Tatizo la Kutotulia
Tatizo la Kutotulia | |
---|---|
Mwainisho na taarifa za nje | |
Kundi Maalumu | Psychiatry, child and adolescent psychiatry |
ICD-10 | F90. |
ICD-9 | 314.00, 314.01 |
OMIM | 143465 |
DiseasesDB | 6158 |
MedlinePlus | 001551 |
eMedicine | med/3103 ped/177 |
MeSH | D001289 |
Tatizo la Kutotulia (kwa Kiingereza: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) ni tatizo la akili[1] linalohusu ukuaji wa nyuro [2][3] ambapo kuna utovu wa umakinifu na kutenda kwa usukumizi ambavyo si mwafaka kwa umri wa mtu.[4]
Ili utambuzi ufanywe, ni sharti dalili hizo ziwe zimeanza mtoto akiwa kati ya miaka sita na kumi na mbili na zidhihirike kwa zaidi ya miezi sita.[5][6] Kukosa kumakinika hufanya matokeo kuwa duni kwa watu wanaokwenda shule. Licha ya hali hii kuwa tatizo la akili lililotafitiwa na kutambuliwa mara nyingi katika watoto na vijana, kisababishi chake katika visa vingi hakijajulikana. Tatizo hili huwaathiri takriban asilimia 6 hadi 7 ya watoto wanaotambulika kupitia kigezo cha DSM-IV[7] na asilimia 1 hadi 2 wanaotambulika kupitia kigezo cha ICD-10.[8] Viwango vya visa huwa sawa katika nchi zote na hutegemea sana namna ya utambuzi.[9] TKUU hutokea takriban mara tatu au zaidi katika wavulana kuliko wasichana.[10][11] Karibu asilimia 30 - 50 ya watu wanaotambulika kuwa na tatizo hili wakiwa wachanga huendelea kuwa na dalili hizi katika utu uzima[12] na asilimia 2 - 5 ya watu wazima wana hali hii.[1] Hali hii inaweza kuwa ngumu kutofautishwa na matatizo mengine sawia na yale yenye kupepesuka kwa kawaida.[6] Udhibiti wa tatizo hilo mara nyingi huhusisha mchanganyiko wa ushauri nasaha, mabadiliko ya maisha na matibabu ya kutumia dawa. Dawa hupendekezwa kama tiba ya kwanza katika watoto wenye dalili kali na zinaweza kutumika katika wenye dalili za wastani wasiorekebika baada ya kushauriwa.[13]: p.317 Athari za muda mrefu za dawa hizo hazijulikani na matibabu haya hayapendekezwi katika watoto wasiofikia umri wa kwenda shule. Vijana na watu wazima huelekea kukuza stadi za kuhimila zinazochukua nafasi ya udhaifu wao.[14]
Tatizo hilo na utambuzi na matibabu yake limeonekana kuwa na utata kwanzia miaka ya 1970.[15] Utata huu umewahusisha matabibu, walimu, viongozi, wazazi na watangazaji. Mada za utata hujumuisha visababishi vya tatizo hili na utumizi wa vichangamsho kama matibabu.[16][17] Wahudumu wengi wa afya hukubali kwamba hilo ni tatizo halisi linalozua mjadala katika jamii ya kisayansi, hasa kuhusu jinsi linavyotambuliwa na kutibiwa.[18][19][20]
Ishara na dalili
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Mara nyingi kutomakinika, kupepesuka (kutotulia kwa watu wazima), tabia ya kuzua vurugu na usukumizi wa ghafla hupatikana katika TKUU.[21][22] Kutatizika katika masomo hutokea mara nyingi sawia na matatizo ya kimahusiano.[21] Dalili zinaweza kuwa ngumu kufasili kwa sababu ya ugumu wa kutambua mwanzo wa viwango vya kawaida vya kutomakinika, kupepesuka na mwisho wa usukumizi na viwango muhimu vinavyohitaji usaidizi.[23]: p.26 Ili hali hii kutambulika, ni sharti dalili hizi zidhihirike katika mandhari mawili tofauti kwa miezi sita au zaidi na katika kiwango kilicho juu ya kile cha watoto wengine wa umri sawa.[24]TKUU linaweza kuainishwa katika aina tatu kulingana na dalili zinazojidhihirisha—linalozidisha kutomakinika, la kupepesuka na usukumizi, au aina changamani ikiwa vigezo vya aina zote mbili zifikiwa.[23]: p.4 Mtu asiyemakinika anaweza kuonyesha baadhi ya/au dalili hizi zote:[25]
- Kuvurugika mawazo kwa urahisi, kutotambua habari za kina, kusahau na kubadili shughuli kutoka moja hadi nyingine mara nyingi.
- Ugumu wa kuzingatia shughuli moja
- Kuchoshwa na kazi baada ya muda mfupi isipokuwa pale mtu anapofanya kazi inayomvutia
- Ugumu wa kumakinika katika kupanga na kukamilisha kazi fulani au kujifunza jambo jipya
- Tatizo la kukamilisha au kuwasilisha kazi ya ziada, mara nyingi kutokana na kupoteza vifaa (kwa mfano penseli, vitu vya kuchezea, kazi ya ziada) vinavyohitajika kukamilisha kazi au shughuli hizi.
- Haonekani kusikiza anapoongeleshwa
- Kuzubaa, kuchanganyikiwa kwa urahisi na kutembea polepole
- Ugumu wa kuchakata habari haraka na kwa usahihi kama watu wengine
- Ugumu wa kufuata maagizo
Mtu mwenye tatizo la kupepesuka anaweza kuonyesha baadhi ya/au dalili hizi zote:[25]
- Kuhangaika na kufurukuta anapoketi
- Kuzungumza bila kukoma
- Kukimbia huku na kule, kugusa au kuchezea kitu chochote au kila kitu anachokiona
- Ugumu wa kuketi kwa utulivu wakati wa maakuli, shuleni, akifanya kazi ya ziada na wakati wa kusimuliwa hadithi
- Kuwa mbioni kila mara
- Ugumu wa kufanya kazi au shughuli zinazohitaji unyamavu.
Mtu mwenye usukumizi anaweza kuonyesha baadhi ya/au dalili hizi zote:[25]
- Kukosa subira
- Kuropoka maoni yasiyo mwafaka, kudhihirisha hisia kwa uwazi na kufanya mambo bila kuzingatia matokeo yake
- Ugumu wa kusubiri vitu wanavyotaka au kusubiri zamu yao katika mchezo
- Mara nyingi hukatiza mazungumzo au shughuli za wengine.
