Pedagogy for Construction Technology

and Management /CENG 6002/

[email protected]
Course Title- Pedagogy
Course description
• This course is designed to equip COTOM postgraduate
students with the Knowledge, attitude and skill of
conducting effective teaching and learning in higher
learning institutions.
• The course addresses basic concepts and principles of
effective teaching and learning, philosophical
paradigms in Education, instructional theories,
developing learning objectives, planning teaching,
preparation and use materials and monitoring and
revision of teaching.
What is Education?

Unit 1.
Conceptualizing
The process of bringing
Education, desirable changes into
Pedagogy, the behavior of human
Teaching and beings.
Learning

The process of imparting

or acquiring knowledge
or skills through
instruction or study.
Types of Education

Informal Formal Non-formal

Education Education Education
A life-long process.

Informal Individuals learn from

daily experiences.
Education

Individual learns from

exposure to the
environment, at home,
workplace, at play etc.
Institutional activity

Chronologically graded
structure
Uniform
Formal
Education Subject-oriented

Fulltime

Leads to certificates, diplomas,

degrees
Life, environment,
and learner oriented

Non- Diversified in content

formal and method.
Education
Built on learner
participation
The What of Pedagogy, Teaching and
Learning
What is Pedagogy?
• Composed of the act of teaching and the ideas,
values and beliefs informing, sustaining and
justifying that act.
• Pedagogy is defined simply as the method and
practice of teaching.
It encompasses:
➢Teaching theory
➢Teaching Methods/Style
➢Instructional media/materials
➢Instructional planning and organization
➢Feedback and assessment mechanisms.
• When people talk about the pedagogy of
teaching, they will be referring to the way
teachers deliver the content of the curriculum
to a class.
• It has two poles – the teaching system and the
learning system – between which information
is transferred.
The concept of Teaching

• Any form of interpersonal influence aimed at

changing the ways in which other persons can
or will behave.
• An interactive process, primarily involving
classroom talk, which takes place between
teacher and learners & occurs during certain
definable activities.
• Teaching denotes action undertaken with the
intention of bringing about learning in another.
• A process:- It involves a series of actions and
decisions of the teacher.
• An interpersonal activity and/or process:
teaching involves interactions between a
teacher and one or more students. Most often
the interactions are verbal and two-way.
• Intentional:- There is some purpose or set of
purposes for which teaching occurs.
What is learning?
• The ultimate goal of teaching is
learning.
• Learning is about change:
• The change brought about by
developing a new skill, understanding
something new, changing an attitude.
Characteristics of Effective Learning:

• It is meaningful to the students.

• Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or
actively participate in it.
• It allows students to move further than
memorization of facts and bits of knowledge.
Cont’d…

• It prepares the students to understand and

participate in a complex world.
• It encourage students to investigate, to
understand the world around them, to analyze,
to draw conclusions & to communicate – in
other words, TO THINK
Qualities of an
Effective
Teacher/ Trainer
Has excellent
pedagogic content
knowledge or mastery.
“You know it but are
you able to teach it?”
Cont’d…

• Has a smooth relation with students/trainees.

• Manages the class well.
• Plans his/her lessons well.
• Adopts a variety of teaching methods and
media.
• Considers the needs of the different ability
groups within the class.
Cont’d…

Gives feedback within

Is friendly, with a
an appropriate
sense of humor.
timescale.

Is confident, open to
Combines adaptability
suggestions and other
with courage etc.
viewpoints.
Marks and Qualities of Good / effective
teaching and learning

1. Good teaching is as much about passion as it

is about reason.
❑ It's about not only motivating students to
learn, but teaching them how to learn in a
manner that is relevant, meaningful, and
memorable
Cont’d…
2. Good teaching is about substance and
treating students as consumers of knowledge.
❑It's about doing your best to keep on top of
your field, reading sources, inside and outside
of your areas of expertise, and being at the
leading edge as often as possible.
3. Good teaching is about listening, questioning,
being responsive, and remembering that each
student and class is different.
Cont’d…
4. Good teaching is about not always having a
fixed agenda and being rigid, but being
flexible, fluid, experimenting, and having the
confidence to react and adjust to changing
circumstances.
5.Good teaching is also about style.
❑ Good teachers work the room and every
student in it. They realize that they are the
conductors and the class is the orchestra.
Cont’d…
6. This is very important -- good teaching is about
humor.
❑It's about being self-deprecating and not taking
yourself too seriously. It's often about making
innocuous jokes, mostly at your own expense.
7. Good teaching is about caring, nurturing, and
developing minds and talents.
8. Good teaching is supported by strong and
visionary leadership, and very tangible
institutional support -- resources, personnel, and
funds.
Cont’d…
9. Good teaching is about mentoring between
senior and junior.
• Effective teaching should also be rewarded,
• Poor teaching needs to be remediated
through training and development programs.
10. Good teaching is about having fun,
experiencing pleasure and intrinsic rewards.
Characteristics of a profession: Is teaching a
profession

❑A profession is an occupation founded upon

prolonged and specialized intellectual
training that enables the practitioner to
render a definite intellectual service.
Essential characteristics of a profession
❑A professional renders a unique, essential and
specialized service to its clients.
❑Profession relies on or uses intellectual
knowledge and skills in order to perform its
services effectively, or a profession has
knowledge and skill based on scientific theory.
❑A profession is based on specialized training.
❑A professional enjoys autonomy and decision
making authority in his/her respective
specialty
❑A profession has a code of ethics.
Cont’d…
❑Code of ethics/professional ethics refers to the
basic guide lines (rules) that regulate
acceptable behaviors for the members of a
given profession. A professional teacher is
governed by the codes of ethics of the
teaching profession. These are guidelines
specifying the professional obligations,
commitments and responsibilities that a
professional teacher has to her/his students
and fellow teachers as well as to his/her
profession, parents, school administrators and
the community at large.
Unit Two:

Principles, Methods and Techniques of

Teaching
2.1. Definitions and Characteristics of Principles of
Teaching
• Teaching principles are defined as generalized
statements regarding teaching activities such
as relating teaching to social life, making
results of instruction durable, making human
learning vivid, clear or understandable.
• The fundamental guidelines indicating where
a teacher’s instructional activities mainly focus
on in order to bring the desired behavioral
change (learning) in the part of the learners.
Characteristics of principles of teaching
A. Essential – are applicable in the totality of
the instructional process, which means that
they are applicable in planning lesson,
organizing the learning environment,
presenting lessons and constructing the
evaluation instruments for evaluation
purpose.
B. Universal – are valid in teaching all subjects
at all levels of the schooling system.
Whatever subject is taught by a teacher at
any grade level, he/she must consider the
different principles of teaching.
C. Compulsory (They are compulsory):
• For they serve the teacher as a basic
orientation for planning and guiding the
instruction as effectively and efficiently as
possible. So that, it is a must for teachers to
apply all of these principles in order to ensure
learning.
D. Socially determined:
• They are made appropriate to meet the
fundamental demands of the society
concerning education.
Cont’d…
Consequently, these principles are also reflected
in the curriculum in determining:
 Objectives,
 Contents and structure of their elements,
 The scope of the students’ textbooks,
 The appropriateness of the teacher’s guides.
2.2. The Main Principles of Teaching and their
use in Teaching
1.The principle of connecting instruction with life

❑Everyone come to school to get knowledge,

develop different skills and form value systems
that help him/her fit to life requirements.
❑But the child comes to school not with a blank
mind; rather she/he comes with his/her own
knowledge and experience acquired in the
past from various sources.
❑Thus, all what a teacher does must be relating
instruction to actual life outside of the school.
Cont’d…

2. The principle of planning lessons in line with

the curriculum;
• Teachers are both planners and practitioners.
They are expected to refer to the curriculum
materials.
• This principle deals with planning.
3.The principle of integrating (relating) learning
experiences in different subject areas
❑The ultimate aim of education is to bring
about an all-rounded or unified development
of the child’s personality.
❑To this effect, different subjects are organized.
❑These different subjects are expressions of the
meanings of man’s experiences about the
environment.
4.The principle of making lessons
understandable / comprehensible/;
❑The principle favors the adjustment of lessons
to the mental abilities of the learners.
Students learn at their best when the lesson
fits to their present understanding level.
The basic rules in the presentation of lessons are
that:
✓presenting lessons from the known and
proceeding to the unknown.
Cont’d…
✓Presenting lessons from the easy and
proceeding to the difficult.
✓Starting lessons from the simple and
proceeding to the complex.
✓Starting from concrete and proceeding to
abstract.
✓starting from the whole and proceeding to
the parts ( specific) and vice-versa.
✓Starting from the immediate and proceeding
to the remote.
5.The principle of providing for individual
differences
❑ Individual difference means variation in character
occurring among individual members of a group.
❑ Every person possesses different features that make
him/her different from others.
❑ Individuals differ in their perception, intelligence,
maturity level and rates, responses to the demands of
the society and needs as well as interests.
❑ Thus, the implication of this to teaching is that teachers
should consider the presence of the individual
differences in a class and try to accommodate the
differences.
6. The principle of making instruction clear by
using different instructional media that
appeal to the different senses;
❑All knowledge must be built on sufficiently
clear and lively perceptions and conceptions.
Cont’d…
❑Researches indicate about 11% of
human learning comes through the sense of
hearing; 83% through the sense of sight; 3.5%
through the sense of smelling; 1.5% through
the sense of touching and 1% through the sense
of tasting.
❑Therefore, teachers need to use different
audio-visual materials that appeal to the
different sense organs.
7. The principle of uniting instruction with
scientific findings and procedures
❑Things are in a state of constant change. What
was taken as functional at one time becomes
obsolete at other times.
❑The principle advocates the need for focusing on
scientific procedures, techniques and recent
findings.
❑Teachers need to make themselves up to date
through personal efforts.
❑Search for recent research findings and teaching
their students on the basis of workable principles,
laws and theories are the expected
responsibilities.
8. The principle of verbalization in instruction;
❑Advocates making students verbalize of what
they are learning in their own words.
❑ Retention increases as the learner articulates
what he/she learned.
❑Students retain
• 10% of what is read; 20% of what is heard
• 30% of what is seen; 50% of what is
heard and seen;
• 70% of what is articulated (spoken,
expressed – clearly); and
• 90% of what is participated in (worked or
done) is retained for a certain period of
time.
2.3. Method of teaching:
Epistemologies,
Definitions, and
Classifications
A. Philosophical Epistemologies of
Education: Positivism Vs. Constructivism
❑Positivism: Knowledge is separate from the learner
• The learners' task is to absorb or memorize facts or
pieces of information
• There is less emphasis on linking facts and making a
coherent and meaningful whole.
• The teachers' task is to repeat or give prescribed
information from textbooks.
• Using a pedagogy of rote learning or “Chalk and
talk”
Constructivism
• Assumes that knowledge is produced or made
meaningful through interaction between the learner
and the world around him.
• Emphasizes on analysis and interpretation of facts,
not memorization.
• The learner task is to interact with the world around
him, to understand, and think critically
• The teachers' task is to use methods that encourage
learners to be active by analyzing and interpreting
knowledge through high order thinking and problem-
solving skills.
B. Method of teaching: definitions,
classifications, and criteria of selection
❑are ways or means by which teachers impart
or convey a given subject matter content to
the learner and enable him or her to acquire
knowledge, develop skills, and form attitudes,
habits, convictions, characters, and value
systems.
Cont’d…

❑Thus, methods are tools for the teacher to

transmit the message to the learners and
make them interact with the external factors
in the teaching and learning environment.
❑They have to be selected and be applied to
achieve the intended educational objectives.
Classifications of instructional methods

Different types of classifications when referring to instructional

methods/ teaching-learning methods.

