Pedagogy for Construction Technology

and Management /CENG 6002/

[email protected]
Course Title- Pedagogy
Course description

• This course is designed to equip COTOM postgraduate students with the Knowledge, attitude and skill of conducting
effective teaching and learning in higher learning institutions.

• The course addresses basic concepts and principles of effective teaching and learning, philosophical paradigms in
Education, instructional theories, developing learning objectives, planning teaching, preparation and use materials and
monitoring and revision of teaching.
Unit 1.
Conceptualizing
Education,
Pedagogy,
Teaching and
Learning
What is Education?

The process of bringing

desirable changesinto
the behavior of human
beings.
The process of imparting
or acquiring knowledge
or skillsthrough
instruction or study.
Types of Education

Informal Formal Non-formal

Education Education Education
Informal
Education
A life-long process.

Individuals learn from

daily experiences.
Individual learns from
exposure to the
environment, at home,
workplace, at play etc.
Institutional activity

Chronologically graded
structure
Uniform
Formal
Education Subject-oriented

Fulltime

Leads to certificates, diplomas,

degrees
Life, environment, and learner oriented

Diversified in content and method.

Built on learner participation

The What of Pedagogy, Teaching and

Non- Learning

What is Pedagogy?

formal • Composed of the act of teaching and the ideas, values and

Education beliefs informing, sustaining and justifying that act.

• Pedagogy is defined simply as the method and practice of

teaching.
It encompasses:
➢Teaching theory
➢Teaching Methods/Style
➢Instructional media/materials
➢Instructional planning and organization ➢Feedback and assessment mechanisms.

• When people talk about the pedagogy of teaching, they will be referring to the way teachers deliver the content of the
curriculum to a class.

• It has two poles – the teaching system and the learning system – between which information is transferred.
The concept of Teaching

• Any form of interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in which other persons can or will behave.

• An interactive process, primarily involving classroom talk, which takes place between teacher and learners & occurs during
certain definable activities.

• Teaching denotes action undertaken with the intention of bringing about learning in another.

• A process:- It involves a series of actions and decisions of the teacher.

• An interpersonal activity and/or process: teaching involves interactions between a teacher and one or more students. Most
often the interactions are verbal and two-way.

• Intentional:- There is some purpose or set of purposes for which teaching occurs.

What is learning?

• The ultimate goal of teaching is learning.

• Learning is about change:

• The change brought about by developing a new skill, understanding something

new, changing an attitude.
Characteristics of Effective Learning:
• It is meaningful to the students.

• Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or actively participate in it.

• It allows students to move further than memorization of facts and bits of knowledge.

Cont’d…

• It prepares the students to understand and participate in a complex world.

• It encourage students to investigate, to understand the

world around them, to analyze, to draw conclusions &
to communicate – in other words, TO THINK
Qualities of an
Effective
Teacher/ Trainer

Has excellent pedagogic content knowledge or mastery.

“You know it but are you able to teach it?” Cont’d…
Cont’d…

• Has a smooth relation with students/trainees.

• Manages the class well.

• Plans his/her lessons well.

• Adopts a variety of teaching methods and media.

• Considers the needs of the different ability groups within the class.

Gives feedback within

Is friendly, with a an appropriate sense of humor. timescale.
Is confident, open to
Combines adaptability suggestions and other with courage etc. viewpoints.
Marks and Qualities of Good / effective teaching and learning

1. Good teaching is as much about passion as it is about reason.

❑ It's about not only motivating students to learn, but teaching them how to learn in a manner that is relevant, meaningful, and
memorable
Cont’d…

2. Good teaching is about substance and treating students as consumers of knowledge.

❑It's about doing your best to keep on top of your field, reading sources, inside and outside of your areas of expertise, and being at
the leading edge as often as possible.

3. Good teaching is about listening, questioning, being responsive, and remembering that each student and class is different.
Cont’d…

4. Good teaching is about not always having a fixed agenda and being rigid, but being flexible, fluid, experimenting, and having the
confidence to react and adjust to changing circumstances.
5.Good teaching is also about style.
❑ Good teachers work the room and every student in it. They realize that they are the conductors and the class is the orchestra.
Cont’d…

6. This is very important -- good teaching is about humor.

❑It's about being self-deprecating and not taking yourself too seriously. It's often about making innocuous jokes, mostly at your own
expense.

7. Good teaching is about caring, nurturing, and developing minds and talents.

8. Good teaching is supported by strong and visionary leadership, and very tangible institutional support -- resources,
personnel, and funds.
Cont’d…

9. Good teaching is about mentoring between senior and junior.

• Effective teaching should also be rewarded,

• Poor teaching needs to be remediated through training and development programs.

10. Good teaching is about having fun, experiencing pleasure and intrinsic rewards.
Characteristics of a profession: Is teaching a profession

❑A profession is an occupation founded upon prolonged and specialized intellectual training that enables the practitioner to
render a definite intellectual service.
Essential characteristics of a profession

❑A professional renders a unique, essential and specialized service to its clients.

❑Profession relies on or uses intellectual knowledge and skills in order to perform its services effectively, or a profession has
knowledge and skill based on scientific theory.
❑A profession is based on specialized training.