Mara nyingi watu wenye TKUU wana ugumu katika stadi za kijamii, kama vile kuchangamana, kuanzisha na kudumisha mahusiano. Takriban nusu ya watoto na vijana wenye TKUU hukataliwa na wenzao ikilinganishwa na asilimia 10–15 ya wale wasio na hali hii. Kufundisha stadi za kijamii, mabadiliko ya kitabia na matibabu yanaweza kuwa na athari chache zenye manufaa. Kipengele muhimu kabisa katika kupunguza uhalifu, kutofaulu shuleni na tatizo la utumizi wa dawa za kulevya ni kufanya urafiki na watu wasiojihusisha na uhalifu.[26] Watoto wenye TKUU mara nyingi huwa na ugumu wa kudhibiti hasira [27] sawa namwandiko mbaya[28] kuchelewa kwakuzungumza, lugha na kuendeleza mwendo.[29][30] Ingawa hali hii husababisha athari nyingi, hasa katika jamii ya kisasa, watoto wengi wenye TKUU humakinika kwa muda mrefu wanapofanya shughuli zinazowavutia.[31]
Matatizo yanayohusiana na hali hii
[hariri | hariri chanzo]TKUU katika watoto hutokea yakiambatana na matatizo mengine kwa takriban 67%.[31] Baadhi ya hali zinazohusiana na hali hii mara nyingi hujumuisha:
- Tatizo la Ukaidi wa Kiupinzani na tatizo la kimaadili, hali zinazotokea pamoja zikiambatana na TKUU kwa takriban 50% na 20% ya visa mtawalia.[32] Hali hizi hutambulika kwa tabia za kupambana na jamii kama vile usumbufu, uchokozi, vipindi vya hasira za kila mara, ulaghai, udanganyifu na wizi.[33] Takriban nusu ya watu wanaopepesuka na wana tatizo la ukaidi wa kiupinzani au tatizo la kitabia hupata tatizo la nafsia ya kutochangamana na jamii katika utu uzima.[34] Upigaji picha ubongo umedhihirisha kwamba tatizo nafsia na TKUU ni hali tofauti.[35]
- Tatizo la kimsingi la uangalifu, linaloashiriwa na viwango vya chini vya umakinifu na uzingatifu, na pia ugumu wa kutolala. Watoto hawa huelekea kuhangaika, kupiga miayo na kujinyoosha na kuonekana kupepesuka sana ili kumakinika.[33]
- Matatizo ya hisia (hasa tatizo la hisia mseto na tatizo kuu la kufadhaisha). Wavulana wanaotambulika na aina changamani ya TKUU wana uwezekano mkubwa wa kupata tatizo la kihisia.[36] Watu wazima wenye TKUU mara nyingi huwa na tatizo la hisia mseto linalohitaji kadirio la taratibu ili kutambua na kutibu hali zote mbili.[37]
- Matatizo ya wasiwasi yametambulika kutokea mara nyingi katika watu wenye TKUU.[36]
- Tatizo la tamaa isiyoweza kudhibitika linaweza kutokea pamoja na TKUU na sifa zake nyingi huwa sawa.[33]
- Matatizo ya utumizi wa dawa za kulevya. Vijana na watu wazima wenye TKUU wana hatari zaidi ya kutumia dawa za kulevya na mara nyingi huwa ni pombe au bangi. Sababu ya hali hii inaweza kutokana na njia ya kuzawadiwa ya ubongo wa mtu mwenye TKUU iliyogeuzwa.[1] Hali hii hufanya tathmini na matibabu ya TKUU kuwa magumu zaidi, huku matatizo ya hatari ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya yakitibiwa kwanza kwa sababu ya hatari zake kuu.[13]: p.38 [38]
- Sindromu ya miguu isiyotulia imetambulika mara nyingi katika watu wenye TKUU na mara nyingi husababishwa na anemia ya ukosefu wa ayoni.[39][40] Hata hivyo, miguu isiyotulia inaweza kuwa kipengele cha TKUU hivyo huhitaji ukadiriaji wa makini ili kutofautisha matatizo haya mawili.[41]
- Ugumu wa kulala na TKUU mara nyingi hutokea pamoja. Matatizo haya pia yanaweza kuwa athari za dawa zinazotumika kutibu watoto wenye TKUU. Katika watoto wenye TKUU, insomnia ni tatizo linalotokea mara nyingi zaidi na matibabu ya kitabia ndiyo matibabu yanayopendekezwa.[42][43] Ugumu wa kupata usingizi hupatikana mara nyingi katika watu wenye TKUU, lakini mara nyingi wao hulala unono na huwa na ugumu wa kuamka.[44] Melatonini mara nyingine hutumika wakati wa kulala katika watoto wanaokosa usingizi.[45]
Kuna uhusiano kati ya kukojoa kitandani bila kukoma,[46] kuchelewa kwa uwezo wa kuzungumza[47] na tatizo la kuambatanisha ukuaji, huku takriban nusu ya watu wenye tatizo la kuambatanisha ukuaji wakipata TKUU.[48]
Kisababishi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kisababishi cha visa vingi vya TKUU hakijulikani: hata hivyo, TKUU linaaminika kuhusishwa na mwingiliano wa kijenetiki na vipengele vya kimazingira.[49][50] Visa vingine huhusishwa na maambukizi ya awali au jeraha kwenye ubongo.[49]
Jenetikia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Tafiti pacha zinaashiria kuwa tatizo hili mara nyingi hurithiwa kutoka kwa wazazi huku jenetikia ikisababisha takriban asilimia 75 ya visa hivi.[13][51][52] Vipengele vya kijenetiki pia vinaaminika kuhusika katika kutambua ikiwa TKUU huendelea kuwepo katika utu uzima au la.[53] Kwa kawaida, jeni kadhaa huhusika, na idadi kubwa ya jeni hizi huathiri visafirishaji vya dopamini.[54] Jeni hizi zinaweza kujumuisha: DAT1, DRD4, DRD5, 5HTT, HTR1B, SNAP25, ADRA2A, TPH2, MAOA, na dopamine beta hydroxylase.[54] Aina ya jeni inayopatikana mara nyingi inayoitwa LPHN3 hukisiwa kusababisha takriban asilimia 9 ya visa, na jeni hii ikiwepo, watu hutibiwa kwa vichangamsho.[55]Uchaguzi asilia huenda ulipendelea sifa za TKUU kwa, aghalau mtu binafsi, huenda zilimpa mtu fursa ya kuishi, huku zikikosa manufaa zikichangamanishwa tu.[56] Isitoshe, baadhi ya wanawake wanaweza kuvutiwa na wanaume wanaopenda kufanya mambo hatari hivyo kuongeza jeni zinazohatarisha mtu kwa TKUU katika kidimbwi cha jeni.[57] Kwa vile hali hii hupatikana mara nyingi katika watoto wenye kina mama wenye wasiwasi au dhiki, wengine husema kuwa TKUU ni adaptesheni inayowasaidia watoto kukabili mazingira yenye dhiki au hatari huku wakiwa na, kwa mfano, usukumizi ulioongezeka au tabia ya kuchunguza.[58] Kupepesuka kunaweza kuwa na manufaa tukiangazia mtazamo wa kinadharia, katika hali zinazohusisha hatari, mashindano au tabia isiyoeleweka (yaani kutafuta maeneo mapya au kutafuta asili mpya ya vyakula). Katika hali hizi, TKUU inaweza kuwa na manufaa katika jamii huku ikiwa hatari kwa mtu binafsi.[57] Isitoshe, katika mazingira mengine, hali hii inaweza kumnufaisha mtu binafsi, kwa mfano mwitiko wa haraka kwa hatari au stadi kuu ya uwindaji.[59]
Mazingira
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Vipengele vya kimazingira vinaaminika kuchangia kwa kiwango kidogo. Ulevi wakati wa ujauzito unaweza kusababisha tatizo la spektra ya kulewa kwa fetasi linaloweza kudhihirisha dalili sawa na TKUU.[60] Kuvuta moshi wa tumbaku katika ujauzito kunaweza kusababisha matatizo ya ukuaji wa mfumo mkuu wa neva na pia kuongeza hatari ya TKUU.[61] Watoto wengi wanaovuta moshi wa tumbaku hawapati TKUU au huwa na dalili hafifu zisizofikia kizingiti cha utambuzi. Mseto wa uhatarisho wa kijenetiki na kunusia tumbaku kunaweza kueleza kwa nini baadhi ya watoto wanaohatarishwa katika ujauzito wanaweza kupata TKUU ilhali wengine hawapati.[62] Watoto waliohatarishwa kwa ledi, hata kwa viwango vidogo, au bifenili zenye wingi wa klorini wanaweza kupata matatizo yanayofanana na TKUU hivyo tatizo hili kutambuliwa.[63] Kuhatarishwa kwa viuwa wadudu vya oganofosfeti kloripirifosi na fosfeti ya dialkali inahusishwa na hatari zaidi; hata hivyo, ushahidi huu haujadhibitishwa.[64] Uzito wa chini sana wa wakati wa kuzaliwa, kuzaliwa kabla ya wakati na shida za mapema pia huongeza hatari[65] sawia na maambukizi katika ujauzito, wakati wa kuzaa na katika utotoni. Baadhi ya maambukizi haya yanajumuisha: virusi mbalimbali (ukambi, tetekuwanga, rubela, enterovirusi 71) na maambukizi ya bakteria ya streptokokali.[66] Angalau asilimia 30 ya watoto wenye majeraha ya ubongo hupata TKUU baadaye[67] na takriban asilimia 5 ya visa husababishwa na majeraha ya ubongo.[68] Watoto wachache wanaweza kuonyesha kuathiriwa na rangi za chakula na dawa za kuhifadhi.[69] Kuna uwezekano kuwa baadhi ya rangi za chakula zinaweza kuwa kichocheo kwa watu wenye hatari ya kijenetiki. Uiengereza na Shirika la Uropa imeweka hatua za urekebishaji kutokana na madai haya.[70] Sukari inayopendekezwa ya lishe, na kikoleza utamu cha aspartame huonekena kuwa na kiwango kidogo cha athari au kukosa athari; isipokuwa katika watoto wa chini ya miaka sita, ambapo huenda sukari ikaongeza kiwango cha kutomakinika.[69]
Jamii
