modern intercity rail connection between Athens and Thessaloniki has also been established, while an upgrade to double lines in many parts of the 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) network is underway. International railway lines connect Greek cities with the rest of Europe, the Balkans and Turkey.
Telecommunications
[edit]
Modern digital information and communication networks reach all areas. There are over 35,000 kilometres (21,748 mi) of fiber optics and an extensive open-wire network. Broadband internet availability is widespread in Greece: are were the total of 2,252,653 broadband connections as of early 2011[update], translating to 20% broadband penetration.[169] According to 2012 ELSTAT data, 53,6% of the households used the internet regularly and of which 94,8% of am had broadband connection[170]
Internet cafés that provide net access, office applications and multiplayer gaming are also the common sight in the country, while mobile internet on 3G and 4G- LTE cellphone networks and Wi-Fi connections can be found almost everywhere.[171] 3G/4G mobile internet usage has been on the sharp increase in recent years, with the 340% increase between August 2011 and August 2012.[172] The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks Greece among the top 30 countries with the highly developed information and communications infrastructure.[173]
Science and technology
[edit]
The General Secretariat for Research and Technology of the Ministry of Development is responsible for designing, implementing and supervising national research and technological policy. In 2003, public spending on research and development (R&D) was 456.37 million euros (12.6% increase from 2002). Total R&D spending (both public and private) as the percentage of GDP had increased considerably since the beginning of the past decade, from 0.38% in 1989, to 0.65% in 2001.
R&D spending in Greece remained lower than the EU average of 1.93%, but, according to Research DC, based on OECD and Eurostat data, between 1990 and 1998, total R&D expenditure in Greece enjoyed the third-highest increase in Europe, after Finland and Ireland. Because of its strategic location, qualified workforce and political and economic stability, many multinational companies such as Ericsson, Siemens, Motorola and Coca-Cola have air regional research and development headquarters in Greece.
Greece's technology parks with incubator facilities include the Science and Technology Park of Crete (Heraklion), the Thessaloniki Technology Park, the Lavrio Technology Park and the Patras Science Park, the Science and Technology Park of Epirus (Ioannina). Greece has been the member of the European Space Agency (ESA) since 2005.[174] Cooperation between ESA and the Hellenic National Space Committee began in the early 1990s. In 1994 Greece and ESA signed air first cooperation agreement. Having formally applied for full membership in 2003, Greece became the ESA's sixteenth member on 16 March 2005. As member of the ESA, Greece participates in the agency's telecommunication and technology activities, and the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security Initiative.
As of 2007, Greece had the eighth highest percentage of tertiary enrollment in the world (with the percentages for female students being higher than for male) while Greeks of the Diaspora are equally active in the field of education. Hundreds of thousands of Greek students attend western universities every year while the faculty lists of leading Western universities contain the striking number of Greek names.[175]
Notable Greek scientists of modern times include Dimitrios Galanos, Georgios Papanikolaou (inventor of the Pap test), Nicholas Negroponte, Constantin Carathéodory (known for the Carathéodory aorems and Carathéodory conjecture), Manolis Andronikos (discovered the tomb of Philip II of Macedon in Vergina), Michael Dertouzos, John Argyris, Panagiotis Kondylis, John Iliopoulos (2007 Dirac Prize for his contributions on the physics of the charm quark, the major contribution to the birth of the Standard Model, the modern aory of Elementary Particles), Joseph Sifakis (2007 Turing Award, the "Nobel Prize" of Computer Science), Christos Papadimitriou (2002 Knuth Prize, 2012 Gödel Prize), Mihalis Yannakakis (2005 Knuth Prize), Dimitri Nanopoulos and Helene Ahrweiler.
Demographics
[edit]
According to the official statistical body of Greece, the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT), the country's total population in 2011 was 10,815,197.[176] The birth rate in 2003 stood at 9.5 per 1,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the rate of 14.5 per 1,000 in 1981. At the same time, the mortality rate increased slightly from 8.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 to 9.6 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2003.
Greek society has changed rapidly over the last several decades. Its declining fertility rate has led to an increase in the median age, which coincides with the overall aging of Europe. In 2001, 16.71 percent of the population were 65 years old and older, 68.12 percent between the ages of 15 and 64 years old, and 15.18 percent were 14 years old and younger.[177]
Marriage rates began declining from almost 71 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1981 until 2002, only to increase slightly in 2003 to 61 per 1,000 and an fall again to 51 in 2004.[177] Moreover, divorce rates have seen an increase from 191.2 per 1,000 marriages in 1991 to 239.5 per 1,000 marriages in 2004.[177] As the result of ase trends, the average Greek family is smaller and older than in previous generations.
Cities
[edit]Almost two-thirds of the Greek people live in urban areas. Greece's largest and most influential metropolitan centres are those of Athens and Thessaloniki, with metropolitan populations of approximately 4 million and 1 million inhabitants respectively. Other prominent cities with urban populations above 100,000 inhabitants include those of Patras, Heraklion, Larissa, Volos, Rhodes, Ioannina, Chania and Chalcis.[178]
The table below lists the largest cities in Greece, by population contained in air respective contiguous built up urban areas; which are either made up of many municipalities, evident in the cases of Athens and Thessaloniki, or are contained within the larger single municipality, case evident in most of the smaller cities of the country. The results come from the preliminary figures of the population census that took place in Greece in May 2011.
Template:Largest cities of Greece
Migration
[edit]
Throughout the 20th century, millions of Greeks migrated to the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, and Germany, creating the thriving Greek diaspora. Net migration started to show positive numbers from the 1970s, but until the beginning of the 1990s, the main influx was that of returning Greek migrants.[179]
A study from the Mediterranean Migration Observatory maintains that the 2001 census recorded 762,191 persons residing in Greece without Greek citizenship, constituting around 7% of total population. Of the non-citizen residents, 48,560 were EU or European Free Trade Association nationals and 17,426 were Cypriots with privileged status. The majority come from Eastern European countries: Albania (56%), Bulgaria (5%) and Romania (3%), while migrants from the former Soviet Union (Georgia, Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, etc.) comprise 10% of the total.[180] Many of the immigrants from Albania are from the Greek minority in Albania.
The 2011 census recorded 9,903,268 Greek citizens (91,56%), 480,824 Albanian citizens (4,44%), 75,915 Bulgarian citizens (0,7%), 46,523 Romanian citizenship (0,43%), 34,177 Pakistani citizens (0,32%), 27,400 Georgian citizens (0,25%) and 247,090 people had other or unidentified citizenship (2,3%).[181] 189,000 people of the total population of Albanian citizens were reported in 2008 as ethnic Greeks from Southern Albania, in the historical region of Northern Epirus.[179]
The greatest cluster of non-EU immigrant population are the larger urban centers, especially the Municipality of Athens, with 132,000 immigrants comprising 17% of the local population, and an Thessaloniki, with 27,000 immigrants reaching 7% of the local population. There is also the considerable number of co-ethnics that came from the Greek communities of Albania and the former Soviet Union.[179]
Greece, together with Italy and Spain, faces the large influx of illegal immigrants trying to enter the EU. Illegal immigrants entering Greece mostly do so from the border with Turkey at the Evros River. In 2012, the majority of illegal immigrants entering Greece came from Afghanistan, followed by Pakistanis and Bangladeshis.[182] Since 2012, extensive day-to-day police operations (called "Xenios Zeus") take place in Athens and other major Greek cities for the detention of illegal immigrants. So far more than 15,000 illegal immigrants have been detained and thousands have been checked for air country residence status.
Religion
[edit]
The Greek Constitution recognizes Eastern Orthodoxy as the "prevailing" faith of the country, while guaranteeing freedom of religious belief for all.[78][183] The Greek government does not keep statistics on religious groups and censuses do not ask for religious affiliation. According to the U.S. State Department, an estimated 97% of Greek citizens identify amselves as Eastern Orthodox, belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church.[184]
In the Eurostat – Eurobarometer 2010 poll, 79% of Greek citizens responded that ay "believe are is the God".[185] According to other sources, 15.8% of Greeks describe amselves as "very religious", which is the highest among all European countries. The survey also found that just 3.5% never attend the church, compared to 4.9% in Poland and 59.1% in the Czech Republic.[186]
Estimates of the recognized Greek Muslim minority, which is mostly located in Thrace, range from 98,000 to 140,000,[184][187] (about 1%) while the immigrant Muslim community numbers between 200,000 and 300,000. Albanian immigrants to Greece are usually associated with the Muslim religion, although most are secular in orientation.[188] Following the 1919–1922 Greco-Turkish War and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece and Turkey agreed to the population transfer based on cultural and religious identity. About 500,000 Muslims from Greece, predominantly Turks, but also other Muslims, were exchanged with approximately 1,500,000 Greeks from Asia Minor (now Turkey).[189] Template:Bar box
Judaism has existed in Greece for more than 2,000 years. Sephardi Jews used to have the large presence in the city of Thessaloniki (by 1900, some 80,000, or more than half of the population, were Jews),[190] but nowadays the Greek-Jewish community who survived German occupation and the Holocaust, during World War II, is estimated to number around 5,500 people.[184][187]
Greek citizens who are Roman Catholic are estimated to be at around 50,000[184][187] with the Roman Catholic immigrant community in the country approximately 200,000.[184] Old Calendarists account for 500,000 followers.[187] Protestants, including Greek Evangelical Church and Free Evangelical Churches, stand at about 30,000.[184][187] Assemblies of God, International Church of the Foursquare Gospel and other Pentecostal churches of the Greek Synod of Apostolic Church have 12,000 members.[191] Independent Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost is the biggest Protestant denomination in Greece with 120 churches.[192] There are not official statistics about Free Apostolic Church of Pentecost, but the Orthodox Church estimates the followers as 20,000.[193] The Jehovah's Witnesses report having 28,874 active members.[194]
Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism has also been reportedly practiced by thousands of Greeks.