❑A professional enjoys autonomy and decision making authority in his/her respective specialty
❑A profession has a code of ethics.
Cont’d…
❑Code of ethics/professional ethics refers to the basic guide lines (rules) that regulate acceptable behaviors for the members of a
given profession. A professional teacher is governed by the codes of ethics of the teaching profession. These are guidelines
specifying the professional obligations, commitments and responsibilities that a professional teacher has to her/his students
and fellow teachers as well as to his/her profession, parents, school administrators and the community at large.
Unit Two:

Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching

2.1. Definitions and Characteristics of Principles of Teaching
• Teaching principles are defined as generalized statements regarding teaching activities such as relating teaching to social life,
making results of instruction durable, making human learning vivid, clear or understandable.

• The fundamental guidelines indicating where a teacher’s instructional activities mainly focus on in order to bring the desired
behavioral change (learning) in the part of the learners.
Characteristics of principles of teaching

A. Essential – are applicable in the totality of the instructional process , which means that they are applicable in planning
lesson, organizing the learning environment, presenting lessons and constructing the evaluation instruments for evaluation
purpose.

B. Universal – are valid in teaching all subjects at all levels of the schooling system. Whatever subject is taught by a teacher
at any grade level, he/she must consider the different principles of teaching.

C. Compulsory (They are compulsory):

• For they serve the teacher as a basic orientation for planning and guiding the instruction as effectively and efficiently as possible .
So that, it is a must for teachers to apply all of these principles in order to ensure learning.
D. Socially determined:
• They are made appropriate to meet the fundamental demands of the society concerning
education.
Cont’d…
Consequently, these principles are also reflected in the curriculum in determining:
 Objectives,

 Contents and structure of their elements,

 The scope of the students’ textbooks,

 The appropriateness of the teacher’s guides.

2.2. The Main Principles of Teaching and their use in Teaching

1.The principle of connecting instruction with life

❑Everyone come to school to get knowledge, develop different skills and form value systems that help him/her fit to life
requirements.
❑But the child comes to school not with a blank mind; rather she/he comes with his/her own knowledge and experience acquired in
the past from various sources.
❑Thus, all what a teacher does must be relating instruction to actual life outside of the school.
Cont’d…

2. The principle of planning lessons in line with the curriculum;

• Teachers are both planners and practitioners. They are expected to refer to the curriculum materials.
• This principle deals with planning.

3.The principle of integrating (relating) learning experiences in different subject areas

❑The ultimate aim of education is to bring about an all-rounded or unified development of the child’s personality.

❑To this effect, different subjects are organized.

❑These different subjects are expressions of the meanings of man’s experiences about the environment.
4.The principle of making lessons understandable / comprehensible/;
❑The principle favors the adjustment of lessons to the mental abilities of the learners. Students learn at their best when the
lesson fits to their present understanding level.
The basic rules in the presentation of lessons are that:
✓presenting lessons from the known and proceeding to the unknown.
Cont’d…
✓Presenting lessons from the easy and proceeding to the difficult.

✓Starting lessons from the simple and proceeding to the complex.

✓Starting from concrete and proceeding to abstract.

✓starting from the whole and proceeding to the parts ( specific) and vice-versa.

✓Starting from the immediate and proceeding to the remote.

5.The principle of providing for individual differences
❑Individual difference means variation in character occurring among individual members of a group.
❑Every person possesses different features that make him/her different from others.
❑Individuals differ in their perception, intelligence, maturity level and rates, responses to the demands of the society and needs as
well as interests.
❑Thus, the implication of this to teaching is that teachers should consider the presence of the individual differences in a class and
try to accommodate the differences.
6. The principle of making instruction clear by using different instructional media that appeal to the different senses;
❑All knowledge must be built on sufficiently clear and lively perceptions and conceptions.
Cont’d…

❑Researches indicate about 11% of human learning comes through the sense of hearing; 83% through the sense of sight; 3.5%
through the sense of smelling; 1.5% through the sense of touching and 1% through the sense of tasting.

❑Therefore, teachers need to use different audio-visual materials that appeal to the different sense organs.
7. The principle of uniting instruction with scientific findings and procedures
❑Things are in a state of constant change. What was taken as functional at one time becomes obsolete at other times.
❑The principle advocates the need for focusing on scientific procedures, techniques and recent findings.
❑Teachers need to make themselves up to date through personal efforts.
❑Search for recent research findings and teaching their students on the basis of workable principles, laws and theories are
the expected responsibilities.
8. The principle of verbalization in instruction;
❑Advocates making students verbalize of what they are learning in their own words.

❑ Retention increases as the learner articulates what he/she learned.

❑Students retain

• 10% of what is read; 20% of what is heard

• 30% of what is seen; 50% of what is heard and seen;

• 70% of what is articulated (spoken, expressed – clearly); and

• 90% of what is participated in (worked or done) is retained for a certain period of time.
2.3. Method of teaching:
Epistemologies,
Definitions, and
Classifications
A. Philosophical Epistemologies of
Education: Positivism Vs. Constructivism

❑Positivism: Knowledge is separate from the learner

• The learners' task is to absorb or memorize facts or pieces of information

• There is less emphasis on linking facts and making a coherent and meaningful whole.

• The teachers' task is to repeat or give prescribed information from textbooks.

• Using a pedagogy of rote learning or “Chalk and talk”

Constructivism

• Assumes that knowledge is produced or made meaningful through interaction between the learner and the world around him.

• Emphasizes on analysis and interpretation of facts, not memorization.