Teacher-centered versus student-centered methods.

Direct instruction versus indirect instruction strategies.

Conventional versus non-conventional methods.

Traditional versus modern (non- traditional) method

Cont’d…

❑Despite their difference in terminology, they

have similar conceptual frame of reference,
i.e. the degree of students’ participation in the
instruction process.
❑In modern instructional methods, much
attention is given to directing student's effort
towards learning by doing rather than through
memorization or recitation of the learned
material.
Conceptual
image of
traditional mode
of teaching vs.
modern teaching
method for active
learning
Traditional mode of teaching - teacher gives
(“throws”) of the required knowledge to students
Our ideal
lesson -
teacher
prepares
small steps
and climbs
together with
the students.
3. Major teaching methods that enhance active
learning methods (ALM).

Active Learning Methods

❑Our New Education and Training Policy is
guided by a new view of education, one which
promotes active learning (student-centered)
methods.
❑The need for active learning in the classroom
comes out of a view of knowledge known as
'constructivism'.
Why is it necessary to make learning active?
❑Over 2400 years ago, Confucius declared:
✓What I hear, I forget.
✓What I see, I remember.
✓What I do, I understand.
❑These three simple statements speak volumes
about the need for active learning.
❑Silberman (1996) modified and expanded the
wisdom of Confucius into what he calls the
Active Learning Credo.
Cont’d…
✓What I hear, I forget.
✓What I hear and see, I remember a little.
✓What I hear, see, and ask questions about or
discuss with someone else, I begin to
understand.
✓What I hear, see, discuss, and do, I acquire
knowledge and skill.
✓What I teach to another, I master.
❑A study demonstrates that students in lecture-
based college classrooms are not attentive
about 40 percent of the time.
❑Moreover, while students retain 70 percent in
the first ten minutes of a lecture, they retain
only 20 percent of the last ten minutes.
• A situation where students are active
participants in their own learning rather
than passive receivers of knowledge
Problems of lecturing
❑Student attention decreases with each
passing minute.
❑It appeals only to auditory learners.
❑It tends to promote lower-level learning of
factual information.
❑It assumes that all students need the same
information and at the same pace.
❑Students tend not to like it.
Characteristics of the Student-Centered
Methods
• Active engagement of students beyond reading,
listening, and note-taking;
• Promotes deep learning, not just acquisition of facts;
• Develops higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis,
synthesis, evaluation) through intentionally designed
activities;
• Often involves interaction among students;
• Helps students build competencies (e.g., problem-
solving, critical thinking, communication) as well as
content knowledge.
Effective techniques of teaching with each
method

Points to Consider While Selecting

Instructional Methods
1. The objective of the lesson:- highly
influence how you have to teach the lesson
because different educational objectives
require different ways of communication.
❑ To decide which methods are appropriate for
them: kinds of objectives and levels of
objectives need to be considered.
2. Contents of the lesson
3. Characteristics of students
• students are always at the center of any
instructional process.
• A teacher should always consider their needs,
abilities, learning styles, prerequisite
knowledge, etc. in making decisions about
teaching methods.
4. Time of the lesson
5. Availability of instructional media
6. Group Size: -
❑Incase of individual students could use methods
like project method or assignments, tutoring and
individually prescribed instruction such as open
learning method.
❑For small groups between 5 and 20 you may
choose discussion method or any other
suitable.
❑When the group size is as large as 50 or above,
you may have to use methods such as lecture or
demonstration or other appropriate strategy.
UNIT Three: Instructional Planning

What is Instructional Planning?

• Instructional planning is “the process by which
teachers:
✓ decide how best to select and
✓organize a learning experience to maximize
both teachers and students' achievement and
satisfaction.
• It is a preparation for teaching and learning,
including construction of goals, objectives, and
contents and assessment methodology.
Importance of instructional planning
1.Planning leads to shared understanding of
instructional goals or objectives and
subsequently enhances students’
performance.
2.Planning processes can give both students and
teachers:
✓ a sense of direction and
✓help students become aware of the goals
Cont’d…
3.It produces a smoothly running classroom
with fewer discipline problems & fewer
interruptions.
4. It gives teachers greater confidence, security
and enthusiasm for what & how they are
teaching & encourages the use of variety and
creativity.
5. It benefits students by helping teachers take
their diversity into account.
Types of Instructional plan

• Instructional planning could be developed at

long-range, intermediate or short-term
levels.
• Despite some variations in the degree of
generality or specificity, the elements
involved at each level are almost similar.
• There are different types of
instructional plans as
mentioned below:
• Annual Plan;
• Semester plan;
• Unit plan;
• Course plan/Weekly
plan
• Periodic (daily) plan
Elements of instructional plans

Instructional Objectives

Content and learning experiences (methods and activities)

Instructional materials

Assessment of learning outcomes

Time length
❑Decisions made about each element of the
planning process also require due consideration
of:
✓The learner characteristics such as level of
development, learning needs, learning styles,
prerequisite knowledge and skills, interest and
motivation, etc.
✓The school context such as materials and facilities
available, instructional and classroom policies,
parent and community expectations, the
management of the school etc.
Name of the school/ College________________
Teachers/ Instructors Name________________
Subject/Course________________________
Department________________________