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utambuzi wa TKUU unaweza kuashiria kuathirika kwa utendaji wa familia au mfumo duni wa elimu wala si tatizo la kibinafsi.[71] Visa vingine vinaweza kutambulika kwa matarajio ya juu ya kielimu; huku kuthibitishwa kwa hali hii kukitumiwa na wazazi katika baadhi ya nchi kupata msaada zaidi wa kifedha na kielimu kwa watoto wao.[68] Watoto wachanga zaidi darasani wametambulika na uwezekano wa kuwa na TKUU hasa kwa sababu ya kuwa nyuma katika ukuaji wao ikilinganishwa na watoto wakubwa.[72][73] Mtindo unaofanana na wa TKUU hutokea mara nyingi katika watoto waliopitia vurugu au dhuluma ya kiakili.[13]
Kulingana na nadharia ya muundo wa jamii, jamii huamua mipaka kati ya tabia ya kawaida na isiyo ya kawaida. Watu katika jamii: ikijumuisha matabibu, wazazi na walimu huamua vigezo vitakavyotumika, na hivyo, idadi ya watu walioambukizwa.[74] Matokeo ya hali hii ni kigezo cha DSM IV hufikia viwango vya TKUU mara tatu hadi nne zaidi kuliko cha ICD 10.[11] Thomas Szasz, muunga mkono wa nadharia hii, amesema kuwa TKUU "ilibuniwa na wala si kutambuliwa."[75][76]
Pathofisiolojia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Muundo wa ubongo
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Pathofisiolojia ya TKUU si wazi kwani kuna maelezo mengi yanayobishana.[33] Katika watoto wenye TKUU, kuna upungufu wa kijumla wa kiwango cha ubongo, pamoja na ongezeko sawa katika upungufu wa kiwango cha upande wa kushoto wa koteksi inayoitangulia sehemu ya mbele.[77] Njia za ubongo zinazounganisha koteksi iliyoitangulia sehemu ya mbele na striatamu pia hukisiwa kuhusika. Hii inadokeza kuwa kukosa umakinifu, kupepesuka na usukumizi unaweza kuashiria kuathirika kwa ndewe ya mbele, huku sehemu za ubongo kama vile serebelamu pia ikiathirika.[77] Mifumo ingine ya ubongo inayohusishwa na umakinifu pia imetambulika kuwa tofauti katika watu wenye TKUU na wasio nayo.[78][79]
Nyurotransmita
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Awali, ilifikiriwa kuwa idadi iliyoongezeka ya visafirishaji vya dopamini kwa watu wenye TKUU ilikuwa sehemu ya pathofisiolojia lakini inaonekana idadi hii ya juu ni kutokana na adaptesheni kwa mfiduo wa vichocheo.[80] Watu wenye TKUU wanaweza kuwa na kizingiti cha kiwango cha chini cha mwamsho. Watu hawa huifidia hali hii kwa ongezeko la vichocheo, inayosababisha kukatizwa kwa umakinifu na ongezeko la tabia ya kupepesuka. Sababu kuu ya tukio hili ni kasoro ya mwitikio wa mfumo wa dopamini kwenye kichocheo.[81] Pia, kunaweza kuwa na kasoro katika njia zinazotoa adrenalini, serotonini na kikolini au nikotini.[1][82]
Shughuli tendaji
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Nadharia moja inadai kuwa dalili hizi hutokana na ugumu katika shughuli za utendaji.[44] Shughuli za utendaji huhusu baadhi ya michakato ya kiakili inayohitajika kurekebisha na kudhibiti shughuli za kila siku za maisha.[44] Baadhi ya kasoro hizi hujumuisha: matatizo ya stadi za kupanga, kutumia wakati vyema, kuahirisha kwingi, ugumu wa kumakinika, kasi ya kufikiria, kudhibiti hisia, kutumia kumbukumbu ya sasa na kuwa na kumbukumbu fupi.[44] Kwa kawaida watu huwa na kumbukumbu ya muda mrefu.[44] Vigezo vya ukosefu wa shughuli za utendaji hufikiwa katika asilimia 30- 50 ya watoto na vijana wenye TKUU.[83] Utafiti mmoja uligundua kuwa asilimia 80 ya watu wenye TKUU walikuwa na kasoro katika angalau mojawapo ya shughuli ya utendaji ikilinganishwa na asilimia 50 ya watu wasio na TKUU.[84] Kutokana na kiwango cha ubongo kukua na matakwa ya juu ya kudhibiti utendaji mtu anapozidi kukua, kasoro za TKUU zinaweza kutojionyesha kikamilifu hadi kufikia ujana au hata utu uzima wa mapema.[44]
Utambuzi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]TKUU hutambuliwa kwa kadirio la ukuaji wa tabia za utotoni na za kiakili kwa mtu binafsi; ikijumuisha kutozingatia athari za dawa, matibabu na matatizo mengine ya kimatibabu au kisaikaitria kama maelezo ya dalili.[13]: p.19–27 Mara nyingi utambuzi huzingatia maoni kutoka kwa wazazi na walimu[6] huku utambuzi mwingi ukianzishwa baada ya mwalimu kutoa madai haya.[68] Hii inaweza kuonekana kama kipeo cha mojawapo ya/au tabia za binadamu endelevu zinazopatikana katika watu wote.[13]: p.130 Utambuzi hauthibitishwi au kutupiliwa mbali ikiwa mtu atanufaika na matibabu au la.[6] Kwa vile tafiti za picha za ubongo hazina matokeo imara miongoni mwa watu, picha hizi hutumika kufanya utafiti pekee wala si utambuzi.[85] Mara nyingi vigezo vya DSM-IV hutumika Marekani ya Kaskazini kufanya utambuzi ilhali bara Uropa hutumia vigezo vya ICD-10. Utambuzi wa TKUU hutumia vigezo vya DSM-IV mara 3-4 kuliko vigezo vya ICD-10.[11] Tatizo hili huanishwa kama tatizo la kisaikaitria[1] la aina ya tatizo la ukuaji wa nyuro.[3] Isitoshe, tatizo hili pia huainishwa kama tatizo la tabia ya vurugu pamoja na tatizo la ukaidi wa kiupinzani, tatizo la kitabia na tatizo la kutoafikiana na watu.[86] Utambuzi hauashirii tatizo la kinyurolojia.[13] Inapendekezwa kuwa hali zinazohusishwa zichunguzwe, kama vile: hisia, mfadhaiko, tatizo la ukaidi wa kiupinzani na tatizo la mwenendo, aidha matatizo ya kujifunza na ya lugha. Matatizo zaidi yanayopaswa kuchunguzwa yanajumuisha: matatizo mengine ya ukuaji wa nyuro, mtetemo wa kineva, na apnea ya usingizi.[87]
Mwongozo wa Kiutambuzi na Kitakwimu
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Sawa na matatizo mengine ya akili, utambuzi rasmi hufanywa na mtu aliyehitimu kulingana na vigezo vilivyowekwa. Nchini Marekani, vigezo hivi vimewekwa na Muungano wa Kisaikiatria wa Marekani katika Mwongozo wa Kiutambuzi na Kitakwimu wa Matatizo ya Kiakili. Kulingana na kigezo cha DSM, kuna aina tatu za TKUU:[5][24]
- TKUU yenye hali kuu ya kutomakinika Aina hii hidhihirika kwa dalili zinazojumuisha kuzubaa kwa urahisi, kusahau, kuduwaa, kukosa mpangilio, umakinifu duni na ugumu wa kukamilisha kazi.[5] Mara nyingi watu huita tatizo hili "tatizo la ukosefu wa umakinifu". Hata hivyo, neno hili halijakubalika kirasmi kwanzia kusahihishwa kwa DSM mwaka wa 1994.
- Aina ya TKUU yenye hali kuu ya kupepesuka na usukumizi hudhihirika kwa wasiwasi mwingi na kutotulia, kupepesuka, ugumu wa kusubiri na kutulia kitini, tabia za kitoto; tabia za vurugu pia zinaweza kuwepo.[5]
- Aina changamani ya TKUU ni mchanganyiko wa aina hizi mbili.[5]
Uainishaji huu hutegemea kuwepo kwa angalau dalili 6 kati ya 9 za muda mrefu (zinazudumu kwa angalau miezi 6) za kukosa umakinifu, kupepesuka na usukumizi au zote mbili.[88] Ili kuzingatiwa, dalili hizi sharti zidhihirike kufikia umri wa miaka 6 hadi 12, na ziwepo katika zaidi ya muktadha mmoja (kwa mfano nyumbani na shuleni au kazini).[24] Dalili hizi si sharti ziwe mwafaka kwa mtoto wa umri huo[5][89] na kuwepo kwa ushahidi kuwa dalili hizi husababisha matatizo ya kijamii, shule au kazi.[88] Watoto wengi wenye TKUU huwa na aina changamani. Watoto wenye aina ya kutomakinika wana kiwango kidogo cha uwezekano wa kuigiza au ugumu wa kuhusiana na watoto wengine. Watoto hawa wanaweza kuketi bila kuzungumza ilhali hawamakiniki, hivyo kupelekea ugumu wa kuzingatiwa.[24]
Uainishaji wa Kimataifa wa Magonjwa
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Katika toleo la kumi la Uainishaji wa Kimataifa wa Kitakwimu wa Magonjwa na Matatizo ya Afya Yanayohusiana ishara za TKUU zimetajwa kuwa "matatizo ya hipakinetiki". Tatizo la kitabia (linalofasiliwa kama ICD-10)[29] likiwepo, hali hii hujulikana kama tatizo la mwenendo la hipakinetiki. Katika hali zingine, tatizo hili huainishwa kama kukatizwa kwa shughuli na umakinifu, matatizo mengine ya hipakinetiki au matatizo ya hipakinetiki yasiyo bayana. Tatizo la pili kwa wakati mwingine huitwa, sindromu ya hipakinetiki.[29]
Watu wazima
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Watu wazima wenye TKUU hutambuliwa kutumia kigezo sawa, ikijumuisha kuwa dalili zao sharti ziwe zilidhihirika kufikia umri wa miaka 6 hadi 12. Kuwauliza wazazi au walezi maswali ya jinsi tabia na ukuaji wa utotoni huwa sehemu ya ukadiriaji; historia ya TKUU katika familia pia huongeza uzito utambuzi.[1] Ingawa dalili kuu za TKUU ni sawa katika watoto na watu wazima, dalili hizi mara nyingi hudhihirika kwa njia tofauti katika watu wazima kuliko watoto. Kwa mfano, hali ya kupepesuka inayoonekana katika watoto inaweza kudhihirika kama kukosa utulivu na shughuli isiyokoma ya kiakili katika watu wazima.[1]