• The learner task is to interact with the world around him, to understand, and think critically
• The teachers' task is to use methods that encourage learners to be active by analyzing and interpreting knowledge through high
order thinking and problemsolving skills.
B. Method of teaching: definitions, classifications, and criteria of selection

❑are ways or means by which teachers impart or convey a given subject matter content to the learner and enable him or her to
acquire knowledge, develop skills, and form attitudes, habits, convictions, characters, and value systems.
Cont’d…

❑Thus, methods are tools for the teacher to transmit the message to the learners and make them interact with the external factors in
the teaching and learning environment.
❑They have to be selected and be applied to achieve the intended educational objectives.
Classifications of instructional methods
Different types of classifications when referring to instructional
methods/ teaching-learning methods.

Teacher-centered versus student

-centered methods.

Direct instruction versus indirect instruction strategies.

Conventional versus non

-conventional methods
.

Traditional versus modern (non

- traditional) method
Cont’d…

❑Despite their difference in terminology, they have similar conceptual frame of reference, i.e. the degree of students’ participation
in the instruction process.
Traditional mode of teaching - teacher gives
(“throws”) of the required knowledge to students

❑In modern instructional methods, much attention is given to directing student's effort towards learning by doing rather than
through memorization or recitation of the learned material.

Conceptual
image of
traditional mode
of teaching vs.
modern teaching
method for active
learning
Our ideal
lesson -
teacher
prepares
small steps
and climbs
together with
the students.
3. Major teaching methods that enhance active learning methods (ALM).
Active Learning Methods
❑Our New Education and Training Policy is guided by a new view of education, one which promotes active learning (student-
centered) methods.
❑The need for active learning in the classroom comes out of a view of knowledge known as
'constructivism'.
Why is it necessary to make learning active?

❑Over 2400 years ago, Confucius declared:

✓What I hear, I forget.
✓What I see, I remember.
✓What I do, I understand.

❑These three simple statements speak volumes about the need for active learning.

❑Silberman (1996) modified and expanded the wisdom of Confucius into what he calls the Active Learning Credo.
Cont’d…

✓What I hear, I forget.

✓What I hear and see, I remember a little.
✓What I hear, see, and ask questions about or discuss with someone else, I begin to understand.

✓What I hear, see, discuss, and do, I acquire knowledge and skill.

✓What I teach to another, I master.

❑A study demonstrates that students in lecturebased college classrooms are not attentive about 40 percent of the time.

❑Moreover, while students retain 70 percent in the first ten minutes of a lecture, they retain only 20 percent of the last ten minutes.
• A situation where students are active participants in their own learning rather
than passive receivers of knowledge
Problems of lecturing

❑Student attention decreases with each passing minute.

❑It appeals only to auditory learners.

❑It tends to promote lower-level learning of factual information.

❑It assumes that all students need the same information and at the same pace.
❑Students tend not to like it.
Characteristics of the Student-Centered
Methods

• Active engagement of students beyond reading, listening, and note-taking;

• Promotes deep learning, not just acquisition of facts;

• Develops higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis, synthesis, evaluation) through intentionally designed activities;

• Often involves interaction among students;

• Helps students build competencies (e.g., problemsolving, critical thinking, communication) as well as content knowledge.

Effective techniques of teaching with each method

Points to Consider While Selecting

Instructional Methods
1. The objective of the lesson:- highly influence how you have to teach the lesson because different educational objectives
require different ways of communication.

❑ To decide which methods are appropriate for them: kinds of objectives and levels of objectives need to be considered.
2. Contents of the lesson 3. Characteristics of students

• students are always at the center of any instructional process.

• A teacher should always consider their needs, abilities, learning styles, prerequisite knowledge, etc. in making decisions
about teaching methods.
4. Time of the lesson 5. Availability of instructional media
6. Group Size: -
❑Incase of individual students could use methods like project method or assignments, tutoring and individually prescribed instruction
such as open learning method.
❑For small groups between 5 and 20 you may choose discussion method or any other suitable.

❑When the group size is as large as 50 or above, you may have to use methods such as lecture or demonstration or other appropriate
strategy.
UNIT Three: Instructional Planning

What is Instructional Planning?

• Instructional planning is “the process by which teachers:

✓ decide how best to select and

✓organize a learning experience to maximize both teachers and students' achievement and satisfaction.
• It is a preparation for teaching and learning, including construction of goals, objectives, and contents and assessment methodology.
Importance of instructional planning

1.Planning leads to shared understanding of instructional goals or objectives and subsequently enhances
students’ performance.
2.Planning processes can give both students and teachers:

✓ a sense of direction and

✓help students become aware of the goals Cont’d…

3.It produces a smoothly running classroom with fewer discipline problems & fewer interruptions.

4. It gives teachers greater confidence, security and enthusiasm for what & how they are teaching & encourages the use of
variety and creativity.

5. It benefits students by helping teachers take their diversity into account.

Types of Instructional plan

• Instructional planning could be developed at long-range, intermediate or short-term levels.

• Despite some variations in the degree of generality or specificity, the elements involved at each level are almost similar.
• There are different types of instructional plans as mentioned
below:

• Annual Plan;

• Semester plan;

• Unit plan;

• Course plan/Weekly plan

• Periodic (daily) plan

Elements of instructional plans

Instructional Objectives

Content and learning experiences (methods and activities)

Instructional materials

Assessment of learning outcomes

Time length
❑Decisions made about each element of the planning process also require due consideration of:
✓The learner characteristics such as level of development, learning needs, learning styles, prerequisite knowledge and skills,
interest and motivation, etc.
✓The school context such as materials and facilities available, instructional and classroom policies, parent and community
expectations, the management of the school etc.
Name of the school/ College________________

Teachers/ Instructors Name________________

Subject/Course________________________

Department________________________

Date Content Objectives Time Teachers Students activity Teaching Remark

activity
Aid

Evaluation__________________________________________

Department head___________________ Signature_________________________

Date_____________________
Types of Instructional Objectives

1. General objectives: are broad statements that describe what students are able to do after a given learning processes.
• Expected behaviors of students as a result of specific course or units of courses.