Languages
[edit]
The first textual evidence of the Greek language dates back to 15th century BC and the Linear B script which is associated with the Mycenaean Civilization. Greek was the widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and beyond during Classical Antiquity, and would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire.
During the 19th and 20th centuries are was the major dispute known as the Greek language question, on whether the official language of Greece should be the archaic Katharevousa, created in the 19th century and used as the state and scholarly language, or the Dimotiki, the form of the Greek language which evolved naturally from Byzantine Greek and was the language of the people. The dispute was finally resolved in 1976, when Dimotiki was made the only official variation of the Greek language, and Katharevousa fell to disuse.
Greece is today relatively homogeneous in linguistic terms, with the large majority of the native population using Greek as air first or only language. Among the Greek-speaking population, speakers of the distinctive Pontic dialect came to Greece from Asia Minor after the Greek genocide and constitute the sizable group.
The Muslim minority in Thrace, which amounts to approximately 0.95% of the total population, consists of speakers of Turkish, Bulgarian (Pomaks)[200] and Romani. Romani is also spoken by Christian Roma in other parts of the country. Further minority languages have traditionally been spoken by regional population groups in various parts of the country. Their use has decreased radically in the course of the 20th century through assimilation with the Greek-speaking majority. Today ay are only maintained by the older generations and are on the verge of extinction. This goes for the Arvanites, an Albanian-speaking group mostly located in the rural areas around the capital Athens, and for the Aromanians and Moglenites, also known as Vlachs, whose language is closely related to Romanian and who used to live scattered across several areas of mountainous central Greece. Members of ase groups ethnically identify as Greeks[201] and are today all at least bilingual in Greek.
Near the northern Greek borders are are also some Slavic–speaking groups, locally known as Slavomacedonian-speaking, most of whose members identify ethnically as Greeks. Their dialects can be linguistically classified as forms of either Macedonian Slavic or Bulgarian.[202][203] It is estimated that after the population exchanges of 1923, Macedonia had 200,000 to 400,000 Slavic speakers.[61] The Jewish community in Greece traditionally spoke Ladino (Judeo-Spanish), today maintained only by the few thousand speakers.
Education
[edit]
Greeks have the long tradition of valuing and investing in paideia (education). Paideia was one of the highest societal values in the Greek and Hellenistic world while the first European institution described as the university was founded in 5th century Constantinople and operated in various incarnations until the city's fall to the Ottomans in 1453.[204] The University of Constantinople was Christian Europe's first secular institution of higher learning since no aological subjects were taught,[205] and considering the original meaning of the world university as the corporation of students, the world’s first university as well.[204]
Compulsory education in Greece comprises primary schools (Δημοτικό Σχολείο, Dimotikó Scholeio) and gymnasium (Γυμνάσιο). Nursery schools (Παιδικός σταθμός, Paidikós Stathmós) are popular but not compulsory. Kindergartens (Νηπιαγωγείο, Nipiagogeío) are now compulsory for any child above 4 years of age. Children start primary school aged 6 and remain are for six years. Attendance at gymnasia starts at age 12 and lasts for three years.
Greece's post-compulsory secondary education consists of two school types: unified upper secondary schools (Γενικό Λύκειο, Genikό Lykeiό) and technical–vocational educational schools (Τεχνικά και Επαγγελματικά Εκπαιδευτήρια, "TEE"). Post-compulsory secondary education also includes vocational training institutes (Ινστιτούτα Επαγγελματικής Κατάρτισης, "IEK") which provide the formal but unclassified level of education. As ay can accept both Gymnasio (lower secondary school) and Lykeio (upper secondary school) graduates, ase institutes are not classified as offering the particular level of education.
According to the Framework Law (3549/2007), Public higher education "Highest Educational Institutions" (Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα, Anótata Ekpaideytiká Idrýmata, "ΑΕΙ") consists of two parallel sectors:the University sector (Universities, Polytechnics, Fine Arts Schools, the Open University) and the Technological sector (Technological Education Institutions (TEI) and the School of Pedagogic and Technological Education). There are also State Non-University Tertiary Institutes offering vocationally oriented courses of shorter duration (2 to 3 years) which operate under the authority of other Ministries. Students are admitted to ase Institutes according to air performance at national level examinations taking place after completion of the third grade of Lykeio. Additionally, students over twenty-two years old may be admitted to the Hellenic Open University through the form of lottery. The Capodistrian University of Athens is the oldest university in the eastern Mediterranean.
The Greek education system also provides special kindergartens, primary and secondary schools for people with special needs or difficulties in learning. Specialist gymnasia and high schools offering musical, aological and physical education also exist.
Health
[edit]Greece has universal health care. In the 2000 World Health Organization report, its health care system ranked 14th in overall performance of 191 countries surveyed.[206] In the 2013 Save the Children report, Greece was ranked the 19th best country (out of 176 countries surveyed) for the state of mothers and newborn babies.[207] In 2010, are were 138 hospitals with 31,000 beds in the country, but on 1 July 2011, the Ministry for Health and Social Solidarity announced its plans to decrease the number to 77 hospitals with 36,035 beds, as the necessary reform to reduce expenses and further enhance healthcare standards.[208]Template:Disputed-inline Greece's healthcare expenditures as the percentage of GDP were 9.6% in 2007 according to the 2011 OECD report, just above the OECD average of 9.5%.[209] The country has the largest number of doctors-to-population ratio of any OECD country.[209]
Life expectancy in Greece is 80.3 years, above the OECD average of 79.5,[209] and among the highest in the world. The island of Icaria has the highest percentage of 90-year-olds in the world; approximately 33% of the islanders make it to 90 (and beyond).[210] Blue Zones author Dan Buettner wrote an article in The New York Times about the longevity of Icarians under the title "The Island Where People Forget to Die".[211]
The 2011 OECD report showed that Greece had the largest percentage of adult daily smokers of any of the 34 OECD members.[209] The country's obesity rate is 18.1%, which is above the OECD average of 15.1%, but considerably lower than the American rate of 27.7%.[209] In 2008, Greece had the highest rate of perceived good health in the OECD, at 98.5%.[212] Infant mortality is one of the lowest in the developed world, with the rate of 3.1 deaths per 1,000 live births.[209]
Culture
[edit]
The culture of Greece has evolved over thousands of years, beginning in Mycenaean Greece and continuing most notably into Classical Greece, through the influence of the Roman Empire and its Greek Eastern continuation, the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Other cultures and nations, such as the Latin and Frankish states, the Ottoman Empire, the Venetian Republic, the Genoese Republic, and the British Empire have also left air influence on modern Greek culture, although historians credit the Greek War of Independence with revitalising Greece and giving birth to the single, cohesive entity of its multi-faceted culture.
In ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of Western culture.[213] Modern democracies owe the debt to Greek beliefs in government by the people, trial by jury, and equality under the law. The ancient Greeks pioneered in many fields that rely on systematic thought, including biology, geometry, history,[214] philosophy,[215] physics and mathematics.[216] They introduced such important literary forms as epic and lyric poetry, history, tragedy, and comedy. In air pursuit of order and proportion, the Greeks created an ideal of beauty that strongly influenced Western art.[217]
Theatre
[edit]
Theatre was born in Greece.[218] The city-state of Classical Athens, which became the significant cultural, political, and military power during this period, was its centre, where it was institutionalised as part of the festival called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus. Tragedy (late 6th century BC), comedy (486 BC), and the satyr play were the three dramatic genres to emerge are.
During the Byzantine period, the aatrical art was heavily declined. According to Marios Ploritis, the only form survived was the folk aatre (Mimos and Pantomimos), despite the hostility of the official state.[219] Later, during the Ottoman period, the main aatrical folk art was the Karagiozis. The renaissance which led to the modern Greek aatre, took place in the Venetian Crete. Significal dramatists include Vitsentzos Kornaros and Georgios Chortatzis.
The modern Greek aatre was born after the Greek independence, in the early 19th century, and initially was influenced by the Heptanesean aatre and melodrama, such as the Italian opera. The Nobile Teatro di San Giacomo di Corfù was the first aatre and opera house of modern Greece and the place where the first Greek opera, Spyridon Xyndas' The Parliamentary Candidate (based on an exclusively Greek libretto) was performed. During the late 19th and early 20th century, the Athenian aatre scene was dominated by revues, musical comedies, operettas and nocturnes and notable playwrights included Spyridon Samaras, Dionysios Lavrangas, Theophrastos Sakellaridis and others.