Utambuzi mbadala
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Dalili za TKUU zinazoweza kuhusishwa na matatizo mengine[90] | |||
---|---|---|---|
Mfadhaiko | Tatizo la wasiwasi | Wazimu | |
|
|
|
Dalili za TKUU kama vile kiwango cha chini cha hisia na mtazamo duni wa mtu binafsi, mabadiliko ya hisia na kukasirika zinaweza kukanganywa na disthimia, siklothimia au tatizo la hisia mseto pamoja na tatizo la nafsi la hisia dhaifu.[1] Baadhi ya dalili zinazotokana na matatizo wa kihisia, tatizo la kutohusiana na watu, ulemavu wa ukuaji au ulemavu wa akili au athari za matumizi ya dawa za kulevya kama vile ulevi na kujitenga zinaweza kuingiliana na baadhi ya zile za TKUU. Matatizo haya wakati mwingine yanaweza kutokea pamoja na TKUU. Hali za kimatibabu zinazoweza kusababisha dalili za aina ya TKUU zinajumuisha: uthiroidi, matatizo ya tukutiko, kiwango cha kusumisha cha ledi, upungufu wa uwezo wa kusikia, ugonjwa wa ini, apnea ya usingizi, miingiliano ya dawa, na jeraha la kichwa.[91] Matatizo ya usingizi ya kimsingi yanaweza kuthuru umakinifu na mtindo na dalili za TKUU zinaweza kuathiri usingizi.[92] Hivyo, inapendekezwa kuwa watoto wenye TKUU wakadiriwe kila mara kuhusu matatizo ya usingizi.[93][94] Usingizi mwingi katika watoto unaweza kusababisha dalili za kimsingi kama vile kupiga miayo na kusugua macho, usukumizi, kupepesuka, uchokozi, mabadiliko ya hisia na kutomakinika.[93][95] Apnea tata ya usingizi pia inaweza kusababisha dalili za aina ya TKUU.[96]
Udhibiti
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Udhibiti wa TKUU kwa kawaida huhusisha kushauriwa au matibabu pekee au changamani. Huku matibabu yakiboresha matokeo ya muda mrefu, matokeo hasi hayawezi kuepukika kabisa.[97] Matibabu yanayotumika hujumuisha vichangamsho, atomoxetine, vichangamsho vya alpha vya adrenalini na wakati mwingine dawa za kutuliza mfadhaiko.[36] Dawa hizi zina kiwango kidogo cha athari kwa takriban asilimia 80 ya watu.[98] Kubadilisha lishe pia kunaweza kuwa na manufaa[99] huku ushahidi pia ukionyesha manufaa ya asidi huru ya shahamu na kiwango kidogo cha kuhatarishwa kwa rangi ya chakula.[100] Ushahidi huu hauonyeshi ikiwa kuondoa vyakula vingine katika lishe kuna athari yoyote.[100]
Jamii-nafsi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kuna ushahidi imara kuhusu matumizi ya therapi za kitabia katika TKUU[101] na hupendekezwa kama matibabu ya kwanza kwa watu wenye dalili chache au hawajafika umri wa kwenda shuleni.[102] Matibabu ya kisaikolojia yanayotumika huhusisha: juhudi zaelimu nafsia, therapi ya kitabia, therapi ya ufahamu wa kitabia, saikotherapi baina ya watu, therapi ya familia, mikakati inayohusiana na elimu, kufunza stadi za kijamii, kufunza wazazi kuhusu udhibiti,[13] na mwitikio wa nyuro.[103] Elimu ya wazazi imetambulika kuwa na manufaa ya muda mfupi.[104] Kuna kiwango kidogo cha utafiti wa hali ya juu kuhusu ubora wa therapi ya familia dhidi ya TKUU, ingawa ushahidi uliopo unaonyesha kuwa therapi hii ni sawa katika utunzaji wa kijamii na bora kuliko dawa za kipoza ungo.[105]makundi maalum ya kusaidia TKUU zinatumika kama asili ya habari na zinaweza kusaidia familia kuhimili TKUU.[106]
Matibabu
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Matibabu kwa kutumia vichocheo ndiyo hupendekezwa katika matibabu ya dawa.[107] Kuna baadhi ya dawa zisizo za vichocheo kama vile atomoxetine, zinazoweza kutumika kama matibabu mbadala.[107] Hakuna utafiti bora unaolinganisha matibabu haya, hivyo hakuna ushahidi kuhusu athari kwenye matokeo ya masomo na mitindo ya kijamii.[108] Matibabu ya dawa hayapendekezwi katika watoto wa chini ya umri wa kwenda shuleni kwani athari zake za muda mrefu katika umri huu hazijulikani.[13][109] Athari za muda mrefu za vichocheo hazijulikani na utafiti mmoja tu ndio umetambua manufaa yake, utafiti wa pili ukikosa kutambua manufaa huku wa tatu ukitambua ushahidi wa madhara.[110] Atomoxetine inaweza kupendekezwa kwa watu walio katika hatari ya kutumia matibabu ya vichocheo vibaya kwa sababu haiwezi kutumika vibaya.[1] Mwongozo kuhusu wakati wa kutumia matibabu ya dawa hutofautiana katika nchi, huku Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Ubora wa Utambuzi ya Uingereza, ikipendekeza matumizi yake katika hali kali, nayo miongozo mingi ya Marekani ikipendekeza matumizi yake kwa takriban hali zote.[111]
Vichocheo na atomoxetine huwa na athari, ingawa kwa kawaida huwa ziko salama kuzitumia. [107] Vichocheo vinaweza kusababisha saikosisi au mania; ingawa hali hizi hazitokei mara nyingi.[112] Ufuatiliaji wa kila mara unapendekezwa kwa watu walio chini ya matibabu ya muda mrefu.[113] Therapi ya vichocheo inapaswa kuachishwa baada ya muda ili kukadiria ikiwa kuna haja ya kuendeleza matibabu.[114] Matibabu ya vichocheo yana uwezekano wa kutumika vibaya na kupelekea kutegemea[115] huku watu wenye TKUU wakiwa na hatari ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa, matumizi ya vichocheo kwa jumla huonekana kupunguza hatari au kuwa bila hatari yoyote.[1] Usalama wa matibabu haya katika ujauzito haujulikani.[116] Ukosefu wa zinki umehusishwa na dalili za kukosa umakinifu. Pia kuna ushahidi kuwa nyongeza ya zinki inaweza kuwanufaisha watoto wenye TKUU walio na viwango vya chini vya zinki.[117] Ayoni, magnesi na aidini pia zinaweza kuwa na athari dhidi ya dalili za TKUU.[118] Kuna ushahidi wa manufaa wastani ya nyongeza ya omega 3.[119]
Prognosisi
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Ufuatiliaji wa miaka minane katika watoto waliotambuliwa kuwa na TKUU (aina changamani) uligundua kuwa watoto hawa huwa na matatizo mara nyingi katika ujana iwapo watapata matibabu au la.[120] Barani Marekani, chini ya asilimia 5 ya watu wenye TKUU hupata shahada ya chuo kikuu,[121] ikilinganishwa na asilimia 28 ya idadi jumla wenye umri wa miaka 25 na zaidi.[122] Idadi ya watoto wanaofikia kigezo cha TKUU hushuka hadi nusu katika miaka mitatu kufuatia utambuzi. Hali hii hutokea pasi kutegemea matibabu yanayotumika.[123][124] TKUU huendelea kuwepo katika utu uzima katika takriban asilimia 30 hadi 50 ya visa.[12] Waathiriwa wana uwezekano wa kukuza mbinu za kuhimili wanapokomaa, hivyo kufidia dalili zao za awali.[14]
Epidemolojia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]TKUU inakadiriwa kuthuru takriban asilimia 6 hadi 7 ya watu wa umri wa miaka 18 na chini wanapotambuliwa kupitia kigezo cha DSM-IV.[7] Viwango vya kikundi hiki hukadiriwa kuwa kati ya asilimia 1 hadi 2 wanapotambuliwa kupitia kigezo cha ICD-10 .[8] Watoto wa Marekani Kaskazini hutambulika kuwa na kiasi cha juu cha TKUU kuliko wa barani Afrika na Mashariki ya Kati - hata hivyo, hali hii inaaminika kutokana na mbinu tofauti za utambuzi zinazotumika katika maeneo tofauti ulimwenguni wala sio kutokana na tofauti ya viwango vya hali hii.[125] Ikiwa mbinu sawa za utambuzi zitatumika, viwango hivi huenda vikawa sawa katika nchi hizi.[126] TKUU hutambulika takriban mara tatu zaidi katika wavulana kuliko wasichana.[10][11] Tofauti hii katika jinsia inaweza kuashiria tofauti katika hatari ya kuathirika au kuwa jinsia ya kike ina ugumu wa kutambulika kuwa kuliko jinsia ya kiume.[127] Viwango vya utambuzi na matibabu vimeongezeka kule Uingereza na Marekani kwanzia miaka ya 1970. Kimsingi, hii inaaminika kutokana na mabadiliko ya jinsi hali hii inavyotambuliwa[128] na jinsi watu ilivyo tayari kuitibu kwa dawa wala si kuzingatia ukweli wa badiliko katika kuwepo kwa hali hii.[8] Inaaminika kuwa mabadiliko katika kigezo cha utambuzi mwaka wa 2013 na kuanzishwa kwa DSM V kutaongeza asilimia ya watu wenye TKUU hasa katika watu wazima.[129]
Historia