• Terms like know, appreciate, develop, demonstrate, understand, study, etc. are often used to write such objectives.

• Example: At the end of “introduction to computer” course the student will be to know the different parts of computers.

Specific Objectives

• Specific objectives are precise statements that describe what a student will be able to do at the end of certain instructional
process.

• They are intended outcomes of instruction stated in terms of specific observable students’ performance.

• SMART- specific, measurable, Attainable,

Realistic, time bound

• Common Terms are -Define, compare, design, infer, identify, differentiate, construct, write, debate, define, solve, select,
evaluate,

• Example - After this lesson the student will be able to explain the functions of the different parts of the computer with in 10
minutes.
Guidelines for Writing Instructional
Objectives
• Objectives should be stated in terms of students’ performance;

• Objectives should be written in terms of the learning outcome, not in terms of the learning process;

• Statements of objectives should be an amalgamation of subject matter and desired behavior;

• Avoid the use of more than one objective in one statement.

Taxonomies of Instructional Objectives
(a) Cognitive Domain- involves intellectual or mental abilities

• There are six levels of taxonomy

• Most common type of instructional objectives

• 80% to 90% of the average school time is devoted to the achievement of cognitive goals.

❑Knowledge:- a level that implies recalling and remembering facts. This is the lowest level of learning.

✓ define, list, describe, state…etc are action verbs for the objectives.
e.g. list two characteristics of living things.
❑Comprehension (understanding):interprets, or summarizes a given information in ones on words

• Grasp, understand, convert, defend, paraphrase… etc are action verbs for the objectives.

❑Application:- makes use of the facts that the learner has recalled and explained in the previous levels to solve specific
problems.

• Apply, demonstrate, solve, manipulate…etc are action verbs for the objectives.

• E.g. using formula to solve equation. ❑Analysis:- breaking down/ separating the whole in to parts/ to pull constituent elements
apart.
• Analyze, justify, recognize… etc are action verbs for the objectives.

• Example: “composition of gas” done by analyzing the component parts and their percentages.

❑Synthesis:- combines elements to form new (whole) entity from the original one. It is the ability of the learner to put facts
together.
Cont’d…

• Compose, integrate, organize…etc are action verbs for the objectives.

• E.g. the writing of a composition by a student.

❑Evaluation:- is the highest level in the development of the cognitive or mental processes.

• This involves ability to make judgments/ evaluations.

• Evaluate, criticize…etc are action verbs for the objectives.

(b)Affective Domain

• Deals with developing attitudes, values and feelings (rules of respect and relationship).

• Ordered according to principle of internalization.

(from awareness to a point where the affect internalized and guides behavior)

❑Receiving: this refers to willingness to attend or listen to a given stimuli.

• Attend, follow, describe, identify, select, use …etc are action verbs for the objectives.

• E.g. to develop a feeling of courage one may have to be willing to watch a movie or listen to a story of the courageous person.

❑Responding:- this refers to active participation on the part of students.

❑ The responses that comes from the learner as a result of attending or receiving to stimuli presented.

• E.g. participate in class discussion, give presentation.

❑Valuing:- giving worth/ values to something taught. It is an internalizing process involving accepting the value to something
taught and commitment to live the value.
❑Organizing/ organization:- this is the bringing together of different values and organizing them into a value system which eventually
leads to character formation.

• e.g. put together different values of honesty, perseverance, hard work and organize them into a value system that may result in the
character of a good citizen;
❑Characterization by a value or value complex:

• This is the last stage that the attitude changed & the behavior learnt becomes a permanent feature the learners character.

(C) Psychomotor Domain- neuromuscular coordination

• It refers to skill development (kicking a ball, measuring in science, drawing shapes, hand writing). It has five levels.
❑Imitation:- observes skill & tries to repeat it.

❑Manipulation:- Performs skill according to instruction.

❑Precision:- reproduces a skill with accuracy, proportion & exactness.

❑Articulation:- combines one or more skills in sequence with harmony and constancy.

❑Naturalization:- completes one or more skills with ease and automatic.

Criteria for formulating objectives

• Matching: All objectives need to be based on broader aims.

• Worth: attaining an objective should have value or significance to the student at present and in the future.

• Wording: objectives should not reveal different meanings to different readers.

• Logical Grouping: refers to grouping objectives according to some common thread or idea (often known as
domain).
Cont’d…

❑Periodic Revision: By this criterion it means that no objective can be treated as permanent, which means objectives require
periodic revision in accordance with changes of the different social realities.
Example: if the social reality gives emphasis to agro-industry, our objective shouldn't focus on the traditional agricultural practice
Unit Four Classroom Management
4.1. Classroom organization and Classroom Managment

• CM is the art of carefully preparing, presenting, disciplining, and controlling class activities.

• CM is also the process of organizing and coordinating a class for efficient and effective learning.

• Students are composed of diversified attitudes, values, maturity, age, family background, etc.

• Thus, the teacher is highly expected to manage such varieties of behaviors.

Classroom management is also defined as

• the methods and strategies an educator uses to maintain a classroom environment

• that is conducive to student success and learning.