Date Content Objectives Time Teachers Students activity Teaching Remark

activity Aid

Evaluation__________________________________________

Department head___________________

Signature_________________________

Date_____________________
Types of Instructional Objectives
1. General objectives: are broad statements that
describe what students are able to do after a
given learning processes.
• Expected behaviors of students as a result of
specific course or units of courses.
• Terms like know, appreciate, develop,
demonstrate, understand, study, etc. are often
used to write such objectives.
• Example: At the end of “introduction to
computer” course the student will be to know
the different parts of computers.
Specific Objectives
• Specific objectives are precise statements that
describe what a student will be able to do at the
end of certain instructional process.
• They are intended outcomes of instruction stated in
terms of specific observable students’ performance.
• SMART- specific, measurable, Attainable,
Realistic, time bound
• Common Terms are -Define, compare, design,
infer, identify, differentiate, construct, write,
debate, define, solve, select, evaluate,
• Example - After this lesson the student will be able
to explain the functions of the different parts of the
computer with in 10 minutes.
Guidelines for Writing Instructional
Objectives
• Objectives should be stated in terms of students’
performance;
• Objectives should be written in terms of the
learning outcome, not in terms of the learning
process;
• Statements of objectives should be an
amalgamation of subject matter and desired
behavior;
• Avoid the use of more than one objective in one
statement.
Taxonomies of Instructional Objectives
(a) Cognitive Domain- involves intellectual or
mental abilities
• There are six levels of taxonomy
• Most common type of instructional objectives
• 80% to 90% of the average school time is
devoted to the achievement of cognitive goals.
❑Knowledge:- a level that implies recalling and
remembering facts. This is the lowest level of
learning.
✓ define, list, describe, state…etc are action verbs
for the objectives.
e.g. list two characteristics of living things.
❑Comprehension (understanding):-
interprets, or summarizes a given information
in ones on words
• Grasp, understand, convert, defend,
paraphrase… etc are action verbs for the
objectives.
❑Application:- makes use of the facts that the
learner has recalled and explained in the
previous levels to solve specific problems.
• Apply, demonstrate, solve, manipulate…etc
are action verbs for the objectives.
• E.g. using formula to solve equation.
❑Analysis:- breaking down/ separating the
whole in to parts/ to pull constituent elements
apart.
• Analyze, justify, recognize… etc are action
verbs for the objectives.
• Example: “composition of gas” done by
analyzing the component parts and their
percentages.
❑Synthesis:- combines elements to form new
(whole) entity from the original one. It is the
ability of the learner to put facts together.
Cont’d…
• Compose, integrate, organize…etc are action
verbs for the objectives.
• E.g. the writing of a composition by a student.
❑Evaluation:- is the highest level in the
development of the cognitive or mental
processes.
• This involves ability to make judgments/
evaluations.
• Evaluate, criticize…etc are action verbs for the
objectives.
(b)Affective Domain
• Deals with developing attitudes, values and
feelings (rules of respect and relationship).
• Ordered according to principle of internalization.
(from awareness to a point where the affect internalized and
guides behavior)
❑Receiving: this refers to willingness to attend or
listen to a given stimuli.
• Attend, follow, describe, identify, select, use …etc
are action verbs for the objectives.
• E.g. to develop a feeling of courage one may have to
be willing to watch a movie or listen to a story of the
courageous person.
❑Responding:- this refers to active participation on
the part of students.
❑ The responses that comes from the learner as a
result of attending or receiving to stimuli
presented.
• E.g. participate in class discussion, give
presentation.
❑Valuing:- giving worth/ values to something
taught. It is an internalizing process involving
accepting the value to something taught and
commitment to live the value.
❑Organizing/ organization:- this is the bringing
together of different values and organizing them
into a value system which eventually leads to
character formation.
• e.g. put together different values of honesty,
perseverance, hard work and organize them into a
value system that may result in the character of a
good citizen;
❑Characterization by a value or value complex:
• This is the last stage that the attitude changed & the
behavior learnt becomes a permanent feature the
learners character.
(C) Psychomotor Domain- neuromuscular
coordination
• It refers to skill development (kicking a ball, measuring in
science, drawing shapes, hand writing). It has five levels.
❑Imitation:- observes skill & tries to repeat it.
❑Manipulation:- Performs skill according to
instruction.
❑Precision:- reproduces a skill with accuracy,
proportion & exactness.
❑Articulation:- combines one or more skills in
sequence with harmony and constancy.
❑Naturalization:- completes one or more skills with
ease and automatic.
Criteria for formulating objectives
• Matching: All objectives need to be based on
broader aims.
• Worth: attaining an objective should have
value or significance to the student at present
and in the future.
• Wording: objectives should not reveal
different meanings to different readers.
• Logical Grouping: refers to grouping
objectives according to some common thread
or idea (often known as domain).
Cont’d…
❑Periodic Revision: By this criterion it means
that no objective can be treated as permanent,
which means objectives require periodic
revision in accordance with changes of the
different social realities.
Example: if the social reality gives emphasis to
agro-industry, our objective shouldn't focus on
the traditional agricultural practice
Unit Four
Classroom Management
4.1. Classroom organization and Classroom
Managment
• CM is the art of carefully preparing, presenting,
disciplining, and controlling class activities.
• CM is also the process of organizing and
coordinating a class for efficient and effective
learning.
• Students are composed of diversified attitudes,
values, maturity, age, family background, etc.
• Thus, the teacher is highly expected to manage
such varieties of behaviors.
Classroom management is also defined as
• the methods and strategies an educator uses to
maintain a classroom environment
• that is conducive to student success and
learning.
4.2. Purpose of classroom management
• The aim of teaching is to facilitate learning.
• And classroom management is one factor, which
affects the attainment of the aim of teaching.
Therefore,
• It promotes physical and emotional environment that
creates suitable environment for effective teaching
and learning.
• Ensuring the active and meaningful engagement of
students to the learning task at hand, etc.
4.3. Students' misbehavior
• Any act of a student that disrupts the normal
process of teaching and learning in the classroom
or it is any action that the teacher perceives as
disruptive to the order of the classroom
• Misbehavior ranges from very subtle actions to
physically aggressive behavior.
✓ The most commonly exhibited misbehaviors are
inappropriate talking (that is, excessive talking,
talking out of turn, unnecessary talking) and
✓ Inappropriate movement, such as clowning and
out of seat behavior.
• Other common misbehaviors include lateness,
cutting class, not bringing supplies and books,
daydreaming, and mild verbal and aggressive
acts.
• Less frequently, teachers encounter
misbehavior such as crying, arguing, fighting,
stealing, and cheating.
• With increased frequency, teacher must also