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Kwa muda mrefu, kupepesuka kumekuwa sehemu ya hali ya binadamu. Bwana Alexander Crichton anaeleza kuhusu "akili isiyotulia" katika kitabu chake An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement (Unchunguzi wa asili na chanzo cha ukosefu wa mpangilio wa kiakili)kilichoandikwa mwaka wa 1798.[130][131] TKUU ilielezwa bayana kwa mara ya kwanza na George Still mwaka wa 1902.[128] Neno linalotumika kuelezea hali hii limebadilika kutoka wakati hadi mwingine ikiwa ni pamoja na: "tatizo la kiwango kidogo la ubongo" katika DSM-I (1952), "athari za utotoni za haipakinetiki" katika DSM-II (1968), tatizo la ukosefu wa umakinifu katika DSM-III (1980)" lenye kupepesuka au bila kupepesuka".[128] Mwaka wa 1987, tatizo hili lilibadilishwa kuwa TKUU katika DSM-III-R, nayo DSM-IV mwaka wa 1994 iligawa utambuzi katika aina tatu: aina ya TKUU ya kukosa umakinifu, aina ya TKUU ya kupepesuka na usukumizi na aina changamani ya TKUU.[132] Maneno mengine hujumuisha "uharibifu wa kiwango cha chini wa ubongo" yaliyotumika miaka ya 1930.[133] Matumizi ya vichocheo kutibu TKUU yalielezwa kwa mara ya kwanza mwaka wa 1937.[134] Katika miaka ya 1930, mchanganyiko wa amphetamineBenzedrine ndizo dawa za kwanza zilizopendekezwa kutumika nchini Marekani. Methylphenidate ilianzishwa katika miaka ya 1950 na dextroamphetamine katika miaka ya 1970.[128]
Jamii na utamaduni
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utata
[hariri | hariri chanzo]TKUU na utambuzi wake ni maarufu kwa utata kwanzia miaka ya 1970.[15][16][135] Utata huu umewajumuisha matabibu, walimu, viongozi, wazazi na vyombo vya habari. Misimamo kuhusu TKUU hutofautiana kutoka imani kwamba hali hii ni mwisho wa kiwango cha kawaida cha tabia[13]: p.23 [136] hadi kuchukuliwa kuwa inatokana na hali iliyopo ya jenetiki. Maeneo mengine yenye utata hujumuisha kutumia matibabu ya vichocheo, hasa matumizi katika watoto,[16][17][137] pamoja na mbinu za utambuzi na uwezekano wa utambuzi zaidi.[137] Huku Taasisi ya Kitaifa ya Ubora wa Utambuzi, ikitambua utata uliopo, inaeleza kuwa matibabu yaliyopo na mbinu za utambuzi zinategemea mitazamo iliyopo ya maelezo ya kitaaluma.[13]: p.133 Viwango vinavyotofautiana vya utambuzi baina ya nchi, majimbo, tabaka na kabila ya baadhi ya watu ikiwa vipengele vya kuzingatia. Watu wengine huamini kuwa dalili za TKUU huchangia katika utambuzi.[72] Wapo wanasosiolojia wanaochukulia TKUU kuwa mfano wa kutabibusha kwa tabia ya kikaidi, au kwa maneno mengine, kufanya mabadiliko kwa tatizo lisilo la kimatibabu la matokeo ya shuleni kuwa tatizo la kimatibabu.[15][68] Wahudumu wengi wa afya hukubali TKUU kama tatizo halisi; angalau kwa idadi ndogo ya watu wenye dalili kali.[68] Mjadala kati ya wahudumu wa afya mara nyingi huwa kuhusu utambuzi na matibabu kwa idadi kubwa ya watu wenye dalili zisizo kali sana.[19][20][68] Kigezo:Kufikia mwaka wa, asilimia nane ya wachezaji wa Marekani wa Ligi Kuu ya Besiboli walitambuliwa kuwa na TKUU, hivyo kufanya tatizo hili kuwa katika idadi kubwa ya watu Marekani. Ongezeko hili lililingana na marufuku ya Ligi ya mwaka wa 2006 kwa vichocheo ambayo ina madai kuwa baadhi ya wachezaji wanaiga dalili za TKUU ili kuepuka marufuku hii katika matumizi ya vichocheo kwenye mchezo huu.[138]
Maoni ya vyombo vya habari
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Baadhi ya watu mashuhuri wametoa maoni tatanishi kuhusu TKUU. Tom Cruise ameyataja matibabu ya Ritalin na Adderall kama "dawa za vichochoroni". Ushma S. Neill alikosoa mtazamo huu akisema kuwa vipimo vya vichocheo vinavyotumika katika matibabu ya TKUU havisababishi mazoea ya kitabia na kuwa kuna ushahidi mdogo wa upungufu wa hatari ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa baadaye maishani katika watoto wanaotibiwa kwa vichocheo.[139] Nchini Uingereza, Susan Greenfield alitangaza kwenye umma mwaka wa 2007 katika Baraza la Malodi kuhusu hitaji la maelezo ya kina katika ongezeko ghafla la utambuzi wa TKUU nchini Uingereza na visababishi vyake. Maoni yake yalifuata programu ya BBC Panorama iliyoangazia utafiti uliopendekeza kuwa matibabu ya dawa si bora kuliko aina zingine za therapi katika muda mrefu.[140] Mwaka wa 2010 Dhamana ya BBC ilikosoa programu ya BBC Panorama ya mwaka wa 2007 kwa kufanya muhtasari utafiti na kuonyesha "ukosefu wa kuboreka kwa mtindo wa watoto baada ya kupata matibabu ya TKUU kwa miaka mitatu" ilhali "utafiti huu ulitambua kuwa matibabu yaliboresha waathiriwa baada ya muda" ingawa manufaa ya matibabu ya muda mrefu yalitamvulika "kutokuwa bora kuliko katika watoto waliotibiwa kwa therapi ya tabia."[141]
Idadi maalum ya watu
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Watu wazima
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Asilimia 2 - 5 ya watu wazima wana TKUU.[1] Karibu 2/3 ya watoto wenye TKUU huendelea kupata hali hii katika utu uzima. Katika watu wote wanaoendelea kudhihirisha dalili, takriban asilimia 25 hupata tatizo kamili na asilimia 75 hupona 'kwa kiwano fulani.[1] Watu wengi wazima hawatibiwi.[142] Wengi wao huwa na maisha yasiyo na mpangilio na hutumia pombe na dawa zisizoagizwa na wahudumu kama mbinu za kujikimu.[91] Matatizo mengine hujumuisha matatizo ya mahusiano, kazi na viwango vya juu vya shughuli za kigaidi.[1] Matatizo ya afya ya kiakili yanayohusishwa hujumuisha: mfadhaiko, tatizo la wasiwasi naulemavu wa kujifunza.[91]Baadhi ya dalili za TKUU katika watu wazima hutofautiana na dalili zinazodhihirika katika watoto. Huku watoto wenye TKUU wakiweza kupanda na kukimbia kwingi, watu wazima wanaweza kuhisi ugumu wa kutulia, au kuzungumza sana wanapohusiana na wengine. Watu wazima wanaweza kuanzisha mahusiano kwa ghafla, kuonyesha tabia ya kutafuta uchangamfu na kukasirika haraka. Tabia ya kutawaliwa kama vile matumizi ya dawa za kulevya na kucheza kamari hufanyika mara nyingi. Vigezo vya DSM-IV vimekosolewa kwa kutokuwa mwafaka kwa watu wazima; kwani watu wanaoonyesha dalili tofauti wanaweza kudai kuwa walipita kiwango cha utambuzi.[1]
Watoto wenye kiwango cha juu cha akili
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Utambuzi wa TKUU na umuhimu wa athari zake katika watoto wenye kiwango cha juu cha akili una utata. Tafiti nyingi zimepata ulemavu sawa wa kiwango cha akili huku kiasi kikubwa cha watu wakiwa na matokeo sawa na kuwa na matatizo ya kijamii. Isitoshe, zaidi ya nusu ya watu wenye kipimo cha juu cha akili na TKUU hupata tatizo kuu la kufadhaisha au tatizo la ukaidi wa kiupinzani katika wakati fulani maishani mwao. Tatizo la wasiwasi jumla, tatizo la wasiwasi wa kutenganishwa na uwoga wa kijamii pia hutokea mara nyingi. Kuna ushahidi kuwa watu wenye kiwango cha juu cha akili na TKUU wana kiwango cha chini cha hatari ya matumizi mabaya ya dawa za kulevya na mtindo wa kutoafikiana na jamii ikilinganishwa na watoto wenye kipimo cha chini na wastani cha akili na TKUU. Kipimo cha ujuzi wa watoto na vijana wenye kipimo cha juu cha akili kinaweza kupimika kimakosa katika tathmini la kimsingi hivyo wanahitaji kupimwa kwa kina zaidi.[143]
Utafiti
[hariri | hariri chanzo]Picha za shughuli za umeme wa ubongo, ambazo ni aina ya umeme wa kawaida wa ubongo huchunguzwa ili kusaidia katika utambuzi wa TKUU.[144] Kwa sababu hii, umuhimu wake si bayana.[145] Kuna madai kuwa hii si njia mahususi ya kupima TKUU.[144] Nchini Marekani, Mamalaka ya Vyakula na Dawa imeidhinisha mambo wa kuthibitisha hili.[146]
Marejeo
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 Kooij, SJ.; Bejerot, S.; Blackwell, A.; Caci, H.; Casas-Brugué, M.; Carpentier, PJ.; Edvinsson, D.; Fayyad, J.; Foeken, K.; Fitzgerald, M; Gaillac, V; Ginsberg, Y; Henry, C; Krause, J; Lensing, MB; Manor, I; Niederhofer, H; Nunes-Filipe, C; Ohlmeier, MD; Oswald, P; Pallanti, S; Pehlivanidis, A; Ramos-Quiroga, JA; Rastam, M; Ryffel-Rawak, D; Stes, S; Asherson, P (2010). "European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD". BMC Psychiatry. 10: 67. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67. PMC 2942810. PMID 20815868.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=
ignored (|display-authors=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ Sroubek, A (2013 Feb). "Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Neuroscience bulletin. 29 (1): 103–10. doi:10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6. PMID 23299717.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 3.0 3.1 Caroline S., Clauss-Ehlers (2010). Encyclopedia of cross-cultural school psychology (tol. la 1st). New York: Springer. uk. 133. ISBN 9780387717982.