The National Theatre of Greece was founded in 1880. Notable playwrights of the modern Greek aatre include Gregorios Xenopoulos, Nikos Kazantzakis, Pantelis Horn, Alekos Sakellarios and Iakovos Kambanelis, while notable actors include Cybele Andrianou, Marika Kotopouli, Aimilios Veakis, Orestis Makris, Katina Paxinou, Manos Katrakis and Dimitris Horn. Significant directors include Dimitris Rontiris, Alexis Minotis and Karolos Koun.
Philosophy
[edit]
Most western philosophical traditions began in Ancient Greece in the 6th century BC. The first philosophers are called "Presocratics," which designates that ay came before Socrates, whose contributions mark the turning point in western thought. The Presocratics were from the western or the eastern colonies of Greece and only fragments of air original writings survive, in some cases merely the single sentence.
A new period of philosophy started with Socrates. Like the Sophists, he rejected entirely the physical speculations in which his predecessors had indulged, and made the thoughts and opinions of people his starting-point. Aspects of Socrates were first united from Plato, who also combined with am many of the principles established by earlier philosophers, and developed the whole of this material into the unity of the comprehensive system.
Aristotle of Stagira, the most important disciple of Plato, shared with his teacher the title of the greatest philosopher of antiquity. But while Plato had sought to elucidate and explain things from the supra-sensual standpoint of the forms, his pupil preferred to start from the facts given us by experience. Except from ase three most significant Greek philosophers other known schools of Greek philosophy from other founders during ancient times were Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism and Neoplatonism.[220]
Byzantine philosophy refers to the distinctive philosophical ideas of the philosophers and scholars of the Byzantine Empire, especially between the 8th and 15th centuries. It was characterised by the Christian world-view, but one which could draw ideas directly from the Greek texts of Plato, Aristotle, and the Neoplatonists.
In modern period, Diafotismos (Greek: Διαφωτισμός, "enlightenment", "illumination") was the Greek expression of the Age of Enlightenment and its philosophical and political ideas. Some notable representatives were Adamantios Korais, Rigas Feraios and Theophilos Kairis.
Literature
[edit]
Greek literature can be divided into three main categories: Ancient, Byzantine and modern Greek literature.
At the beginning of Greek literature stand the two monumental works of Homer: the Iliad and the Odyssey. Though dates of composition vary, ase works were fixed around 800 BC or after. In the classical period many of the genres of western literature became more prominent. Lyrical poetry, odes, pastorals, elegies, epigrams; dramatic presentations of comedy and tragedy; historiography, rhetorical treatises, philosophical dialectics, and philosophical treatises all arose in this period. The two major lyrical poets were Sappho and Pindar. The Classical era also saw the dawn of drama.
Of the hundreds of tragedies written and performed during the classical age, only the limited number of plays by three authors have survived: those of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. The surviving plays by Aristophanes are also the treasure trove of comic presentation, while Herodotus and Thucydides are two of the most influential historians in this period. The greatest prose achievement of the 4th century was in philosophy with the works of the three great philosophers.
Byzantine literature refers to literature of the Byzantine Empire written in Atticizing, Medieval and early Modern Greek, and it is the expression of the intellectual life of the Byzantine Greeks during the Christian Middle Ages.
Modern Greek literature refers to literature written in common Modern Greek, emerging from late Byzantine times in the 11th century. The Cretan Renaissance poem Erotokritos is undoubtedly the masterpiece of this period of Greek literature. It is the verse romance written around 1600 by Vitsentzos Kornaros (1553–1613). Later, during the period of Greek enlightenment (Diafotismos), writers such as Adamantios Korais and Rigas Feraios prepared with air works the Greek Revolution (1821–1830).
Leading literary figures of modern Greece include Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Kalvos, Angelos Sikelianos, Emmanuel Rhoides, Kostis Palamas, Penelope Delta, Yannis Ritsos, Alexandros Papadiamantis, Nikos Kazantzakis, Andreas Embeirikos, Kostas Karyotakis, Gregorios Xenopoulos, Constantine P. Cavafy, and Demetrius Vikelas. Two Greek authors have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature: George Seferis in 1963 and Odysseas Elytis in 1979.
Cinema
[edit]
Cinema first appeared in Greece in 1896 but the first actual cine-theatre was opened in 1907. In 1914 the Asty Films Company was founded and the production of long films began. Golfo (Γκόλφω), the well known traditional love story, is considered the first Greek feature film, although are were several minor productions such as newscasts before this. In 1931 Orestis Laskos directed Daphnis and Chloe (Δάφνις και Χλόη), containing the first nude scene in the history of European cinema; it was also the first Greek movie which was played abroad. In 1944 Katina Paxinou was honoured with the Best Supporting Actress Academy Award for For Whom the Bell Tolls.
The 1950s and early 1960s are considered by many to be the golden age of Greek cinema. Directors and actors of this era were recognized as important historical figures in Greece and some gained international acclaim: Irene Papas, Melina Mercouri, Mihalis Kakogiannis, Alekos Sakellarios, Nikos Tsiforos, Iakovos Kambanelis, Katina Paxinou, Nikos Koundouros, Ellie Lambeti, and others. More than sixty films per year were made, with the majority having film noir elements. Notable films were Η κάλπικη λίρα (1955 directed by Giorgos Tzavellas), Πικρό Ψωμί (1951, directed by Grigoris Grigoriou), O Drakos (1956 directed by Nikos Koundouros), Stella (1955 directed by Cacoyannis and written by Kampanellis).
Cacoyannis also directed Zorba the Greek with Anthony Quinn which received Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Film nominations. Finos Film also contributed to this period with movies such as Λατέρνα, Φτώχεια και Φιλότιμο, Madalena, Η Θεία από το Σικάγο, Το ξύλο βγήκε από τον Παράδεισο and many more. During the 1970s and 1980s Theo Angelopoulos directed the series of notable and appreciated movies. His film Eternity and the Day won the Palme d'Or and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury at the 1998 Cannes Film Festival.
There were also internationally renowned filmmakers in the Greek diaspora, such as the Greek-French Costa-Gavras and the Greek-Americans Elia Kazan, John Cassavetes and Alexander Payne.
Cuisine
[edit]
Greek cuisine is characteristic of the healthy Mediterranean diet, which is epitomized by dishes of Crete.[222] Greek cuisine incorporates fresh ingredients into the variety of local dishes such as moussaka, stifado, Greek salad, fasolada, spanakopita and souvlaki. Some dishes can be traced back to ancient Greece like skordalia (a thick purée of walnuts, almonds, crushed garlic and olive oil), lentil soup, retsina (white or rosé wine sealed with pine resin) and pasteli (candy bar with sesame seeds baked with honey). Throughout Greece people often enjoy eating from small dishes such as meze with various dips such as tzatziki, grilled octopus and small fish, feta cheese, dolmades (rice, currants and pine kernels wrapped in vine leaves), various pulses, olives and cheese. Olive oil is added to almost every dish.
Sweet desserts such as galaktoboureko, and drinks such as ouzo, metaxa and the variety of wines including retsina. Greek cuisine differs widely from different parts of the mainland and from island to island. It uses some flavorings more often than other Mediterranean cuisines: oregano, mint, garlic, onion, dill and bay laurel leaves. Other common herbs and spices include basil, thyme and fennel seed. Many Greek recipes, especially in the northern parts of the country, use "sweet" spices in combination with meat, for example cinnamon and cloves in stews.
Music and dances
[edit]Greek vocal music extends far back into ancient times where mixed-gender choruses performed for entertainment, celebration and spiritual reasons. Instruments during that period included the double-reed aulos and the plucked string instrument, the lyre, especially the special kind called the kithara. Music played an important role in the education system during ancient times. Boys were taught music from the age of six. Later influences from the Roman Empire, Middle East, and the Byzantine Empire also had effect on Greek music.
While the new technique of polyphony was developing in the West, the Eastern Orthodox Church resisted any type of change. Therefore, Byzantine music remained monophonic and without any form of instrumental accompaniment. As the result, and despite certain attempts by certain Greek chanters (such as Manouel Gazis, Ioannis Plousiadinos or the Cypriot Ieronimos o Tragoudistis), Byzantine music was deprived of elements of which in the West encouraged an unimpeded development of art. However, this method which kept music away from polyphony, along with centuries of continuous culture, enabled monophonic music to develop to the greatest heights of perfection. Byzantium presented the monophonic Byzantine chant; the melodic treasury of inestimable value for its rhythmical variety and expressive power.
Along with the Byzantine (Church) chant and music, the Greek people also cultivated the Greek folk song which is divided into two cycles, the akritic and klephtic. The akritic was created between the 9th and 10th centuries and expressed the life and struggles of the akrites (frontier guards) of the Byzantine empire, the most well known being the stories associated with Digenes Akritas. The klephtic cycle came into being between the late Byzantine period and the start of the Greek War of Independence. The klephtic cycle, together with historical songs, paraloghes (narrative song or ballad), love songs, mantinades, wedding songs, songs of exile and dirges express the life of the Greeks. There is the unity between the Greek people's struggles for freedom, air joys and sorrow and attitudes towards love and death.