react to students' use of narcotics, alcohol, and
weapons.
Causes of Students Misbehavior
• The occurrence of misbehavior in the
classroom or school is not totally
avoidable.
• To prevent or stop misbehavior, a teacher
has to know the possible causes of
misbehavior.
Causes for students misbehavior
1. Teacher-related causes
2. Student-related causes
❖Keep in mind that the problem is not always
with the students; teachers may also aggravate
the situation.
Teacher-related causes of misbehavior
1. Inadequate preparation:- Lack of planning regarding
the structure and pace of learning activities can lead
to student’s restlessness and misbehavior.
2. Teachers sometimes, often unknowingly treat
students differently. As a result, students perceive
that the teacher has certain favorites or enemies.
3. Teachers who are verbally abusive, especially those
who use friendly sarcasm also cause misbehavior.
4. When students feel that a teacher responds unfairly to
misbehavior further misbehavior often results.
• Most teacher-related causes could also be
related to poor teaching might be as a result of
➢poor mastery of subject matter taught,
➢Lack of planning and preparation;
➢Ineffective style of presentation;
➢Using inappropriate method;
➢Failure to use suitable and varieties of
instructional media, etc.
➢Inconsistent management techniques;
➢Over reliance on punishment;
➢Inappropriate expectations for students;
➢Insensitivity to students' legitimate
concerns;
➢Unwillingness to try new strategies to solve
teaching problems.
Student-related problems
1. Seeking attention: Students need attention to
know that they are a member of the group and
often behave in inappropriate ways to gain that
attention.
2. Seeking power: If the teacher is seen as a
barrier to gaining power in the classroom, a
student may misbehave in an attempt to
undermine the authority of the teacher.
3. Seeking revenge: This misbehavior is often in
response to an earlier power struggle in which
the student was embarrassed, humiliated, or
treated with disrespect, especially in front of
peers.
4. Seeking isolation: Some students want to be
left alone. These students, generally, are
overwhelmed with feelings of inadequacy. They
misbehave to frustrate the teacher and to get the
teacher to leave them alone. Unfortunately,
being left alone further erodes their sense of
inadequacy.
4.4. Approaches to Classroom Management
• The teacher’s personality, philosophy, and
teaching style affects his/her managerial
approach.
The Assertive Approach:
• This approach expects teachers to specify rules of
behavior and consequences of misbehaving or
disobeying and communicate them to the students
clearly.
• Teachers hold students accountable for their
actions.
The Behavior Modification Approach:
• Involves a variety of methods, ranging from simple
rewards to elaborate reinforcement training.
• The assumption in this approach is that behavior is
shaped by environment and little attention is given to
the causes of the problem.
• The basic principles:
– Behavior is shaped by its sequences not by the causes of
the problems;
– Behavior is strengthened by immediate reinforces;
– Students respond better to positive reinforces than to
punishment;
The Group Managerial Approach:
• This emphasizes on the importance of responding
immediately to inappropriate or undesirable group
behavior in order to prevent problems rather than
dealing with problems after they emerge.
• The idea is, if misbehavior is not noticed, is ignored,
or is allowed to continue for too long, it often spreads
throughout the group and becomes more serious and
chronic.
4.5 Leadership styles of teachers
1. Authoritarian style:
• The teacher determines school policy alone and
assigns duties without question in prescribed manner,
centralizes all powers and teaching is completely
teacher-centered.
• Students are the followers of the orders of their
teacher and listeners of the information;
• The teacher imparts knowledge to a passive audience
of learners.
• This teaching style has no place for free discussion
and expression
2. Laissez-faire style:
• The teacher believes that there should not be rules
and regulations since everyone has an “inborn sense
of responsibility.
• Such a situation may well exist amongst mature,
experienced teachers.
• This may lead to anarchy, and chaos, which would
hardly be conducive to the provision of quality
education.
• The laissez-faire (literally let-do) style is opposite to
the autocratic style.
• These often considered as unorganized or
ineffective teachers.
• No direction or guidance to students’ activities.
• Students taught by these teachers feel
insecurity; Show dissatisfaction against their
teachers.
3. Democratic style
• The teacher believes that the staff or students
should be involved in decision making
process.
• Decisions are arrived at after consultation with
the staff or and with the students.
• Allows freedom of thought and action within
the framework of the mission and objectives of
the school.
• Teachers respects the individuality of their
students
• Don’t impose orders or restrictions
• Students freely communicate with each other.
• Teachers work as leaders of the group.
• The teachers and students work on the
principle of give and take and respect each
other.
4.6. Classroom Management Techniques: Preventive
and Curative
1. Preventive techniques
• Preventative techniques (approaches) include
anything a teacher implements to prevent the
occurrence of undesirable behaviors.
• Instead of waiting for problem behaviors to
occur, proactive techniques implemented
successfully to the likelihood of problem
behaviors.
• Many teachers are not proactive or
prevention oriented, which logically results
in an increase in behavior problems in their
classrooms.
Some of the preventive techniques that help to maintain
classroom discipline include
• Effective or 'good' teaching
• Sharing responsibilities to students,
• Cooperative rule making
• Giving rewards
• Set classroom rules and expectation
• Use instructional techniques to develop desired
behaviors
• Promote a positive climate to motivate students
• Developing a management plan and implementing
effective instructional strategies
Curative Techniques
• No amount of preventive measures can ever eliminate all
the troubles and unanticipated 'incidents' in classrooms.
• Curative measures are remedial measures.
• They focus on handling behavior problems as quickly as
possible.
• A teacher takes such measures during and after every
misconduct.
• The intent is to minimize the disruptive effects of
inappropriate behavior, thereby saving precious
instructional time.
• The main aim is to put an end to the trouble being made by
a deviant student.
1. Extinction
• Extinction means turning a blind eye or
ignoring to an unwanted behavior except when
it is serious.
• Effective teachers generally ignore minor
distractions and instances of inattention.
• It suggests that a teacher should ignore minor
attention-seeking misbehavior the first time it
happens as long as it is not dangerous or
distracting to other students.
2. Overlapping
• Refers to teachers’ ability to deal with two
matters at the same time and to make
transitions between different kinds of activity
smoothly without having to stop and break
the pace of classroom activities.
• A good example of overlapping occurs when
two students are talking to each other while
the teacher is presenting a lesson.
• Rather than call attention to the students, the
teacher walks slowly toward them while
continuing the presentation.
3. Physical closeness
• This involves moving closer to the offender.
• For instance, moving nearer to a noisy pair
could remind them the proper classroom rule
"work quietly”.
• Physical closeness to misbehaving student
will help to bring the student on task; or
• re-direct the deviant‘s attention to his/her
work.
4. Touch and signal