- ↑ Childress, AC (2012 Feb 12). "Pharmacotherapy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescents". Drugs. 72 (3): 309–25. doi:10.2165/11599580-000000000-00000. PMID 22316347.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 "Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Symptoms and Diagnosis". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities. Desemba 12, 2010. Iliwekwa mnamo Julai 3, 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Lake, Mina K. Dulcan, MaryBeth (2011). Concise guide to child and adolescent psychiatry (tol. la 4th). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub. uk. 34. ISBN 9781585624164.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 7.0 7.1 Willcutt EG (2012). "The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review". Neurotherapeutics. 9 (3): 490–9. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0135-8. PMC 3441936. PMID 22976615.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 Cowen, Philip (2012). Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry (tol. la 6th). Oxford University Press. uk. 546. ISBN 9780191626753.
- ↑ Jones, edited by Ming Tsuang, Mauricio Tohen, Peter B. (2011-03-25). Textbook of psychiatric epidemiology (tol. la 3rd). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. uk. 450. ISBN 9780470977408.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 10.0 10.1 Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H (2009). "[Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]". Encephale (kwa French). 35 (2): 107–14. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005. PMID 19393378.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Singh I (2008). "Beyond polemics: science and ethics of ADHD". Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 9 (12): 957–64. doi:10.1038/nrn2514. PMID 19020513.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 12.0 12.1 Bálint S, Czobor P, Mészáros A, Simon V, Bitter I (2008). "[Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a literature review]". Psychiatr Hung (kwa Hungarian). 23 (5): 324–35. PMID 19129549.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (24 Septemba 2008). "CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): full guideline" (PDF). NHS.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ 14.0 14.1 Gentile, Julie; Atiq, R; Gillig, PM (2004). "Adult ADHD: diagnosis, differential diagnosis and medication management". Psychiatry. 3 (8): 24–30. PMC 2957278. PMID 20963192.
- ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Parrillo, Vincent (2008). Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. uk. 63. ISBN 978-1-4129-4165-5. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-02.
- ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J (2008). "ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children". Harv Rev Psychiatry. 16 (3): 151–66. doi:10.1080/10673220802167782. PMID 18569037.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 17.0 17.1 Cohen, Donald J.; Cicchetti, Dante (2006). Developmental psychopathology. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-23737-X.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Sim MG, Hulse G, Khong E (2004). "When the child with ADHD grows up" (PDF). Aust Fam Physician. 33 (8): 615–8. PMID 15373378. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2015-09-24. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-09.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 19.0 19.1 Silver, Larry B (2004). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (tol. la 3rd). American Psychiatric Publishing. uk. 4–7. ISBN 1-58562-131-5.
- ↑ 20.0 20.1 Schonwald A, Lechner E (2006). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies". Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 18 (2): 189–95. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. PMID 16601502.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 21.0 21.1 Dobie, C (2012). "Diagnosis and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary care for school-age children and adolescents". Institute for Clinical Systems Improvement: 79. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-03-01. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-09.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help); Unknown parameter|=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|https://web.archive.org/web/20130301124247/http://guidelines.gov/content.aspx?f=
ignored (help) - ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. "Facts About ADHD". NCBDDD. Iliwekwa mnamo 2012-11-13.
- ↑ 23.0 23.1 Ramsay, J. Russell (2007). Cognitive behavioral therapy for adult ADHD. Routledge. uk. 25. ISBN 0-415-95501-7.
- ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. 2000. ISBN 0-89042-025-4.
- ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 National Institute of Mental Health (2008). "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)". United States: National Institutes of Health.
- ↑ Mikami AY (2010). "The importance of friendship for youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev. 13 (2): 181–98. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0067-y. PMC 2921569. PMID 20490677.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ http://www.webmd.com/add-adhd/adhd-anger-management-directory
- ↑ Racine, MB.; Majnemer, A.; Shevell, M.; Snider, L. (2008). "Handwriting performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". J Child Neurol. 23 (4): 399–406. doi:10.1177/0883073807309244. PMID 18401033.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10) Version for 2010". World Health Organisation. 2010.
- ↑ Bellani, M.; Moretti, A.; Perlini, C.; Brambilla, P. (2011). "Language disturbances in ADHD". Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 20 (4): 311–5. doi:10.1017/S2045796011000527. PMID 22201208.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 31.0 31.1 Walitza S, Drechsler R, Ball J (2012). "[The school child with ADHD]". Ther Umsch (kwa German). 69 (8): 467–73. doi:10.1024/0040-5930/a000316. PMID 22851461.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ McBurnett K, Pfiffner LJ (2009). "Treatment of aggressive ADHD in children and adolescents: conceptualization and treatment of comorbid behavior disorders". Postgrad Med. 121 (6): 158–65. doi:10.3810/pgm.2009.11.2084. PMID 19940426.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 33.3 Krull, K.R. (5 Desemba 2007). "Evaluation and diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children" (Subscription required). Uptodate. Iliwekwa mnamo 2008-09-12.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Hofvander B, Ossowski D, Lundström S, Anckarsäter H (2009). "Continuity of aggressive antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: The question of phenotype definition". Int J Law Psychiatry. 32 (4): 224–34. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.004. PMID 19428109.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Rubia K (2011). ""Cool" inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus "hot" ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: a review". Biol. Psychiatry. 69 (12): e69–87. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.023. PMID 21094938.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Wilens, TE.; Spencer, TJ. (2010). "Understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adulthood". Postgrad Med. 122 (5): 97–109. doi:10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2206. PMC 3724232. PMID 20861593.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Baud P, Perroud N, Aubry JM (2011). "[Bipolar disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: differential diagnosis or comorbidity]". Rev Med Suisse (kwa French). 7 (297): 1219–22. PMID 21717696.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ Wilens, TE.; Morrison, NR. (2011). "The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 24 (4): 280–5. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e328345c956. PMC 3435098. PMID 21483267.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Merino-Andreu M (2011). "Trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad y síndrome de piernas inquietas en niños". Rev Neurol (kwa Spanish; Castilian). 52 Suppl 1: S85–95. PMID 21365608.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL (2010). "Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment". Sleep Med. 11 (7): 643–51. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.014. PMID 20620105.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Karroum E, Konofal E, Arnulf I (2008). "[Restless-legs syndrome]". Rev. Neurol. (Paris) (kwa French). 164 (8–9): 701–21. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2008.06.006. PMID 18656214.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ Corkum P, Davidson F, Macpherson M (2011). "A framework for the assessment and treatment of sleep problems in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 58 (3): 667–83. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.004. PMID 21600348.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Tsai MH, Huang YS (2010). "Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep disorders in children". Med. Clin. North Am. 94 (3): 615–32. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2010.03.008. PMID 20451036.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 Brown, TE. (2008). "ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice". Curr Psychiatry Rep. 10 (5): 407–11. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. PMID 18803914.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Bendz LM, Scates AC (2010). "Melatonin treatment for insomnia in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 44 (1): 185–91. doi:10.1345/aph.1M365. PMID 20028959.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Shreeram S, He JP, Kalaydjian A, Brothers S, Merikangas KR (2009). "Prevalence of enuresis and its association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among United States children: results from a nationally representative study". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 48 (1): 35–41. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318190045c. PMC 2794242. PMID 19096296.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Hagberg BS, Miniscalco C, Gillberg C (2010). "Clinic attenders with autism or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: cognitive profile at school age and its relationship to preschool indicators of language delay". Res Dev Disabil. 31 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.07.012. PMID 19713073.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Fliers EA, Franke B, Buitelaar JK (2011). "[Motor problems in children with ADHD receive too little attention in clinical practice]". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (kwa Dutch; Flemish). 155 (50): A3559. PMID 22186361.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ 49.0 49.1 Millichap, J. Gordon (2010). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook a Physician's Guide to ADHD (tol. la 2nd). New York, NY: Springer Science. uk. 26. ISBN 9781441913975.