4.2. Purpose of classroom management

• The aim of teaching is to facilitate learning.

• And classroom management is one factor, which affects the attainment of the aim of teaching.
Therefore,

• It promotes physical and emotional environment that creates suitable environment for effective teaching and learning.
• Ensuring the active and meaningful engagement of students to the learning task at hand, etc.
4.3. Students' misbehavior

• Any act of a student that disrupts the normal process of teaching and learning in the classroom or it is any action that the teacher
perceives as disruptive to the order of the classroom

• Misbehavior ranges from very subtle actions to physically aggressive behavior.

✓The most commonly exhibited misbehaviors are inappropriate talking (that is, excessive talking, talking out of turn, unnecessary
talking) and
✓ Inappropriate movement, such as clowning and out of seat behavior.

• Other common misbehaviors include lateness, cutting class, not bringing supplies and books, daydreaming, and mild verbal and
aggressive acts.

• Less frequently, teachers encounter misbehavior such as crying, arguing, fighting, stealing, and cheating.

• With increased frequency, teacher must also react to students' use of narcotics, alcohol, and weapons.

Causes of Students Misbehavior

• The occurrence of misbehavior in the classroom or school is not totally avoidable.

• To prevent or stop misbehavior, a teacher has to know the possible causes of misbehavior.

Causes for students misbehavior

1. Teacher-related causes

2. Student-related causes

❖Keep in mind that the problem is not always with the students; teachers may also aggravate the situation.
Teacher-related causes of misbehavior

1. Inadequate preparation:- Lack of planning regarding the structure and pace of learning activities can lead to student’s
restlessness and misbehavior.

2. Teachers sometimes, often unknowingly treat students differently. As a result, students perceive that the teacher has certain
favorites or enemies.

3. Teachers who are verbally abusive, especially those who use friendly sarcasm also cause misbehavior.

4. When students feel that a teacher responds unfairly to misbehavior further misbehavior often results.

• Most teacher-related causes could also be related to poor teaching might be as a result of

➢poor mastery of subject matter taught,

➢Lack of planning and preparation;

➢Ineffective style of presentation;

➢Using inappropriate method;

➢Failure to use suitable and varieties of instructional media, etc.

➢Inconsistent management techniques;

➢Over reliance on punishment;

➢Inappropriate expectations for students;

➢Insensitivity to students' legitimate concerns;

➢Unwillingness to try new strategies to solve teaching problems.

Student-related problems

1. Seeking attention: Students need attention to know that they are a member of the group and often behave in inappropriate
ways to gain that attention.

2. Seeking power: If the teacher is seen as a barrier to gaining power in the classroom, a student may misbehave in an attempt to
undermine the authority of the teacher.

3. Seeking revenge: This misbehavior is often in response to an earlier power struggle in which the student was embarrassed,
humiliated, or treated with disrespect, especially in front of peers.

4. Seeking isolation: Some students want to be left alone. These students, generally, are overwhelmed with feelings of
inadequacy. They misbehave to frustrate the teacher and to get the teacher to leave them alone. Unfortunately, being left alone
further erodes their sense of inadequacy.
4.4. Approaches to Classroom Management

• The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and teaching style affects his/her managerial approach.

The Assertive Approach:

• This approach expects teachers to specify rules of behavior and consequences of misbehaving or disobeying and
communicate them to the students clearly.

• Teachers hold students accountable for their actions.

The Behavior Modification Approach:

• Involves a variety of methods, ranging from simple rewards to elaborate reinforcement training.

• The assumption in this approach is that behavior is shaped by environment and little attention is given to the causes of the
problem.

• The basic principles:

– Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the causes of the problems;

– Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;

– Students respond better to positive reinforces than to punishment;

The Group Managerial Approach:

• This emphasizes on the importance of responding immediately to inappropriate or undesirable group behavior in order to
prevent problems rather than dealing with problems after they emerge.

• The idea is, if misbehavior is not noticed, is ignored, or is allowed to continue for too long, it often spreads throughout the
group and becomes more serious and chronic.
4.5 Leadership styles of teachers
1. Authoritarian style:

• The teacher determines school policy alone and assigns duties without question in prescribed manner, centralizes all powers
and teaching is completely teacher-centered.

• Students are the followers of the orders of their teacher and listeners of the information;

• The teacher imparts knowledge to a passive audience of learners.

• This teaching style has no place for free discussion and expression

2. Laissez-faire style:

• The teacher believes that there should not be rules and regulations since everyone has an “inborn sense of responsibility.
• Such a situation may well exist amongst mature, experienced teachers.

• This may lead to anarchy, and chaos, which would hardly be conducive to the provision of quality education.

• The laissez-faire (literally let-do) style is opposite to the autocratic style.

• These often considered as unorganized or ineffective teachers.

• No direction or guidance to students’ activities.

• Students taught by these teachers feel insecurity; Show dissatisfaction against their teachers.

3. Democratic style

• The teacher believes that the staff or students should be involved in decision making process.

• Decisions are arrived at after consultation with the staff or and with the students.

• Allows freedom of thought and action within the framework of the mission and objectives of the school.

• Teachers respects the individuality of their students

• Don’t impose orders or restrictions

• Students freely communicate with each other.

• Teachers work as leaders of the group.

• The teachers and students work on the principle of give and take and respect each other.

4.6. Classroom Management Techniques: Preventive and Curative

1. Preventive techniques

• Preventative techniques (approaches) include anything a teacher implements to prevent the occurrence of undesirable behaviors.