• Touching his/her head or shoulder lightly can

check a misbehaving student sitting near the
teacher.
• Or signals and gestures could be shown in one
of the following forms:
➢shaking the head negatively, raising the
eyebrows, frowning a finger on the tips,
wagging a finger, and wave of the hand etc.
5. Over correction
• sometimes called positive practice, is the
compulsory practice of acceptable behavior
because of misbehavior.
• That is when student misbehaves, his/her
punishment is to repeatedly perform the behavior
correctly and to make the restitution by
correcting any damage related to the
inappropriate behavior.
6. Satiation
• Insist students to continue the behavior until they are
tired of doing it.
• This procedure should be applied with care.
• Continuing some behaviors may be very dangerous.
• Teachers also may allow students to continue some
action until they stop by themselves, if the behavior
is not interfering with the rest of the class.
• Remember that responding to an ignorable behavior
may actually reinforce it .
• It is also important that the repeated behavior is the
one you are trying to end.
7. Reprimands
• Verbal reprimands are widely used in classrooms.
• Teachers often reprimand students for not listening,
breaking school rules or creating noise that can be
heard outside the classroom.
• The use of reprimands also tends to be highly
situational. Teachers seem to be more tolerant, or at
least to deliver fewer reprimands, immediately
following a lesson and during the last few minutes
of the period.
• Teachers also appear more tolerant when the
misbehavior is minor, brief, and not likely to
escalate or when it is caused by a usually well-
behaved students.
8. Timeout
• One of the most controversial behavioral
methods, often called social isolation.
• The process involves removing a highly
disruptive student for five to ten minutes.
• For more serious misbehavior, using the
strategy called timeout may be effective.
• Time out reduces unwanted behavior by
removing the offending student from the
situation.
9. Humor: an excellent influence in a tense situation.
• However, it should not convey any irony or sarcasm.
10. With-it-ness:
• To demonstrate the ability of teacher’s knowledge
and understanding of what is occurring in his/her
classroom.
• A teacher’s communication by his/her actual behavior
that she/he knows what the students are doing or has
“eyes in the back of his/her head”
11. Retribution:
• When efforts at prevention and subtle control fail, and
if the misbehavior is an accomplished fact, you to
require the guilty party to suffer consequences.
• Retribution teaches the students that they should not
break rules.
• Retribution can have such forms as
– withholding privileges,
– detention,
– putting them in a quiet room for some time, and
– discussing in private,
– sending them to the principal.
UNIT FIVE

PRODUCTION & UTILIZATION OF

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA
5.1. Instructional media: Concept and Definition
• The curriculum is the means through which
education is transacted.
• In order to do this, there is a need for some
curriculum materials through which the
curriculum transmits the massage and convey its
meanings and values.
• Thus, the availability of instructional media will
be a central issue.
• These include textbooks, teachers guide, science
kits, low cost and no cost materials, etc.
• Also called Teaching aids, learning aids,
teaching and learning aids, and instructional
media.
• All the above coinages do have their
limitations when seen in respect to the nature
of teaching and learning,
• some scholars prefer the coinage called
instructional media and instructional materials
interchangeably.
What are instructional media?