- ↑ Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K (2013). "What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 54 (1): 3–16. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x. PMC 3572580. PMID 22963644.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Neale, BM; Medland, SE; Ripke, S; Asherson, P; Franke, B.; Lesch, KP; Faraone, SV; Nguyen, TT; Schäfer, H; Holmans, Peter; Daly, M; Steinhausen, HC; Freitag, C; Reif, A; Renner, TJ; Romanos, M; Romanos, J; Walitza, S; Warnke, A; Meyer, J; Palmason, H; Buitelaar, J; Vasquez, AA; Lambregts-Rommelse, N; Gill, M; Anney, RJ; Langely, K; O'Donovan, M; Williams, N; Owen, M (2010). "Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 49 (9): 884–97. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.06.008. PMC 2928252. PMID 20732625.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|displayauthors=
ignored (|display-authors=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Burt, SA (2009). "Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences". Psychol Bull. 135 (4): 608–37. doi:10.1037/a0015702. PMID 19586164.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P; na wenz. (2012). "The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review". Mol. Psychiatry. 17 (10): 960–87. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.138. PMC 3449233. PMID 22105624.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 54.0 54.1 Gizer, IR.; Ficks, C.; Waldman, ID. (2009). "Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review". Hum Genet. 126 (1): 51–90. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x. PMID 19506906.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Arcos-Burgos M, Muenke M (2010). "Toward a better understanding of ADHD: LPHN3 gene variants and the susceptibility to develop ADHD". Atten Defic Hyperact Disord. 2 (3): 139–47. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0030-2. PMC 3280610. PMID 21432600.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Cardo E, Nevot A, Redondo M; na wenz. (2010). "Trastorno por déficit de atención/hiperactividad: ¿un patrón evolutivo?". Rev Neurol (kwa Spanish; Castilian). 50 Suppl 3: S143–7. PMID 20200842.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ 57.0 57.1 Williams J, Taylor E (2006). "The evolution of hyperactivity, impulsivity and cognitive diversity". J R Soc Interface. 3 (8): 399–413. doi:10.1098/rsif.2005.0102. PMC 1578754. PMID 16849269.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Glover V (2011). "Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective". J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 52 (4): 356–67. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x. PMID 21250994.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Behavioral neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its treatment. New York: Springer. 13 Januari 2012. ku. 132–134. ISBN 978-3-642-24611-1.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Burger, PH; Goecke, TW; Fasching, PA; Moll, G; Heinrich, H; Beckmann, MW; Kornhuber, J (2011). "Einfluss des mütterlichen Alkoholkonsums während der Schwangerschaft auf die Entwicklung von ADHS beim Kind". Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr (kwa German). 79 (9): 500–6. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1273360. PMID 21739408.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ↑ Abbott, LC; Winzer-Serhan, UH (2012). "Smoking during pregnancy: lessons learned from epidemiological studies and experimental studies using animal models". Crit Rev Toxicol. 42 (4): 279–303. doi:10.3109/10408444.2012.658506. PMID 22394313.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Neuman RJ, Lobos E, Reich W, Henderson CA, Sun LW, Todd RD (2007 Jun 15). "Prenatal smoking exposure and dopaminergic genotypes interact to cause a severe ADHD subtype". Biol Psychiatry. 61 (12): 1320–8. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.08.049. PMID 17157268.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|laysummary=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Eubig, PA; Aguiar, A; Schantz, SL (2010). "Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Environ Health Perspect. 118 (12): 1654–67. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901852. PMC 3002184. PMID 20829149.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ de Cock, M; Maas, YG; Van De Bor, M (2012). "Does perinatal exposure to endocrine disruptors induce autism spectrum and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders?". Acta Paediatrica (Review). 101 (8): 811–8. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2012.02693.x. PMID 22458970.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Thapar, A.; Cooper, M.; Jefferies, R.; Stergiakouli, E. (2012). "What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?". Arch Dis Child. 97 (3): 260–5. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-300482. PMID 21903599.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Millichap JG (2008). "Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Pediatrics. 121 (2): e358–65. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1332. PMID 18245408.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Eme, R (2012). "ADHD: an integration with pediatric traumatic brain injury". Expert Rev Neurother. 12 (4): 475–83. doi:10.1586/ern.12.15. PMID 22449218.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 68.3 68.4 68.5 Erkulwater, Jennifer L.; Dr Rick Mayes; Dr Catherine Bagwell; Dr Jennifer Erkulwater; Mayes, Rick; Bagwell, Catherine (2009). Medicating children: ADHD and pediatric mental health. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ku. 4–24. ISBN 0-674-03163-6.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ 69.0 69.1 Millichap JG, Yee MM (2012). "The diet factor in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Pediatrics. 129 (2): 330–7. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2199. PMID 22232312.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Kleinman, RE; Brown, RT; Cutter, GR; Dupaul, GJ; Clydesdale, FM (2011). "A research model for investigating the effects of artificial food colorings on children with ADHD". Pediatrics. 127 (6): e1575–84. doi:10.1542/peds.2009-2206. PMID 21576306.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ "Mental health of children and adolescents" (PDF). 12–15 Januari 2005. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2009-10-24. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 Oktoba 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ 72.0 72.1 Elder, TE. (2010). "The importance of relative standards in ADHD diagnoses: evidence based on exact birth dates". J Health Econ. 29 (5): 641–56. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.06.003. PMC 2933294. PMID 20638739.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Parritz, Robin (2013). Disorders of Childhood: Development and Psychopathology. Cengage Learning. uk. 151. ISBN 9781285096063.
- ↑ Parens E, Johnston J (2009). "Facts, values, and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): an update on the controversies". Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 3 (1): 1. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-1. PMC 2637252. PMID 19152690.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ Chriss, James J. (2007). Social control: an introduction. Cambridge, UK: Polity. uk. 230. ISBN 0-7456-3858-9.
- ↑ Szasz, Thomas Stephen (2001). Pharmacracy: medicine and politics in America. New York: Praeger. uk. 212. ISBN 0-275-97196-1.
- ↑ 77.0 77.1 Krain, Amy; Castellanos, AL; Castellanos, FX (2006). "Brain development and ADHD". Clinical Psychology Review. 26 (4): 433–444. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.005. PMID 16480802.
- ↑ Castellanos FX, Proal E (2012). "Large-scale brain systems in ADHD: beyond the prefrontal-striatal model". Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.). 16 (1): 17–26. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.007. PMC 3272832. PMID 22169776.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C; na wenz. (2012). "Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies". Am J Psychiatry. 169 (10): 1038–55. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521. PMID 22983386.
{{cite journal}}
: Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Fusar-Poli P, Rubia K, Rossi G, Sartori G, Balottin U (2012). "Striatal dopamine transporter alterations in ADHD: pathophysiology or adaptation to psychostimulants? A meta-analysis". Am J Psychiatry. 169 (3): 264–72. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11060940. PMID 22294258.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Sikström S, Söderlund G (2007). "Stimulus-dependent dopamine release in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Psychol Rev. 114 (4): 1047–75. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.1047. PMID 17907872.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Cortese, S. (2012). "The neurobiology and genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): what every clinician should know". Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 16 (5): 422–33. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.01.009. PMID 22306277.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Lambek R, Tannock R, Dalsgaard S, Trillingsgaard A, Damm D, Thomsen PH (2010). "Validating neuropsychological subtypes of ADHD: how do children with and without an executive function deficit differ?". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 51 (8): 895–904. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02248.x. PMID 20406332.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Nigg, JT.; Willcutt, EG.; Doyle, AE.; Sonuga-Barke, EJ. (2005). "Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes?" (PDF). Biol Psychiatry. 57 (11): 1224–30. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025. PMID 15949992. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2013-10-14. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-09.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|dead-url=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ "MerckMedicus Modules: ADHD –Pathophysiology". Agosti 2002. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2010-05-01. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-09.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Wiener, Jerry M., Editor (2003). Textbook Of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. ISBN 1-58562-057-2.
{{cite book}}
:|author=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Subcommittee on Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity, Disorder (2011 Nov). "ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents". Pediatrics. 128 (5): 1007–22. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2654. PMID 22003063.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|displayauthors=
ignored (|display-authors=
suggested) (help) - ↑ 88.0 88.1 Steinau S (2013). "Diagnostic Criteria in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - Changes in DSM 5". Front Psychiatry. 4: 49. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00049. PMC 3667245. PMID 23755024.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ Berger I (2011). "Diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: much ado about something" (PDF). Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 13 (9): 571–4. PMID 21991721.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Consumer Reports; Drug Effectiveness Review Project (Machi 2012). "Evaluating Prescription Drugs Used to Treat: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Comparing Effectiveness, Safety, and Price" (PDF). Best Buy Drugs. Consumer Reports: 2. Iliwekwa mnamo 12 Aprili 2013.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ↑ 91.0 91.1 91.2 Gentile, Julie; Atiq, R; Gillig, PM (2006). "Adult ADHD: Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis, and Medication Management". Psychiatry (Edgmont (Pa. : Township)). 3 (8). Psychiatrymmc.com: 25–30. PMC 2957278. PMID 20963192.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Owens JA (2008). "Sleep disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Current Psychiatry Reports. 10 (5): 439–44. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0070-x. PMID 18803919.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ 93.0 93.1 Owens JA (2005). "The ADHD and sleep conundrum: a review". Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. 26 (4): 312–22. doi:10.1097/00004703-200508000-00011. PMID 16100507.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Walters AS, Silvestri R, Zucconi M, Chandrashekariah R, Konofal E (2008). "Review of the possible relationship and hypothetical links between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the simple sleep related movement disorders, parasomnias, hypersomnias, and circadian rhythm disorders". Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine. 4 (6): 591–600. PMC 2603539. PMID 19110891.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Hirshkowitz, Max (2004). "Neuropsychiatric Aspects of Sleep and Sleep Disorders". Katika Yudofsky, Stuart C. and Robert E. Hales, editors (mhr.). Essentials of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences (tol. la 4). Arlington, Virginia, USA: American Psychiatric Publishing. ku. 315–40. ISBN 978-1-58562-005-0.