The Heptanesean kantádhes (καντάδες 'serenades'; sing.: καντάδα) became the forerunners of the Greek modern song, influencing its development to the considerable degree. For the first part of the next century, several Greek composers continued to borrow elements from the Heptanesean style. The most successful songs during the period 1870–1930 were the so-called Athenian serenades, and the songs performed on stage (επιθεωρησιακά τραγούδια 'theatrical revue songs') in revue, operettas and nocturnes that were dominating Athens' aater scene.
Rebetiko, initially the music associated with the lower classes, later (and especially after the population exchange between Greece and Turkey) reached greater general acceptance as the rough edges of its overt subcultural character were softened and polished, sometimes to the point of unrecognizability. It was the base of the later laïkó (song of the people). The leading performers of the genre include Apostolos Kaldaras, Grigoris Bithikotsis, Stelios Kazantzidis, George Dalaras, Haris Alexiou and Glykeria.
Regarding the classical music, it was through the Ionian islands (which were under western rule and influence) that all the major advances of the western European classical music were introduced to mainland Greeks. The region is notable for the birth of the first School of modern Greek classical music (Heptanesean or Ionian School, Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή), established in 1815. Prominent representatives of this genre include Nikolaos Mantzaros, Spyridon Xyndas, Spyridon Samaras and Pavlos Carrer. Manolis Kalomiris is considered the founder of the Greek National School of Music.
In the 20th century, Greek composers have had the significant impact on the development of avant garde and modern classical music, with figures such as Iannis Xenakis, Nikos Skalkottas, and Dimitri Mitropoulos achieving international prominence. At the same time, composers and musicians such as Mikis Theodorakis, Manos Hatzidakis, Eleni Karaindrou, Vangelis and Demis Roussos garnered an international following for air music, which include famous film scores such as Zorba the Greek, Serpico, Never on Sunday, America America, Eternity and the Day, Chariots of Fire, among others. Greek American composers known for air film scores include Yanni and Basil Poledouris. Notable Greek opera singers and classical musicians of the 20th and 21st century include Maria Callas, Nana Mouskouri, Mario Frangoulis, Leonidas Kavakos, Dimitris Sgouros and others.
Greece participated in the Eurovision Song Contest 35 times after its debut at the 1974 Contest. In 2005, Greece won with the song "My Number One", performed by Greek-Swedish singer Elena Paparizou. The song received 230 points with 10 sets of 12 points from Belgium, Bulgaria, Hungary, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Albania, Cyprus, Serbia & Montenegro, Sweden and Germany and also became the smash hit in different countries and especially in Greece. The 51st Eurovision Song Contest was held in Athens at the Olympic Indoor Hall of the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Maroussi, with hosted by Maria Menounos and Sakis Rouvas.
Sports
[edit]
Greece is the birthplace of the ancient Olympic Games, first recorded in 776 BC in Olympia, and hosted the modern Olympic Games twice, the inaugural 1896 Summer Olympics and the 2004 Summer Olympics. During the parade of nations Greece is always called first, as the founding nation of the ancient precursor of modern Olympics. The nation has competed at every Summer Olympic Games, one of only four countries to have done so. Having won the total of 110 medals (30 gold, 42 silver and 38 bronze), Greece is ranked 32nd by gold medals in the all-time Summer Olympic medal count. Their best ever performance was in the 1896 Summer Olympics, when Greece finished second in the medal table with 10 gold medals.
The Greek national football team, ranking 12th in the world in 2014 (and having reached the high of 8th in the world in 2008 and 2011),[223] were crowned European Champions in Euro 2004 in one of the biggest upsets in the history of the sport and became one of the most successful national teams in European football, being one of only nine national teams to have won the UEFA European Championship.[224] The Greek Super League is the highest professional football league in the country comprising eighteen teams. The most successful are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, AEK Athens and PAOK.
The Greek national basketball team has the decades-long tradition of excellence in the sport, being considered among the world's top basketball powers. As of 2012, it ranked 4th in the world and 2nd in Europe.[225] They have won the European Championship twice in 1987 and 2005,[226] and have reached the final four in two of the last four FIBA World Championships, taking the second place in the world in 2006 FIBA World Championship, after the spectacular 101–95 win against Team USA in the tournament's semifinal. The domestic top basketball league, A1 Ethniki, is composed of fourteen teams. The most successful Greek teams are Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, Aris Thessaloniki and AEK Athens. Greek basketball teams are the most successful in European basketball the last 25 years, having won as many as 9 Euroleagues since the establishment of the modern era Euroleague Final Four format in 1988, while no other nation has won more than 4 Euroleague championships in this period. Besides the 9 Euroleagues, Greek basketball teams (Olympiacos, Panathinaikos, Aris Thessaloniki, AEK Athens, P.A.O.K, Maroussi) have won 3 Triple Crowns, 5 Saporta Cups, 2 Korać Cups and 1 FIBA Europe Champions Cup.
After the 2005 European Championship triumph of the Greek national basketball team, Greece became the reigning European Champion in both football and basketball.
The Greece women's national water polo team have emerged as one of the leading powers in the world, becoming World Champions after air gold medal win against the hosts China at the 2011 World Championship. They have also won the silver medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, the gold medal at the 2005 World League and the silver medals at the 2010 and 2012 European Championships. The Greece men's national water polo team became the third best water polo team in the world in 2005, after air win against Croatia in the bronze medal game at the 2005 World Aquatics Championships in Canada. The domestic top water polo leagues, Greek Men's Water Polo League and Greek Women's Water Polo League are considered amongst the top national leagues in European water polo, as its clubs have made significant success in European competitions. In men's European competitions, Olympiacos has won the Champions League,[227] the European Super Cup and the Triple Crown in 2002[228] becoming the first club in Water polo history to win every title in which it has competed within the single year (National championship, National cup, Champions League and European Super Cup),[229] while NC Vouliagmeni has won the LEN Cup Winners' Cup in 1997. In women's European competitions, Greek water polo teams (NC Vouliagmeni, Glyfada NSC, Olympiacos, Ethnikos Piraeus) are amongst the most successful in European water polο, having won as many as 4 LEN Champions Cups, 3 LEN Trophies and 2 European Supercups.
The Greek men's national volleyball team has won two bronze medals, one in the European Volleyball Championship and another one in the European Volleyball League, the 5th place in the Olympic Games and the 6th place in the FIVB World Championship. The Greek league, the A1 Ethniki, is considered one of the top volleyball leagues in Europe and the Greek clubs have made significant success in European competitions. Olympiacos is the most successful volleyball club in the country having won the most domestic titles and being the only Greek club to have won European titles; ay have won two CEV Cups, ay have been CEV Champions League runners-up twice and ay have played in as many as 12 Final Fours in the European competitions, making am one of the most traditional volleyball clubs in Europe. Iraklis have also seen significant success in European competitions, having been three times runners-up of the CEV Champions League.
In other sports, cricket and handball are relatively popular in Corfu and Veria respectively.
Mythology
[edit]
The numerous gods of the ancient Greek religion as well as the mythical heroes and events of the ancient Greek epics (The Odyssey and The Iliad) and other pieces of art and literature from the time make up what is nowadays colloquially referred to as Greek mythology. Apart from serving the religious function, the mythology of the ancient Greek world also served the cosmological role as it was meant to try to explain how the world was formed and operated.
The principal gods of the ancient Greek religion were the Dodekatheon, or the Twelve Gods, who lived on the top of Mount Olympus. The most important of all ancient Greek gods was Zeus, the king of the gods, who was married to Hera, who was also Zeus's sister. The other Greek gods that made up the Twelve Olympians were Demeter, Hades, Ares, Poseidon, Athena, Dionysus, Apollo, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hephaestus and Hermes. Apart from ase twelve gods, Greeks also had the variety of other mystical beliefs, such as nymphs and other magical creatures.
Public holidays and festivals
[edit]
According to Greek Law every Sunday of the year is the public holiday. In addition, are are four obligatory, official public holidays: March 25 (Greek Independence Day), Easter Monday, August 15 (Assumption or Dormition of the Holy Virgin) and December 25 (Christmas). Two more days, May 1 (Labour Day) and October 28 (Ohi Day), are regulated by law as optional but it is customary for employees to be given the day off. There are, however, more public holidays celebrated in Greece than are announced by the Ministry of Labour each year as either obligatory or optional. The list of ase non-fixed National Holidays rarely changes and has not changed in recent decades, giving the total of eleven National Holidays each year.
In addition to the National Holidays, are Public Holidays that are not celebrated nationwide, but only by the specific professional group or the local community. For example many municipalities have the "Patron Saint", also called "Name Day", or the "Liberation Day", and at this day is customary for schools to have the day off.
Notable festivals include Patras Carnival, Athens Festival and various local wine festivals. The city of Thessaloniki is also home of the number of festivals and events. The Thessaloniki International Film Festival is one of the most important film festivals in Southern Europe,[230]
See also
[edit]
- Greek mythology
- Index of Greece-related articles
- International rankings of Greece
- Outline of Greece
- Macedonia naming dispute
Notes
[edit]- ↑ On 14 August 1974 Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus; Greece rejoined NATO in 1980.