• Instead of waiting for problem behaviors to occur, proactive techniques implemented successfully to the likelihood of problem
behaviors.

• Many teachers are not proactive or prevention oriented, which logically results in an increase in behavior
problems in their classrooms.
Some of the preventive techniques that help to maintain classroom discipline include

• Effective or 'good' teaching

• Sharing responsibilities to students,

• Cooperative rule making

• Giving rewards

• Set classroom rules and expectation

• Use instructional techniques to develop desired behaviors

• Promote a positive climate to motivate students

• Developing a management plan and implementing effective instructional strategies

Curative Techniques

• No amount of preventive measures can ever eliminate all the troubles and unanticipated 'incidents' in classrooms.
• Curative measures are remedial measures.

• They focus on handling behavior problems as quickly as possible.

• A teacher takes such measures during and after every misconduct.

• The intent is to minimize the disruptive effects of inappropriate behavior, thereby saving precious instructional time.

• The main aim is to put an end to the trouble being made by a deviant student.
1. Extinction

• Extinction means turning a blind eye or ignoring to an unwanted behavior except when it is serious.

• Effective teachers generally ignore minor distractions and instances of inattention.

• It suggests that a teacher should ignore minor attention-seeking misbehavior the first time it happens as long as it is not
dangerous or distracting to other students.
2. Overlapping

• Refers to teachers’ ability to deal with two matters at the same time and to make transitions between different kinds of
activity smoothly without having to stop and break the pace of classroom activities.
• A good example of overlapping occurs when two students are talking to each other while the teacher is presenting a lesson.

• Rather than call attention to the students, the teacher walks slowly toward them while continuing the presentation.

3. Physical closeness

• This involves moving closer to the offender.

• For instance, moving nearer to a noisy pair could remind them the proper classroom rule "work quietly”.

• Physical closeness to misbehaving student will help to bring the student on task; or

• re-direct the deviant‘s attention to his/her work.

4. Touch and signal

• Touching his/her head or shoulder lightly can check a misbehaving student sitting near the teacher.

• Or signals and gestures could be shown in one of the following forms:

➢shaking the head negatively, raising the eyebrows, frowning a finger on the tips, wagging a finger, and wave of the hand
etc.
5. Over correction

• sometimes called positive practice, is the compulsory practice of acceptable behavior because of misbehavior.

• That is when student misbehaves, his/her punishment is to repeatedly perform the behavior correctly and to
make the restitution by correcting any damage related to the inappropriate behavior.
6. Satiation

• Insist students to continue the behavior until they are tired of doing it.

• This procedure should be applied with care.

• Continuing some behaviors may be very dangerous.

• Teachers also may allow students to continue some action until they stop by themselves, if the behavior is not interfering with the
rest of the class.

• Remember that responding to an ignorable behavior may actually reinforce it .

• It is also important that the repeated behavior is the one you are trying to end.

7. Reprimands

• Verbal reprimands are widely used in classrooms.

• Teachers often reprimand students for not listening, breaking school rules or creating noise that can be heard outside the
classroom.

• The use of reprimands also tends to be highly situational. Teachers seem to be more tolerant, or at least to deliver fewer
reprimands, immediately following a lesson and during the last few minutes of the period.

• Teachers also appear more tolerant when the misbehavior is minor, brief, and not likely to escalate or when it is caused by
a usually wellbehaved students.
8. Timeout

• One of the most controversial behavioral methods, often called social isolation.

• The process involves removing a highly disruptive student for five to ten minutes.

• For more serious misbehavior, using the strategy called timeout may be effective.

• Time out reduces unwanted behavior by removing the offending student from the situation.

9. Humor: an excellent influence in a tense situation.

• However, it should not convey any irony or sarcasm.
10. With-it-ness:

• To demonstrate the ability of teacher’s knowledge and understanding of what is occurring in his/her classroom.
• A teacher’s communication by his/her actual behavior that she/he knows what the students are doing or has
“eyes in the back of his/her head”
11. Retribution:

• When efforts at prevention and subtle control fail, and if the misbehavior is an accomplished fact, you to require the guilty
party to suffer consequences.

• Retribution teaches the students that they should not break rules.

• Retribution can have such forms as

– withholding privileges,

– detention,

– putting them in a quiet room for some time, and

– discussing in private,

– sending them to the principal.

UNIT FIVE

PRODUCTION & UTILIZATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

5.1. Instructional media: Concept and Definition
• The curriculum is the means through which education is transacted.

• In order to do this, there is a need for some curriculum materials through which the curriculum transmits the
massage and convey its meanings and values.

• Thus, the availability of instructional media will be a central issue.

• These include textbooks, teachers guide, science kits, low cost and no cost materials, etc.

• Also called Teaching aids, learning aids, teaching and learning aids, and instructional media.

• All the above coinages do have their limitations when seen in respect to the nature of teaching and learning,

• some scholars prefer the coinage called instructional media and instructional materials interchangeably.

What are instructional media?

• A name given to all media materials, methods and techniques used to facilitate the teaching and learning process.

• All media used in the instructional process to present information.

5.2. Importance of Instructional Media

When done well, using a variety of media can

• Enliven a class,

• Encourage participation and help students grasp difficult concepts.

• When used poorly, these same tools can obscure your instructional objectives and make students confused, anxious and
frustrated.
Importance cont’d…

• Facilitate active learning

• Encourage creative thinking

• Important to learn faster

• Help in students skill development

• Overcome the limitations of space and time

• simplify abstract concepts and help students to understand them.