• A name given to all media materials,

methods and techniques used to facilitate
the teaching and learning process.
• All media used in the instructional process to
present information.
5.2. Importance of Instructional Media

When done well, using a variety of media can

• Enliven a class,
• Encourage participation and help students
grasp difficult concepts.
• When used poorly, these same tools can
obscure your instructional objectives and make
students confused, anxious and frustrated.
Importance cont’d…
• Facilitate active learning
• Encourage creative thinking
• Important to learn faster
• Help in students skill development
• Overcome the limitations of space and time
• simplify abstract concepts and help
students to understand them.
• can replace inaccessible real objects
• Teach and entertain
• Relate theory with practice
• Help students remember longer
• Catches students attention: - variety is always
attractive
• Save memory space
❖One way we construct knowledge is using our
senses
❑Many of the resources provide the learner
with opportunities
✓to handle and manipulate
✓ to touch, feel, handle or operate a model,
picture, map.
5.3. Understanding experience and the role of
Media
• We perceive the world by our senses.
• Experience is the result of the interaction of
the learner and the learning environment.
• Thence, experience is the interaction of our
senses and the learning environment which
is the medium.
The Cone of Experience
• The more senses that are used, the greater our
ability to learn from and remember an
experience.
• The major building blocks of useable human
knowledge are made up of:
1. Direct contact with reality or its direct
representation (the concrete experience) and
2. The abstract experience
5.4. Types of Instructional Media

Instructional materials can be broadly classified

as:-
A. Three dimensional that includes real objects
and their model;
B. Two dimensional including diagrams,
pictures, charts, graphs and maps;
C. Audio-Visual media that includes educational
radio broadcast and TV;
D. Display boards including chalk board,
magnetic board, and cloth board.
3.5. Selection of Instructional Material

• In selecting learning experiences to meet

instructional objectives, the availability of
either materials or equipment may influence
one's decisions.
❑It seems wise to search for the simplest mode
of communication that will meet program
requirement and
❑There are many alternatives from which to
choose.
ASSURE Model

❑Students come into schools with diverse needs,

abilities and styles of learning.
❑Teachers need to prepare, select and use
different instructional materials that
accommodate the diversity.
❑Instructional materials must fit student
capabilities and learning styles.
❑Heinich, et al (1996) devised a systematic
procedure called ASSURE to help to assure
learning.
❑The letters in the word ASSURE represent the
steps that users are expected to follow when
they plan to use media resources.
ASSURE

• A Analyze Learner Characteristics

• S State Objectives
• S Select and/or design media
• U Utilization
• R Required Response/ Feedback
• E Evaluation
Analyze Learners
• The first step in planning is to identify the
learners.
• You must know your students to select the best
medium to meet the objectives.
• The audience can be analyzed in terms of
(1)general characteristics,
(2) specific entry competencies and
(3) Learning style.
State objectives

❑The step of stating the objectives as

specifically as possible.
❑They should be stated in terms of what the
learner will be able to do as a result of
instruction.
❑The conditions under which the student is
going to perform and the degree of
acceptable performance should be included.
Select and/or Design media, Methods and Materials

❑Once you have identified your audience and

stated your objectives, you have established the
beginning points and ending points of
instruction.
❑Your task now is to build a bridge between these
two points by choosing appropriate methods
and media formats, then deciding on materials to
implement these choices.
❑There are three options in selecting available
materials- buy from market or from shelf;
modify existing materials, or; designing new
materials.
Utilize Media and Materials

❑After selection, utilizing the material follows.

Require Response
❑To be effective, materials-based instruction
requires active mental engagement by learners.
❑There should be activities within the lesson that
allow learners to process the knowledge or skills
and to receive feedback on the appropriateness
of their efforts before being formally assessed.
Evaluate and Review
• After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its
impact and effectiveness.
• To get the total picture, you must evaluate the
entire instructional process.
• Did the learners meet the objectives? Did the
methods and media assist the trainees in
achieving the objectives? Could all students use
the materials properly?
• Whatever there are discrepancies between what
you intended and what you attained, you will
want to revise the plan for the next time.
Selection Criteria: General Characteristics of
Instructional Visuals
General characteristics
❑To select appropriate instructional visuals we
examine the following characteristics:
A. Content-- what-does-it-say is the first
question to be asked.
• Does it serve the intended purpose?
• you should look for purposeful content.
B. The visual characteristics
• Arrangement of content on the background
affects readability or adds to the
meaningfulness of visual presentations.
• Horizontal, vertical, diagonal, cross diagonal,
circular, etc. are some of the examples.
• Visual presentation of life cycles in a circular
arrangement means recurring occurrence
• Cross diagonal visual presentations express
antagonism or opposition.
Balance
❑Our mind almost draws an imaginary line
(axis) that divides the background in to two
equal parts-horizontally or vertically and
weigh the visual content on both sides.
❑If there is equilibrium between the content of
the two sides of the axis (symmetrical balance)
then brain takes it as normal or accepted.
❑Color contrast between body of content and
background is a vital criterion for the visibility
of the visual content.
❑White on white cannot be read while black on
white is easily visible.
❑Different color combinations should be used to
show differences, relationships, position, etc.
❑cleanliness is vital. Unclean parts act as noises
and distract clarity.
• Dynamism of reality needs to be reflected.
Degree of realism in the picture also matters.
How far does the visual reflect the reality it
represents?
• Emphasis: let parts to come out and be
observable than others.
• Dominant colors, spacing, placement
background contrast.
• Fidelity or quality of the whole visual
presentation and the absence of distortions;
• Graphic harmony of the total visual
presentation is the major area of observation
for making relatively better selection of
visuals.
C. Visuals are to be read.

❑They should let the eye of the reader move

from one part to the other with less strain, in a
relaxed manner.
❑There should not be congestion or clustering of
visual information at one place.
D. Cost effectiveness

• Getting the worth or the value of the mental

effort, money, time and physical strength that
you put in to the preparation of the visual
should also be considered for selection.
• Less/more expensive and more used is better
than more/less expensive and less used.
E. Lettering
• The way the letters are written equally matters.
• The title and labeling from part of the visual
presentation as the representation of the
abstract.
• They create conformity oneness among the
different interpretations.
UNIT SIX

ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

What do you understand by

Measurement
Assessment
Evaluation

Do you think they are the same?