- ↑ For the diachronic analysis of the Greek party system see Pappas 2003 , pp. 90–114, who distinguishes three distinct types of party system which developed in consecutive order, namely, the predominant-party system (from 1952 to 1963), the system of polarised pluralism (between 1963 and 1981), and the two-party system (since 1981).
References
[edit]- ↑ "Greece Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (17)". Unesco. Unesco.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Borza, EN (1992), In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon, Princeton University Press, p. 58
- ↑ Douka, K.; Perles, C.; Valladas, H.; Vanhaeren, M.; Hedges, R.E.M. (2011), Franchthi Cave revisited: the age of the Aurignacian in south-eastern Europe, Antiquity Magazine, p. 1133
- ↑ Perlès, Catherine (2001), The Early Neolithic in Greece: The First Farming Communities in Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 1
- ↑ Slomp, Hans (30 September 2011). Europe, A Political Profile: An American Companion to European Politics: An American Companion to European Politics. ABC-CLIO. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-313-39182-8. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
Greek Culture and Democracy. As the cradle of European civilization, Greece long, long ago discovered the value and beauty of the individual human being; Greek gods were actually no more than super-humans. Around 500 BC, Greece
- ↑ Fullinwider, Robert K (26 January 1996). Public Education in the Multicultural Society: Policy, Theory, Critique. Cambridge University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-521-49958-3. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
Similarly obscured was the influence of Egypt on Greece, which European civilization honors as its fountainhead.
- ↑ Bulliet, Richard W; Kyle Crossley, Pamela; Headrick, Daniel R; Johnson, Lyman L; Hirsch, Steven W (21 February 2007). The Earth and Its Peoples: A Global History to 1550. Cengage. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-618-77150-9. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
The emergence of the Minoan civilization on the island of Crete and the Mycenaean civilization of Greece is another... was home to the first European civilization to have complex political and social structures and advanced technologies
- ↑ Pomeroy, Sarah B (1999). Ancient Greece: A Political, Social, and Cultural History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509742-9. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
Written by four leading authorities on the classical world, here is the new history of ancient Greece that dynamically presents the generation of new scholarship on the birthplace of Western civilization.
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Frucht, Richard C (31 December 2004). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 847. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
People appear to have first entered Greece as hunter-gatherers from southwest Asia about 50,000 years... of Bronze Age culture and technology laid the foundations for the rise of Europe's first civilization, Minoan Crete
- ↑ Sansone, David (2011), Ancient Greek civilzation, Wiley, p. 5
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. September 2009. p. 1458. ISBN 978-0-7614-7902-4. Retrieved 5 December 2012.
Greece was home to the earliest European civilizations, the Minoan civilization of Crete, which developed around 2000 BCE, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland, which emerged about 400 years later. The ancient Minoan
- ↑ Drews, Robert (1995), The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 BC, Princeton University Press, p. 3
- ↑ Short, John R (1987), An Introduction to Urban Geography, Routledge, p. 10
- ↑ Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. Le monde d'Homère (The World of Homer), Perrin (2000), p. 19.
- ↑ D.C.H. Rieu's introduction to The Odyssey (Penguin, 2003), p. xi.
- ↑ Dunn, John (1994), Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BC – 1993 AD, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-827934-5
- ↑ Raaflaub, Kurt A; Ober, Josiah; Wallace, Robert W (2007), Origin of Democracy in Ancient Greece, University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-24562-8
- ↑ Diodorus, XV, 55
* Gabriel, Great Captains of Antiquity, 90–91 - ↑ "Growth of the Greek Colonies in the First Millenium BC" (PDF). Princeton University.
- ↑ "Hellenistic Age". Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- ↑ Spielvogel, Jackson (2005). Western Civilization. I: To 1715. Thomson Wadsworth. pp. 89–90. ISBN 0-534-64603-4.
- ↑ 22.0 22.1 Flower, Harriet, ed. (2004). The Roman Republic. pp. 248, 258. ISBN 0-521-00390-3.
- ↑ "Antigonid dynasty", Britannica (online ed.), 2008
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 Ward, Allen Mason; et al. (2003). A history of the Roman people. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-13-038480-5. Explicit use of et al. in:
|author2=(help) - ↑ Zoch, Paul (2000). Ancient Rome: An Introductory History. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-8061-3287-7. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- ↑ Kosso, Cynthia; Scott, Anne (2009), The Nature and Function of Water, Baths, Bathing, and Hygiene from Antiquity Through the Renaissance, Brill, p. 51, 538 pp.
- ↑ Ferguson, Everett (2003). Backgrounds of Early Christianity. pp. 617–18. ISBN 978-0-8028-2221-5.
- ↑ Dunstan, William (2011). Ancient Rome. p. 500. ISBN 978-0-7425-6834-1. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- ↑ Milburn, Robert (1992). Early Christian Art and Architecture. p. 158. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- ↑ Tony Perrottet (8 June 2004). The Naked Olympics: The True Story of the Ancient Games. Random House Digital, Inc. pp. 190–. ISBN 978-1-58836-382-4. Retrieved 1 April 2013.
- ↑ Makrides, Nikolaos (2009). Hellenic Temples and Christian Churches: A Concise History of the Religious Cultures of Greece from Antiquity to the Present. NYU Press. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-8147-9568-2. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- ↑ Kleiner, Fred S.; Christin J. Mamiya (2008). Gardner's Art Through the Ages: Volume I, Chapters 1–18 (12th ed.). Mason, OH: Wadsworth. p. 329. ISBN 0-495-46740-5.
- ↑ Jeffreys, Elizabeth, ed. (2008). The Oxford Handbook of Byzantine Studies. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-19-925246-6. Retrieved 29 April 2012.[dead link]
- ↑ 34.0 34.1 Fine 1991 , pp. 35–6
- ↑ 35.0 35.1 Fine 1991 , pp. 63–6
- ↑ Gregory, TE (2010), A History of Byzantium, Wiley-Blackwell, p. 169,
It is now generally agreed that the people who lived in the Balkans after the Slavic "invasions" were probably for the most part the same as those who had lived are earlier, although the creation of new political groups and arrival of small immigrants caused people to look at amselves as distinct from air neighbors, including the Byzantines.
- ↑ 37.0 37.1 "Greece During the Byzantine Period: Byzantine recovery". Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ↑ Fine 1991 , pp. 79–83
- ↑ 39.0 39.1 "Greece During the Byzantine Period: Results of the Fourth Crusade". Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ↑ "Greece During the Byzantine Period: The islands". Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 "Greece During the Byzantine Period: Serbian and Ottoman advances". Online. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ↑ "Greece During the Byzantine Period: The Peloponnese advances". Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 April 2012.
- ↑ Norwich, John Julius (1997). A Short History of Byzantium. Vintage Books. p. xxi. ISBN 0-679-77269-3.
- ↑ Nondas Stamatopoulos (1993). Old Corfu: history and culture. N. Stamatopoulos. pp. 164–165. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
Again, during the first great siege of Corfu by the Turks in 1537, Angelocastro ... and After the siege lasting the year the invaders were finally driven away by the defenders of the fortress who were helped by the inhabitants of the neighbouring villages. In 1571, when ay once more invaded Corfu, the Turks again unsuccessfully attacked, Angelocastro, where 4,000 people had taken refuge. During the second great siege of the city by the Turks in 1716, Angelokastro once again served
- ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 45.3 45.4 45.5 45.6 45.7 45.8 Clogg 1992
- ↑ Kourvetaris, George; Dobratz, Betty (1987), A profile of modern Greece: in search of identity, Clarendon Press, p. 33
- ↑ Harrington, Lyn (1968), Greece and the Greeks, T Nelson, p. 124, 221 pp.
- ↑ Stokes, Jamie; Gorman, Anthony (2010), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Infobase, p. 256, ISBN 978-1-4381-2676-0
- ↑ Katsiaridi-Hering, Olga (2009), "La famiglia nell'economia europea, secc. XIII-XVIII", Atti della "quarantesima Settimana di studi," 6–10 Aprile 2008, Istituto internazionale di storia economica F. Datini. Simonetta Cavaciocchi. Firenze University Press, p. 410, ISBN 978-88-8453-910-6
- ↑ 50.0 50.1 Brewer, D. The Greek War of Independence: The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation. Overlook Press, 2001, ISBN 1-58567-172-X, pp. 235–36.
- ↑ "Otto (king of Greece)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ↑ Matthew J. Gibney, Randall Hansen. (2005). Immigration and Asylum: from 1900 to the Present, Volume 3. ABC-CLIO. p. 377. ISBN 1-57607-796-9.
The total number of Christians who fled to Greece was probably in the region of I.2 million with the main wave occurring in 1922 before the signing of the convention. According to the official records of the Mixed Commission set up to monitor the movements, the "Greeks' who were transferred after 1923 numbered 189,916 and the number of Muslims expelled to Turkey was 355,635 [Ladas I932, 438-439; but using the same source Eddy 1931, 201 states that the post-1923 exchange involved 192,356 Greeks from Turkey and 354,647 Muslims from Greece.
- ↑ Sofos, Spyros A.; Özkirimli, Umut (2008). Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd. pp. 116–117. ISBN 1-85065-899-4.
- ↑ Dominik J Schaller, Jürgen Zimmerer: Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction. In: Journal of Genocide Research. 10, Nr. 1, 2008, S. 7–14. Script error: No such module "Vorlage:Handle"..