• can replace inaccessible real objects

• Teach and entertain

• Relate theory with practice

• Help students remember longer

• Catches students attention: - variety is always attractive

• Save memory space

❖One way we construct knowledge is using our senses

❑Many of the resources provide the learner with opportunities
✓to handle and manipulate
✓ to touch, feel, handle or operate a model, picture, map.
5.3. Understanding experience and the role of Media

• We perceive the world by our senses.

• Experience is the result of the interaction of the learner and the learning environment.

• Thence, experience is the interaction of our senses and the learning environment which is the medium.

The Cone of Experience

• The more senses that are used, the greater our ability to learn from and remember an experience.

• The major building blocks of useable human knowledge are made up of:

1. Direct contact with reality or its direct representation (the concrete experience) and

2. The abstract experience

5.4. Types of Instructional Media

Instructional materials can be broadly classified as:-

A. Three dimensional that includes real objects and their model;

B. Two dimensional including diagrams, pictures, charts, graphs and maps;

C. Audio-Visual media that includes educational radio broadcast and TV;

D. Display boards including chalk board, magnetic board, and cloth board.

3.5. Selection of Instructional Material

• In selecting learning experiences to meet instructional objectives, the availability of either materials or equipment may influence
one's decisions.
❑It seems wise to search for the simplest mode of communication that will meet program requirement and
❑There are many alternatives from which to choose.
ASSURE Model

❑Students come into schools with diverse needs, abilities and styles of learning.

❑Teachers need to prepare, select and use different instructional materials that accommodate the diversity.

❑Instructional materials must fit student capabilities and learning styles.

❑Heinich, et al (1996) devised a systematic procedure called ASSURE to help to assure learning.

❑The letters in the word ASSURE represent the steps that users are expected to follow when they plan to use media resources.
ASSURE

• A Analyze Learner Characteristics

• S State Objectives

• S Select and/or design media

• U Utilization

• R Required Response/ Feedback

• E Evaluation

Analyze Learners

• The first step in planning is to identify the learners.

• You must know your students to select the best medium to meet the objectives.

• The audience can be analyzed in terms of

(1)general characteristics, (2)specific entry competencies and

(3) Learning style.
State objectives

❑The step of stating the objectives as specifically as possible.

❑They should be stated in terms of what the learner will be able to do as a result of instruction.

❑The conditions under which the student is going to perform and the degree of acceptable performance should be included.
Select and/or Design media, Methods and Materials

❑Once you have identified your audience and stated your objectives, you have established the beginning points and ending
points of instruction.
❑Your task now is to build a bridge between these two points by choosing appropriate methods and media formats, then
deciding on materials to implement these choices.
❑There are three options in selecting available materials- buy from market or from shelf; modify existing materials, or;
designing new materials.
Utilize Media and Materials

❑After selection, utilizing the material follows.

Require Response

❑To be effective, materials-based instruction requires active mental engagement by learners.

❑There should be activities within the lesson that allow learners to process the knowledge or skills and to receive feedback
on the appropriateness of their efforts before being formally assessed.
Evaluate and Review

• After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its impact and effectiveness.

• To get the total picture, you must evaluate the entire instructional process.

• Did the learners meet the objectives? Did the methods and media assist the trainees in achieving the objectives? Could all
students use the materials properly?
• Whatever there are discrepancies between what you intended and what you attained, you will want to revise the plan for the next
time.
Selection Criteria: General Characteristics of
Instructional Visuals

General characteristics
❑To select appropriate instructional visuals we examine the following characteristics:
A. Content-- what-does-it-say is the first question to be asked.

• Does it serve the intended purpose?

• you should look for purposeful content.

B. The visual characteristics

• Arrangement of content on the background affects readability or adds to the meaningfulness of visual presentations.

• Horizontal, vertical, diagonal, cross diagonal, circular, etc. are some of the examples.

• Visual presentation of life cycles in a circular arrangement means recurring occurrence

• Cross diagonal visual presentations express antagonism or opposition.
Balance

❑Our mind almost draws an imaginary line (axis) that divides the background in to two equal parts-horizontally or vertically and
weigh the visual content on both sides.
❑If there is equilibrium between the content of the two sides of the axis (symmetrical balance) then brain takes it as normal or
accepted.

❑Color contrast between body of content and background is a vital criterion for the visibility of the visual content.

❑White on white cannot be read while black on white is easily visible.

❑Different color combinations should be used to show differences, relationships, position, etc.

❑cleanliness is vital. Unclean parts act as noises and distract clarity.

• Dynamism of reality needs to be reflected. Degree of realism in the picture also matters. How far does the visual reflect the
reality it represents?

• Emphasis: let parts to come out and be observable than others.

• Dominant colors, spacing, placement background contrast.

• Fidelity or quality of the whole visual presentation and the absence of distortions;
• Graphic harmony of the total visual presentation is the major area of observation for making relatively better selection of
visuals.
C. Visuals are to be read.

❑They should let the eye of the reader move from one part to the other with less strain, in a relaxed manner.

❑There should not be congestion or clustering of visual information at one place.

D. Cost effectiveness

• Getting the worth or the value of the mental effort, money, time and physical strength that you put in to the preparation of the
visual should also be considered for selection.

• Less/more expensive and more used is better than more/less expensive and less used.

E. Lettering

• The way the letters are written equally matters.

• The title and labeling from part of the visual presentation as the representation of the abstract.
• They create conformity oneness among the different interpretations.