Concepts Related to Assessment

• Interrelated but
different concepts
• Confusing
Educational Measurement
“ you
can’t fatten
your pig by
weighting it… “
• A systematic description of
students performance in
terms of numbers.
➢Abera solved 20 questions correctly from 35
Maths questions.
➢Tolla scored the highest mark (85%) in science.
• Involves using measuring devices like tests,
exams, quiz, group work, etc.
1. Test: involves a series of questions with
different item types (Formal).
• The purpose is assessing learning progress
while a course is on progress
2. Quiz: short and informal test; given at the
beginning or end of a class hour.
3. Examination: covers large area of contents.
• Given at the end of a course or semester .
• The main purpose is to assign grade.
• The number of items included is large.
Educational Assessment
• The Process of collecting,
interpreting and synthesizing
information to aid in decision-
making.
• For many, CR assessment mean
using paper & Pencil test but
it’s more than testing.
• It includes information
gathering on students,
instruction, CR climate by
teachers
Evaluation
Evaluation is
determining/judging
the extent to which
instructional
objectives are
achieved

Making Decision
based on the
interpreted/ analyzed
scores.
It can be a decision to
pass or fail.
Importance and Purposes of Assessment

• Drives and directs students learning

• Provides feedback to students on their
performance
• Provides feedback on instruction.
• Ensures that students learning are met.
• In Summary assessment focuses on
❖ helping LEARNING
❖improving TEACHING
Types of assessment

1. Placement Assessment: highly concerned

with investigating learner’s entry
performance (education background)
• Does the learner possess the knowledge and
skills needed to begin the planned instruction?
• To what extent is the learner ready to master
the objectives of the planned instruction?
Example:
• A teacher may divide students into ability
groups like science group or study group.
• A teacher may also divide his/her learners into
ability groups such as slow, average and high
achievers.
• Also assign learners who scored below a cut
off point in a national exam for remedial
group.
2. Formative Evaluation
• Also called as a continuous assessment.
• Focuses on monitoring learning progress and
learning difficulties of students.
• Undertaken during teaching-learning process.
• To find the strengths, weakness and potential
of students
• To help students learn
3. Diagnostic Assessment
• Concerned with persistent or recurring
learning difficulties that are not resolved by
the corrective prescriptions of formative
assessment.
• Formative assessment as a first aid for simple
learning problems.
• It searches for the underlying or the root
causes of the problem.
• Example
✓ A student may experience a continuous failure
in mathematics, or in attentiveness.
✓A teacher needs to identify the problem,
document in frequency, understand its basis,
and select remedial activities.
✓The teacher carryout remedial activities
needed.
✓At other time the student may be referred to
more specialized diagnosis.
4. Summative Assessment

• Given at the end of a course/ unit or semester

of instruction.
• It evaluates the quality of students’ learning.
• It deals with the purpose/ outcome of teaching-
learning process.
• Made on the basis of written examination, tests
• Used for grading
Other Types of Assessment

OF

Assessment FOR Learning

AS
167
Assessment OF Learning

Summative Assessment
• Happens after the learning takes place
• Information is gathered by the teacher
• Information is usually transformed into marks
or grades
• Looks back on past learning
• Comparison with the performance of others

168
Assessment FOR learning

Formative assessment
• An integral part of the learning process
• Clarifies for students what is to be learned and
what success would look like.
• Give useful and timely feedback to students
• Comparison with aims and objectives is
important
• Helps students to identify the next steps they
need to take and who can help them.
169
Assessment AS Learning

• Assessment As learning – assessment as a

process of meta-cognition involving student
self-assessment and understanding of own
learning processes and knowledge

170
Assessment AS Learning

Enables students to:

• Identify and reflect on elements of their own

learning

• Set their own learning targets

• Practice self and peer assessment.

171
Points to consider when Planning a test

1. Chapter or unit objectives

2. Types of test items to be included- selected
based on learning objectives
Supply Tests
Selection Tests
• Completion
• True-false
• Short Answer
• Matching
• Essay
• Multiple Choice
Tests/Paragraph
writing
3. How long the test should be? The length of
the test (i.e., number of items to be
included) depends on:
➢ the age and attention span of the learners
➢types of test items (e.g supply items require
more time than selecting items)
4. Developing a table of Specification

• Also called Test blue print

• It is a two way chart or grid that involves
objectives/ item types along the horizontal axis
and the content along the vertical axis.
Table of Specification by Objective
Content Area
Knowledge
… Objectives
Instructional
Understanding/ Application Analysis Synthesis Total
Comprehension (%)
Classroom 1 1 - - - 2 (6.67)
Assessment
Definition of 2 - - - - 2 (6.67)
terms

Purposes of - 2 - 2 1 6(20.00)
assessment
Methods of 1 5 - 1 7(23.33)
assessment
Levels of 1 1 - 5 - 7(23.33)
assessment
Planning a test - - - 6 6(20.00)

Total (%) 5 (16.67) 5 (16.67) 5 (16.67) 7(23.33) 8(26.67) 30 (100)

Table of Specification by Item Type
Content Area True false
…
Item Types
Matching Multiple Fill in the Short Total
Choice Blank Answer
Spaces (Essay)
Classroom 2 - 3 - - 5
Assessment
Definition of 1 5 - - - 6
terms

Purposes of 2 - 3 2 - 7
assessment
Methods of 2 - 4 1 - 7
assessment
Levels of 2 - 4 1 - 7
assessment
Planning a test 1 - 4 1 2 8

Total 10 5 18 5 2 40
Thank You All !!!