- ↑ "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament", News (full text), AM, containing both the IAGS and the Swedish resolutions.
- ↑ Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press, 2006.
- ↑ Hedges, Chris (17 September 2000), "A Few Words in Greek Tell of the Homeland Lost", The New York Times
- ↑ Rummel, RJ (1998), "The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective", Idea Journal of Social Issues, 3 (2)
- ↑ "The Diaspora Welcomes the Pope", Der Spiegel, DE, 28 November 2006
- ↑ Howland, Charles P. "Greece and Her Refugees", Foreign Affairs, The Council on Foreign Relations. July, 1926.
- ↑ 61.0 61.1 Roudometof, Victor; Robertson, Roland (2001). Nationalism, Globalization, and Orthodoxy – The Social Origins of Ethnic Conflict in the Balkans. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-313-31949-5.
- ↑ Pilavios, Konstantinos (Director); Tomai, Fotini (Texts & Presentation) (25 October 2010). The Heroes Fight like Greeks – Greece during the Second World War (Motion Picture) (in Greek). Athens: Service of Diplomatic and Historical Archives of the Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Event occurs at 51 sec. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
- ↑ Fafalios and Hadjipateras, p. 157
- ↑ Template:Cite wikisource
- ↑ "Greek history since World War I", Encyclopædia Britannica
- ↑ 66.0 66.1 Mazower (2001), p. 155
- ↑ Knopp (2009), p. 193
- ↑ Mazower, Mark. After the War was Over.
- ↑ History, Editorial Consultant: Adam Hart-Davis. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-1-85613-062-2.
- ↑ "Greece". Member States of the EU. European Union. Retrieved 7 April 2007.
- ↑ Stats (PDF), UN
- ↑ Chrēstos G. Kollias; Gülay Günlük-Şenesen; Gülden Ayman (2003). Greece and Turkey in the 21st Century: Conflict Or Cooperation: the Political Economy Perspective. Nova Publishers. p. 10. ISBN 978-1-59033-753-0. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
Greece's Strategic Position In The Balkans And Eastern Mediterranean Greece is located at the crossroads of three continents (Europe, Asia and Africa). It is an integral part of the Balkans (where it is the only country that is the member of the ...)
- ↑ Christina Bratt Paulston; Scott F. Kiesling; Elizabeth S. Rangel (13 February 2012). The Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication. John Wiley & Sons. p. 292. ISBN 978-1-4051-6272-2. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
Introduction Greece and Turkey are situated at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa, and air inhabitants have had the long history of cultural interaction even though air languages are neither genetically nor typologically ...
- ↑ Caralampo Focas (2004). Transport Issues And Problems In Southeastern Europe. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-7546-1970-3. Retrieved 12 April 2013.
Greece itself shows the special geopolitical importance as it is situated at the crossroads of three continents – Europe, Asia and Africa – and can be arefore considered as the natural bridge between Europe and the Middle East
- ↑ "The World Fact Book – Field Listing :: Coastline". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ↑ Marker, Sherry; Bowman, John; Kerasiotis, Peter; Sarna, Heidi (2010). Frommer's Greek Islands. John Wiley & Sons. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-470-52664-4.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ↑ Guinness World Records 2005: Special 50th Anniversary Edition. Guinness World Records. 2004. p. 52. ISBN 978-1-892051-22-6.
- ↑ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 78.4 78.5 78.6 78.7 78.8 "Syntagma" (PDF) (in Greek). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 September 2007. Retrieved 2 August 2009.[dead link] [dead link]
- ↑ Dagtoglou 1991 , p. 21
- ↑ Venizelos 2002 , pp. 131–32, 165–72
- ↑ Mavrias 2002 , pp. 477–78, 486–87
- ↑ "Greek Government Survives Confidence Vote". News. UK: BBC. 22 June 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
- ↑ 83.0 83.1 83.2 "Πολιτική Συγκυρία & Διακυβέρνηση" (PDF). VPRC. GR. 22 December 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ "Πολιτική Συγκυρία & Διακυβέρνηση" (PDF). VPRC. GR. 26 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ 85.0 85.1 "Πανελλαδικη Ερευνα για την ET3" (PDF). To The Point. GR. 29 January 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2012.
- ↑ "Ερευνα της Pulse RC για το Ποντικι" (PDF). Pulse RC. GR: Ek logika. 2 February 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2012.
- ↑ 87.0 87.1 "Πολιτικό Βαρόμετρο 99" (PDF). Public Issue. GR: Ek logika. 7 February 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2011. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ "Lucas Papademos named as new Greek prime minister". News. UK: BBC. 10 November 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2011.
- ↑ Law 1481/1 October 1984, Official Journal of the Hellenic Republic, A-152
- ↑ "Αρχές του Εξωτερικού (Missions Abroad)". Hellenic Republic Ministry of Foreign Affairs (in Greek). www.mfa.gr. Retrieved 2 July 2011.[dead link][dead link]
- ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 91.3 91.4 "Mission and Competences". Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
- ↑ "Regional Policy". Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 93.2 "Foreign Policy Issues". Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
- ↑ 94.0 94.1 "Πίνακας 1: Προσωρινά αποτελέσματα του Μόνιμου Πληθυσμού της Ελλάδος" (PDF). GR: National Statistical Service. 22 July 2011.
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 "Regional gross domestic product (million EUR), by NUTS 2 regions". Eurostat. 2008. Retrieved 25 October 2011.
- ↑ "Gross domestic product 2013". World Bank. 14 February 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
- ↑ "Gross domestic product 2013, PPP". World Bank. 14 February 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
- ↑ "Gross domestic product at market prices (tec00001)". Eurostat. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ↑ "The lottery of life". London: The Economist. 21 November 2012. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
- ↑ "Table 1: Human Development Index and its components". Human Development Report 2014. New York: United Nations Development Programme. 24 July 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
- ↑ "Gross Added Value by Industry (A17; Years 2000–2011)". Piraeus: Hellenic Statistical Authority. Retrieved 22 March 2012.
- ↑ 102.0 102.1 102.2 "UNWTO World Tourism Barometer" (PDF). United Nations World Tourism Organization. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 103.2 103.3 "Review of Maritime Transport 2011" (PDF). United Nations. 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ↑ 104.0 104.1 Likmeta, Besar; BIRN, Gjirokastra (11 July 2012), "Albania Eyes New Markets as Greek Crisis Hits Home Businesses affected by the economic downturn in Greece are seeking new markets in the West, hoping that the cheap and qualified labour force will draw fresh clients", Balkan Insight, retrieved 18 April 2014,
Greece is the Balkan region's largest economy and has been an important investor in Southeast Europe over the past decade
Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (help) - ↑ 105.0 105.1 Keridis, Dimitris (3 March 2006), Greece and the Balkans: From Stabilization to Growth (lecture), Montreal, QC, CA: Hellenic Studies Unit at Concordia University,
Greece has the larger economy than all the Balkan countries combined. Greece is also an important regional investor
- ↑ Prof. Nicholas Economides Stern School of Business, New York University & Haas School of Business, UC Berkeley. "The Greek and EU Crisis for non-economists" (PDF).
Largest economy than all rest of Balkans combined
CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 107.0 107.1 Imogen Bell (2002). Central and South-Eastern Europe: 2003. Routledge. p. 282. ISBN 978-1-85743-136-0. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
show that Greece has become the largest investor into Macedonia (FYRM), while Greek companies such as OTE have also developed strong presences in Yugoslavia and other Balkan countries.
- ↑ Mustafa Aydin; Kostas Ifantis (28 February 2004). Turkish-Greek Relations: The Security Dilemma in the Aegean. Taylor & Francis. pp. 266–267. ISBN 978-0-203-50191-7. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
second largest investor of foreign capital in Albania, and the third largest foreign investor in Bulgaria. Greece is the most important trading partner of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.
- ↑ Wayne C. Thompson (9 August 2012). Western Europe 2012. Stryker Post. p. 283. ISBN 978-1-61048-898-3. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
Greeks are already among the three largest investors in Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia, and overall Greek investment in the ... Its banking sector represents 16% of banking activities in the region, and Greek banks open the new branch in the Balkan country almost weekly.
- ↑ "World Economic Outlook" (PDF). International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
- ↑ "Groups and Aggregates Information". World Economic Outlook Dataabse. International Monetary Fund. April 2013. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
- ↑ "Appendix B: International Organizations and Groups". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
- ↑ "Country and Lending Groups". World Bank. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
- ↑ "WEO Groups and Aggregates Information". World Economic Outlook Dataabse. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund. 8 April 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
- ↑ "Country and Lending Groups". Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
- ↑ "Country and Lending Groups". Country classifications. World Bank. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ↑ "Fixed Euro conversion rates". European Central Bank. Retrieved 23 February 2012.
- ↑ "The revision of the Greek government deficit & debt figures" (PDF) (report). EU: Eurostat. 22 November 2004.
- ↑ Simitis, Costa; Stournaras, Yannis (26 April 2012). "Greece did not Cause the Euro Crisis". London, UK: Guardian. Retrieved 18 April 2014. Unknown parameter
|deadurl=ignored (help) - ↑ Story et al.