UNIT SIX ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

What do you understand by

Measurement
Assessment
Evaluation
Do you think they are the same?
Concepts Related to Assessment
• Interrelated but different concepts

• Confusing
Educational Measurement

“ you can’t fatten your pig by

weighting it… “

• A systematic description of students performance in terms of numbers.

➢Abera solved 20 questions correctly from 35 Maths questions.

➢Tolla scored the highest mark (85%) in science.

• Involves using measuring devices like tests, exams, quiz, group work, etc.

1. Test: involves a series of questions with different item types (Formal).

• The purpose is assessing learning progress while a course is on progress

2. Quiz: short and informal test; given at the beginning or end of a class hour.

3. Examination: covers large area of contents.

• Given at the end of a course or semester .

• The main purpose is to assign grade.

• The number of items included is large.

Educational Assessment

• The Process of collecting, interpreting and synthesizing information to aid in decisionmaking.

• For many, CR assessment mean using paper & Pencil test but it’s more than testing.

• It includes information gathering on students, instruction, CR climate by

teachers
Evaluation
Evaluation is determining/judging
the extent to which instructional
objectives are
achieved

Making Decision based on the interpreted/ analyzed

scores.
It can be a decision to pass or fail.
Importance and Purposes of Assessment

• Drives and directs students learning

• Providesfeedback to students
on their performance

• Provides feedback on instruction.

• Ensures that students learning are met.

• In Summary assessment focuses on

❖ helping LEARNING
❖improving TEACHING
Types of assessment

1. Placement Assessment: highly concerned with investigating learner’s entry

performance (education background)

• Does the learner possess the knowledge and skills needed to begin the planned instruction?

• To what extent is the learner ready to master the objectives of the planned instruction?

Example:

• A teacher may divide students into ability groups like science group or study group.

• A teacher may also divide his/her learners into ability groups such as slow, average and high achievers.

• Also assign learners who scored below a cut off point in a national exam for remedial group.

2. Formative Evaluation

• Also called as a continuous assessment.

• Focuses on monitoring learning progress and learning difficulties of students.

• Undertaken during teaching-learning process.

• To find the strengths, weakness and potential of students

• To help students learn

3. Diagnostic Assessment

• Concerned with persistent or recurring learning difficulties that are not

resolved by the corrective prescriptions of formative assessment.

• Formative assessment as a first aid for simple learning problems.

• It searches for the underlying or the root causes of the problem.

• Example

✓ A student may experience a continuous failure in mathematics, or in attentiveness.

✓A teacher needs to identify the problem, document in frequency, understand its basis, and select remedial activities.
✓The teacher carryout remedial activities needed.

✓At other time the student may be referred to more specialized diagnosis.
4. Summative Assessment

• Given at the end of a course/ unit or semester of instruction.

• It evaluates the quality of students’ learning.

• It deals with the purpose/ outcome of teachinglearning process.

• Made on the basis of written examination, tests

• Used for grading

Other Types of Assessment

OF

Assessment FOR Learning

AS
Assessment OF Learning

82
Summative Assessment

• Happens after the learning takes place

• Information is gathered by the teacher

• Information is usually transformed into marks or grades

• Looks back on past learning

• Comparison with the performance of others Assessment FOR learning

Formative assessment

• An integral part of the learning process

• Clarifies for students what is to be learned and what success would look like.

• Give useful and timely feedback to students

• Comparison with aims and objectives is important

83
• Helps students to identify the next steps they need to take and who can help them.

Assessment AS Learning

• Assessment As learning – assessment as a process of meta-cognition involving student self-assessment and

understanding of own learning processes and knowledge

84
Assessment AS Learning

Enables students to:

• Identify and reflect on elements of their own learning

• Set their own learning targets

• Practice self and peer assessment.

85
Points to consider when Planning a test

1. Chapter or unit objectives

2. Types of test items to be included- selected based on learning objectives

Selection Tests • Supply Tests Completion
• Short Answer
• True-false • Essay
Tests/Paragraph writing

• Matching

• Multiple Choice

3. How long the test should be? The length of

the test (i.e., number of items to be included) depends on:

➢ the age and attention span of the learners

➢types of test items (e.g supply items require more time than selecting items)
4. Developing a table of Specification

• Also called Test blue print

• It is a two way chart or grid that involves objectives/ item types along the horizontal axis and the content along the vertical
axis.
Table of Specification by Objective
Content Area Instructional Objectives…

Knowledge Understanding/ Application Analysis Synthesis Total

Comprehension (%)

Classroom 1 1 - - - 2 (6.67)
Assessment

Definition of terms 2 - - - - 2 (6.67)

Purposes of - 2 - 2 1 6(20.00)
assessment
Methods of 1 5 - 1 7(23.33)
assessment

Levels of 1 1 - 5 - 7(23.33)
assessment

Planning a test - - - 6 6(20.00)

Total (%) 5 (16.67) 5 (16.67) 5 (16.67) 7(23.33) 8(26.67) 30 (100)

Table of Specification by Item Type

Content Area Item…Types

True false Matching Multiple Fill in the Short Total

Choice Blank Answer
Spaces (Essay)

Classroom 2 - 3 - - 5
Assessment

Definition of terms 1 5 - - - 6

Purposes of 2 - 3 2 - 7
assessment
Methods of 2 - 4 1 - 7
assessment

Levels of 2 - 4 1 - 7
assessment

Planning a test 1 - 4 1 2 8

Total 10 5 18 5 2 40

Thank You All !!!