{{cite book}}
:|editor=
has generic name (help);|format=
requires|url=
(help); Cite has empty unknown parameters:|origmonth=
na|origdate=
(help); External link in
(help); Unknown parameter|chapterurl=
|chapterurl=
ignored (|chapter-url=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - ↑ Lal C, Strange C, Bachman D (2012). "Neurocognitive impairment in obstructive sleep apnea". Chest. 141 (6): 1601–10. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2214. PMID 22670023.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Shaw, M (2012 Sep 4). "A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment". BMC medicine. 10: 99. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-99. PMC 3520745. PMID 22947230.
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ↑ "Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines" (PDF). Canadian ADHD Alliance. Iliwekwa mnamo 4 Februari 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Nigg, JT (2012 Jan). "Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 51 (1): 86–97.e8. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015. PMID 22176942.
{{cite journal}}
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suggested) (help) - ↑ 100.0 100.1 Sonuga-Barke, EJ (2013 Mar 1). "Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 170 (3): 275–89. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12070991. PMID 23360949.
{{cite journal}}
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(help) - ↑ Fabiano GA, Pelham WE, Coles EK, Gnagy EM, Chronis-Tuscano A, O'Connor BC (2009). "A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Clinical Psychology Review. 29 (2): 129–40. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001. PMID 19131150.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Kratochvil CJ, Vaughan BS, Barker A, Corr L, Wheeler A, Madaan V (2009). "Review of pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder for the general psychiatrist". Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 32 (1): 39–56. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.001. PMID 19248915.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Arns, M (Julai 2009). "Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: the effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity: a meta-analysis". Clinical EEG and neuroscience : official journal of the EEG and Clinical Neuroscience Society (ENCS). 40 (3): 180–9. doi:10.1177/155005940904000311. PMID 19715181.
{{cite journal}}
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Pliszka S; AACAP Work Group on Quality Issues (2007). "Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (7): 894–921. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e318054e724. PMID 17581453.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ Bjornstad G, Montgomery P (2005). Bjornstad, Gretchen J (mhr.). "Family therapy for attention-deficit disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD005042. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005042.pub2. PMID 15846741.
- ↑ Turkington, Carol (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Brain and Brain Disorders. Infobase Publishing. uk. 47. ISBN 9781438127033.
- ↑ 107.0 107.1 107.2 Wigal SB (2009). "Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults". CNS Drugs. 23 Suppl 1: 21–31. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. PMID 19621975.
- ↑ McDonagh MS, Peterson K, Thakurta S, Low A (2011). "Drug Class Review: Pharmacologic Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". United States Library of Medicine. PMID 22420008.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Greenhill LL, Posner K, Vaughan BS, Kratochvil CJ (2008). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 17 (2): 347–66, ix. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.004. PMID 18295150.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Hazell P (2011). "The challenges to demonstrating long-term effects of psychostimulant treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 24 (4): 286–90. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32834742db. PMID 21519262.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ "Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines" (PDF). Canadian ADHD Alliance. Iliwekwa mnamo 4 Februari 2011.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Mosholder, AD (Februari 2009). "Hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms associated with the use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs in children". Pediatrics. 123 (2): 611–6. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0185. PMID 19171629.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Kraemer M, Uekermann J, Wiltfang J, Kis B (2010). "Methylphenidate-induced psychosis in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: report of 3 new cases and review of the literature". Clin Neuropharmacol. 33 (4): 204–6. doi:10.1097/WNF.0b013e3181e29174. PMID 20571380.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK (2011). "To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended?". Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 21 (8): 584–99. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008. PMID 21530185.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon (2009). "Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration". United States National Library of Medicine.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B (2006). "The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder". J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford). 20 (5): 602–10. doi:10.1177/0269881106061710. PMID 16478756. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2009-08-15. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-09.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Millichap JG, Yee MM (2012). "The diet factor in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder". Pediatrics. 129 (2): 330–7. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2199. PMID 22232312.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D (2012). "The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children". Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig. 63 (2): 127–34. PMID 22928358.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Bloch MH, Qawasmi A (2011). "Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis". J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 50 (10): 991–1000. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008. PMC 3625948. PMID 21961774.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ Molina BS, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM; na wenz. (2009). "The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 48 (5): 484–500. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e31819c23d0. PMC 3063150. PMID 19318991.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Cimera, Robert E. (2002). Making ADHD a gift : teaching Superman how to fly. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. uk. 116. ISBN 978-0-8108-4318-9.
- ↑ "College Degree Nearly Doubles Annual Earnings, Census Bureau Reports". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2005-03-30. Iliwekwa mnamo 2 Oktoba 2008.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM (2007). "3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 46 (8): 989–1002. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e3180686d48. PMID 17667478.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ "What is the evidence for using CNS stimulants to treat ADHD in children? | Therapeutics Initiative". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2010-09-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 2014-01-09.
- ↑ Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA (2007). "The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (6): 942–8. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942. PMID 17541055.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Jones, edited by Ming Tsuang, Mauricio Tohen, Peter B. Textbook of psychiatric epidemiology (tol. la 3rd). Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. uk. 450. ISBN 9780470977408.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Staller J, Faraone SV (2006). "Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in girls: epidemiology and management". CNS Drugs. 20 (2): 107–23. doi:10.2165/00023210-200620020-00003. PMID 16478287.
- ↑ 128.0 128.1 128.2 128.3 "ADHD Throughout the Years" (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. Iliwekwa mnamo 2 Agosti 2013.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Dalsgaard, S (2013 Feb). "Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)". European child & adolescent psychiatry. 22 Suppl 1: S43–8. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0360-z. PMID 23202886.
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(help) - ↑ Palmer ED, Finger S (2001). "An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798)". Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ Crichton, Andrew (1798). An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. uk. 271. ISBN 9780404082123.
- ↑ Millichap, J. Gordon (2010). "1. Definition and History of ADHD". Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook. Springer Verlag Gmbh. ku. 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4419-1409-5.
{{cite book}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ Weiss, Margaret (2010). ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. JHU Press. ISBN 9781421401317.
- ↑ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA (2009). "Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate". Human Psychopharmacology. 24 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1002/hup.992. PMC 2629554. PMID 19051222.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Foreman, DM (2006). "Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: legal and ethical aspects". Archives of Disease in Childhood. 91 (2): 192–4. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.064576. PMC 2082674. PMID 16428370.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ Faraone, Stephen V (2005). "The scientific foundation for understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder". Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 14 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0429-z. PMID 15756510.
- ↑ 137.0 137.1 Cormier E (2008). "Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and update". J Pediatr Nurs. 23 (5): 345–57. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2008.01.003. PMID 18804015.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (help) - ↑ Saletan, William (12 Januari 2009). "Doping Deficit Disorder. Need performance-enhancing drugs? Claim ADHD". Slate. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2009-05-21. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-05-02.
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ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - ↑ Neill US (2005). "Tom Cruise is dangerous and irresponsible". J. Clin. Invest. 115 (8): 1964–5. doi:10.1172/JCI26200. PMC 1180571. PMID 16075033.
{{cite journal}}
: Unknown parameter|month=
ignored (help) - ↑ "Peer calls for ADHD care review", BBC News, 14 November 2007. Retrieved on 2012-01-29.
- ↑ Singh A. "BBC must broadcast apology over inaccurate Panorama programme", 25 February 2010. Retrieved on 2012-01-29.
- ↑ Culpepper, L, Mattingly G (2010). "Challenges in identifying and managing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults in the primary care setting: a review of the literature". Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 12 (6): PCC.10r00951. doi:10.4088/PCC.10r00951pur. PMC 3067998. PMID 21494335.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ↑ Antshel, KM (2008). "Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in the context of a high intellectual quotient/giftedness". Dev Disabil Res Rev. 14 (4): 293–9. doi:10.1002/ddrr.34. PMID 19072757.
- ↑ 144.0 144.1 Sand, T (2013 Feb 5). "[Assessment of ADHD with EEG]". Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke. 133 (3): 312–6. doi:10.4045/tidsskr.12.0224. PMID 23381169.
{{cite journal}}
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ Millichap, JG (2011 Jul). "Utility of the electroencephalogram in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder". Clinical EEG and neuroscience : official journal of the EEG and Clinical Neuroscience Society (ENCS). 42 (3): 180–4. PMID 21870470.
{{cite journal}}
: Check date values in:|date=
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ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ↑ FDA (Julai 15, 2013). "FDA permits marketing of first brain wave test to help assess children and teens for ADHD".
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
Viungo vya nje
[hariri | hariri chanzo]- Tatizo la Kutotulia katika Open Directory Project
- National Institute of Mental Health on ADHD
- "CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): full guideline" (PDF). NHS. 9 Machi 2009. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2010-03-31. Iliwekwa mnamo 2009-01-08.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - New Zealand MOH Guidelines for the Assessment and Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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