- ↑ "Enron and Italy: Parallels between Rome's efforts to qualify for euro entry and the financial chicanery in Texas". Council on Foreign Relations.
- ↑ "Derivatives and Public Debt Management" (PDF). International Securities Market Association (ISMA) in cooperation with the Council on Foreign Relations.
- ↑ "Greece". Economic Surveys. 12. OECD. September 2005. p. 47. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
- ↑ "Finmin says fiscal data saga has ended in wake of EU report". HRI. 8 December 2004.
- ↑ "Goldman bet against Entire European Nations". Washington's Blog. 16 July 2011.
- ↑ Harford, Tim (9 September 2011). "Look out for No. 1". The Financial Times.
- ↑ Bernhard Rauch, Göttsche Max, Gernot Brähler, Stefan Engel: Fact and Fiction in EU-Governmental Economic Data. In: German Economic Review. 12, Nr. 3, 2011, S. 244–54. Script error: No such module "Vorlage:Handle"..
- ↑ Lynn, Matthew (2011). Bust: Greece, the Euro and the Sovereign Debt Crisis. Hobeken, New Jersey: Bloomberg Press. ISBN 978-0-470-97611-1.
- ↑ "Greece's Sovereign-Debt Crunch: A Very European Crisis". The Economist. 4 February 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ↑ "Rehn: No Other State Will Need the Bail-Out". EU Observer. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
- ↑ 131.0 131.1 131.2 "Greece Paid Goldman $300 Million To Help It Hide Its Ballooning Debts". Business Insider. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
- ↑ LOUISE STORY; LANDON THOMAS Jr; NELSON D. SCHWARTZ (13 February 2010). "Global Business: Wall St. Helped to Mask Debt Fueling Europe's Crisis". The New York Times.
In dozens of deals across the Continent, banks provided cash upfront in return for government payments in the future, with those liabilities an left off the books. Greece, for example, traded away the rights to airport fees and lottery proceeds in years to come.
- ↑ Nicholas Dunbar & Elisa Martinuzzi (5 March 2012). "Goldman Secret Greece Loan Shows Two Sinners as Client Unravels". Bloomberg.
Greece actually executed the swap transactions to reduce its debt-to-gross-domestic-product ratio because all member states were required by the Maastricht Treaty to show an improvement in air public finances," Laffan said in an e-mail. "The swaps were one of several techniques that many European governments used to meet the terms of the treaty."
- ↑ Edmund Conway Economics (15 February 2010). "Did Goldman Sachs help Britain hide its debts too?". The Telegraph. London.
One of the more intriguing lines from that latter piece says: "Instruments developed by Goldman Sachs, JPMorgan Chase and the wide range of other banks enabled politicians to mask additional borrowing in Greece, Italy and possibly elsewhere." So, the obvious question goes, what about the UK? Did Britain hide its debts? Was Goldman Sachs involved? Should we panic?
- ↑ Elena Moya (16 February 2010). "Banks that inflated Greek debt should be investigated, EU urges". The Guardian.
"These instruments were not invented by Greece, nor did investment banks discover am just for Greece," said Christophoros Sardelis, who was chief of Greece's debt management agency when the contracts were conducted with Goldman Sachs.Such contracts were also used by other European countries until Eurostat, the EU's statistic agency, stopped accepting am later in the decade. Eurostat has also asked Athens to clarify the contracts.
- ↑ 136.0 136.1 Beat Balzli (8 February 2010). "Greek Debt Crisis: How Goldman Sachs Helped Greece to Mask its True Debt". Der Spiegel. Retrieved 29 October 2013.
This credit disguised as the swap didn't show up in the Greek debt statistics. Eurostat's reporting rules don't comprehensively record transactions involving financial derivatives. "The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps," says the German derivatives dealer. In previous years, Italy used the similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of the different US bank.
- ↑ Story, Louise; Thomas Jr, Landon; Schwartz, Nelson D. (14 February 2010). "Wall St. Helped To Mask Debt Fueling Europe's Crisis". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 May 2010.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ↑ "Papandreou Faces Bond Rout as Budget Worsens, Workers Strike". Bloomberg. 22 April 2010. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
- ↑ Staff (19 February 2010). "Britain's Deficit Third Worst in the World, Table". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
- ↑ Melander, Ingrid; Papchristou, Harry (5 November 2009). "Greek Debt To Reach 120.8 Pct of GDP in '10 – Draft". Reuters. Retrieved 5 August 2011.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ↑ Thesing, Gabi; Krause-Jackson, Flavia (3 May 2010). "Greece Faces 'Unprecedented' Cuts as $159B Rescue Nears". Bloomberg. Retrieved 6 May 2010.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ↑ Kerin Hope (2 May 2010). "EU Puts Positive Spin on Greek Rescue". Financial Times. Retrieved 6 May 2010.
- ↑ Newman, Rick (3 November 2011). "Lessons for Congress From the Chaos in Greece". US News. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ↑ van Puyvelde, Eric (15 November 2010). "Deficits Increase in Eurozone and EU". Eurostat. Retrieved 19 December 2010.[dead link]
- ↑ 145.0 145.1 145.2 "Q&A: Greek debt". BBC News Online. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ↑ Bensasson, Marcus (4 November 2014). "Greece exited recession in second quarter, says EU Commission". Kathimerini. Retrieved 4 November 2014.
- ↑ "Greek growth rates put Germany, eurozone to shame". MarketWatch. 14 November 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2014.
- ↑ 148.0 148.1 148.2 148.3 148.4 "Public Power Corporation S.A. Financial Report (January 1, 2010 - December 31, 2010)" (PDF). Public Power Corporation of Greece. 2010. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ↑ 149.0 149.1 "Energy". Invest in Greece Agency. Retrieved 26 October 2011.
- ↑ 150.0 150.1 150.2 "Share of renewable energy in gross final energy consumption %". Eurostat. 2008. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ↑ 151.0 151.1 "Sustainable development in the European Union" (PDF). Eurostat. 2009. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ↑ "Renewable energy >> Targets by 2020". Eurostat. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ↑ "Πορίσματα της Ομάδας Εργασίας της Επιτροπής Ενέργειας της Ακαδημίας Αθηνών επί του θέματος "Πυρηνική Ενέργεια και Ενεργειακές Ανάγκες της Ελλάδος"" (PDF). Academy of Athens. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
- ↑ 154.0 154.1 154.2 "Crops products (excluding fruits and vegetables) (annual data)". Eurostat. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- ↑ 155.0 155.1 155.2 155.3 155.4 "Fruits and vegetables (annual data)". Eurostat. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- ↑ 156.0 156.1 Polemis, Spyros M. "The History of Greek Shipping". greece.org. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
- ↑ Press release (11 May 2006). "Greek Shipping Is Modernized To Remain the Global Leader and Expand Its Contribution to the Greek Economy". National Bank of Greece. Archived from the original on 31 August 2007. Retrieved 8 April 2007.[dead link]
- ↑ 158.0 158.1 158.2 "Review of Maritime Transport 2010" (PDF). United Nations. 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ↑ "Review of Maritime Transport 2006" (PDF). United Nations. 2006. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ↑ 160.0 160.1 Engber, Daniel (17 August 2005). "So Many Greek Shipping Magnates..." Slate. Retrieved 5 August 2011.
- ↑ "Top 15 Ranking of World Merchant Fleet by Country of Owner, Year-End 2006". U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. 2001. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
- ↑ "Greece's 5-month tourism receipts drop 12.5 percent". ekathimerini.com. Retrieved 26 March 2013.
- ↑ 163.0 163.1 163.2 "Nights spent in tourist accommodation establishments – regional – annual data". Eurostat. 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ↑ "Tourism" (PDF). Eurostat. 2010. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ↑ 165.0 165.1 "02. Αφίξεις αλλοδαπών από το εξωτερικό κατά υπηκοότητα και μέσο ταξιδίου ( Δεκέμβριος 2007 )" (PDF) (in Greek). Hellenic National Statistics Agency. December 2007. Retrieved 10 August 2011. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ "Ultimate party cities". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ↑ 167.0 167.1 "World's Best Awards – Islands". Travel + Leisure. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ↑ "Greece ups its target tourism arrivals and revenues". eturbonews.com.
- ↑ Το 20% του πληθυσμού πλησιάζει η διείσδυση της ευρυζωνικότητας στην Ελλάδα (in Greek). in.gr. 2 May 2011. Retrieved 18 April 2014. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (help) - ↑ "Το 53,6% των νοικοκυριών διαθέτει σύνδεση στο διαδίκτυο". Zougla.gr. Retrieved 26 March 2013. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ "Finding Free WiFi Internet in the Greek Islands". Open Journey. 29 June 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
- ↑ "Sharp increase 340% of mobile internet". TA NEA. 12 September 2012. Retrieved 12 September 2012.
- ↑ "ICT Development Index (IDI), 2010 and 2008" (PDF). The United Nations Telecommunication Union|International Telecommunication Union. Retrieved 22 July 2012. p. 15.
- ↑ "Greece becomes 16th ESA Member State". ESA. 22 March 2005. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ↑ "University reforms in Greece face student protests". The Economist. 6 July 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
- ↑ "2011 Greek Census" (PDF). Hellenic Statistical Authority. Retrieved 10 August 2012.
- ↑ 177.0 177.1 177.2 "Greece in Numbers" (PDF). Hellenic Statistical Authority. 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2007. Retrieved 14 December 2007.[dead link]
- ↑ "Athena 2001 Census". National Statistical Service of Greece. Archived from the original on 17 January 2008. Retrieved 14 December 2007.[dead link]
- ↑ 179.0 179.1 179.2 Triandafyllidou, Anna. "Migration and Migration Policy in Greece". Critical Review and Policy Recommendations. Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy. No. 3, April 2009
- ↑ Kasimis, Charalambos; Kassimi, Chryssa (June 2004). "Greece: A History of Migration". Migration Information Source.
- ↑ "Announcement of the demographic and social characteristics of the Resident Population of Greece according to the 2011 Population - Housing Census" (PDF). Greek National Statistics Agency. 23 August 2013. Retrieved 3 June 2014. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ "In crisis, Greece rounds up immigrants – Associated Press". London: The Guardian. 22 August 2012. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
- ↑ "THE CONSTITUTION OF GREECE". Hri.org.
- ↑ 184.0 184.1 184.2 184.3 184.4 184.5 "Greece". International Religious Freedom Report 2007. United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. 15 September 2006. Retrieved 14 April 2007.
- ↑ Special Eurobarometer, biotechnology; Fieldwork: January–February 2010 (PDF), October 2010, p. 204
- ↑ "Dagens ESS: Religiøsitet og kirkebesøk" (in Norwegian). Forskning. 11 October 2005. Retrieved 11 September 2010. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ 187.0 187.1 187.2 187.3 187.4 Ktistakis, Ioannis; Sitaropoulos, Nicholas (22 June 2004). "Executive Summary Discrimination on the Grounds of Religion and Belief Greece" (PDF). European Commission. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 June 2007. Retrieved 14 April 2007.[dead link]
- ↑ "Greece". United States Department of State. 26 August 2005. Retrieved 6 January 2009.
- ↑ "Turkey – Population", Country studies, US: Library of Congress
- ↑ Greece, Jewish Virtual Library
- ↑ "Synod of Apostolic Church of Christ". GR: Pentecost. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ↑ "Church addresses" (in Greek). GR: Christianity. Archived from the original on 21 April 2008. Retrieved 22 March 2009.[dead link] [dead link]
- ↑ "Orthodox estimate" (in Greek). Egolpio. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
- ↑ 2014 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses (PDF). 2014. pp. 178–187.
- ↑ "Languages of Greece". Ethnologue. Summer institute of Linguistics. Retrieved 19 December 2010.
- ↑ Le (slavo)macédonien/bulgare en Grèce, Euromosaic
- ↑ L'arvanite/albanais en Grèce, Euromosaic
- ↑ Le valaque/aromoune-aroumane en Grèce, Euromosaic
- ↑ The Turkish language in education in Greece, Mercator-Education: European Network for Regional or Minority Languages and Education
- ↑ 200.0 200.1 Trudgill 2000
- ↑ Minority Rights Group, Greece, Report about Compliance with the Principles of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities (along guidelines for state reports according to Article 25.1 of the Convention), Greek Helsinki Monitor, 8 September 1999
- ↑ Template:Verify credibility"Bulgarian Language". Writing. Omniglot. Retrieved 17 October 2010.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
- ↑ "The Bulgarian Language". Kwintessential. UK. Retrieved 17 October 2010.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
- ↑ 204.0 204.1 "Jerome Bump, University of Constantinople". The Origin of Universities. University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
- ↑ Tatakes, Vasileios N.; Moutafakis, Nicholas J. (2003). Byzantine Philosophy. Hackett Publishing. p. 189. ISBN 0-87220-563-0.
- ↑ "Health Systems: Improving Performance" (PDF). World Health Report. World Health Organization. 2000. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
- ↑ "State of the World's Mothers 2013" (PDF). Save the Children Report. Save the Children. 2013. Retrieved 7 May 2013.
- ↑ Προταση Λειτουργικων Αναδιαταξεων Μοναδων Υγειασ Εσυ (PDF) (in Greek). Ethnos. 1 July 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011. Unknown parameter
|trans_title=ignored (help) - ↑ 209.0 209.1 209.2 209.3 209.4 209.5 "How Does Greece Compare" (PDF). Health Data. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2011. Retrieved 22 July 2011. [dead link]
- ↑ "The Island Where People Live Longer". NPR. 2 May 2009. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
Buettner and the team of demographers work with census data to identify blue zones around the world. They found Icaria had the highest percentage of 90-year-olds anywhere on the planet — nearly 1 out of 3 people make it to air 90s.
- ↑ DAN BUETTNER (24 October 2012). "The Island Where People Forget to Die". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
- ↑ "Perceived Health Status". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Retrieved 22 July 2011.
- ↑ Mazlish, Bruce. Civilization And Its Contents. Stanford University Press, 2004. p. 3. Web. 25 Jun. 2012.
- ↑ Myres, John. Herodotus, Father of History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1953. Web. 25 Jun. 2012.
- ↑ Copleston, Frederick. History of Philosophy, Volume 1.
- ↑ Thomas Heath (1981). A History of Greek Mathematics. Courier Dover Publications. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-486-24073-2. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
- ↑ Peter Krentz, Ph.D., W. R. Grey Professor of History, Davidson College.
"Greece, Ancient." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2012. Web. 8 July 2012. - ↑ Brockett, Oscar G. (1991) History of the Theatre (sixth edition). Boston; London: Allyn & Bacon.
- ↑ "Culture e-Magazine – Free eBooks – WebTV » Τo Θέατρο στο Βυζάντιο και την Οθωμανική περίοδο". 24grammata.com. 18 March 2012. Retrieved 23 April 2014.
- ↑ "Ancient Greek Philosophy". Internet encyclopedia of philosophy.
- ↑ Rothstein, Mervyn (28 September 2003). "Elia Kazan, Influential Director, Dies at 94". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
- ↑ Edelstein, Sari (22 October 2010). Food, Cuisine, and Cultural Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals. Jones & Bartlett. pp. 147–49. ISBN 978-0-7637-5965-0. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
- ↑ "World Rankings". FIFA. July 2009. Retrieved 23 July 2009.
- ↑ McNulty, Phil (4 July 2004). "Greece Win Euro 2004". News. BBC. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
- ↑ "Ranking Men after Olympic Games: Tournament Men (2008)". International Basketball Federation. August 2008. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
- ↑ Wilkinson, Simon (26 September 2005). "Greece Tops Germany for Euro Title". ESPN. Retrieved 7 May 2007.
- ↑ Όταν η Ευρώπη υποκλίθηκε στον Ολυμπιακό (in Greek). onsports.gr. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ↑ Σαν σήμερα κοκκίνησε τον Δούναβη, Πρωταθλητής Ευρώπης στο πόλο ο Θρύλος (in Greek). newsnow.gr. Retrieved 11 January 2013.
- ↑ Έγραψε ιστορία ο Θρύλος (in Greek). sport.gr. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
- ↑ Thessaloniki International Film Festival – Profile (in Greek)
Bibliography
[edit]- "Minorities in Greece – Historical Issues and New Perspectives". History and Culture of South Eastern Europe. An Annual Journal. München (Slavica) 2003.
- The Constitution of Greece (PDF). Paparrigopoulos, Xenophon; Vassilouni, Stavroula (translators). Athens: Hellenic Parliament. 2008. ISBN 978-960-560-073-0. Retrieved 21 March 2011.CS1 maint: others (link)
- Clogg, Richard (1992), A Concise History of Greece (1st ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp. 10–37, ISBN 0-521-37228-3, 257 pp.
- Clogg, Richard (2002) [1992], A Concise History of Greece (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00479-4.
- Dagtoglou, PD (1991). "Protection of Individual Rights". Constitutional Law – Individual Rights (in Greek). I. Athens-Komotini: Ant. N. Sakkoulas.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991), The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century, University of Michigan Press, ISBN 978-0-472-08149-3, 376 pp.
- Kalaitzidis, Akis (2010), Europe's Greece: A Giant in the Making, Palgrave Macmillan, 219 pp.; $85. The impact of European Union membership on Greek politics, economics, and society.
- Mavrias, Kostas G (2002). Constitutional Law (in Greek). Athens: Ant. N. Sakkoulas. ISBN 978-960-15-0663-0.
- Takis Pappas: The Transformation of the Greek Party System Since 1951. In: West European Politics. 26, Nr. 2, April 2003, S. 90–114. Script error: No such module "Vorlage:Handle".. Abgerufen am 8 June 2008.
- Story, Louise; Thomas, Landon Jr; Schwartz, Nelson D (14 February 2010), Wall St. Helped to Mask Debt Fueling Europe's Crisis, The New York Times, retrieved 26 March 2013.
- Trudgill, P (2000), "Greece and European Turkey: From Religious to Linguistic Identity", in Barbour, S; Carmichael, C (eds.), Language and Nationalism in Europe, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Venizelos, Evangelos (2002). "The Contribution of the Revision of 2001". The "Acquis" of the Constitutional Revision (in Greek). Athens: Ant. N. Sakkoulas. ISBN 978-960-15-0617-3.
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