• Getting Started

  1. Standard I/O
  2. Working with files
  3. Command-line Arguments

• Exploring Standard Modules

  1. Operating System (OS) Module
  2. System-specific Module
  3. Shell Modules
  4. Date and Time Modules
  5. Subprocess Module
  6. Argparse Module
  7. SQLite Module
  8. XmlTree Module
  9. JSON Module
  10. CSV Module
  11. Regular Expressions Module
  12. Compression Module
  13. Platform Module
  14. Signal Module
  15. Socket Module

• Exploring External Modules

  • Network Modules

  1. Netmiko Module
  2. Twisted Module
  3. Ipaddress Module
  4. Netsnmp Module

  • DB Modules

  1. SQLAlchemy Module

Standard input, output and error (commonly referred to as stdin, stdout and stderr) are what's called pipes.

These pipes are normally connected to the terminal window where you are working.

When printing something (using print()), it goes to the stdout pipe by default; when your program needs to print errors (like a traceback in Python), it goes to the stderr pipe; and when your program requires input from a user or other programs, it goes to the stdin pipe.

$ cat /etc/passwd | grep /bin/bash
#  `\_ writes to stdout        `\_ reads from stdin

$ ls no_such_file.txt
#  `\_ writes to stderr

Python built-in sys module provides stdin, stdout and stderr as a file-objects, exposing read(), readlines(), write(), writelines() methods, as shown below:

#!/usr/bin/env python3
import sys

# writing to stdout pipe
print ('Hello, world')
sys.stdout.write('Hello, world\n')

# writing to stderr pipe
print("Error occured")
sys.stderr.write("Error occured\n")

# reading single line from stdin pipe
sys.stdout.write('Username: ')
username  = sys.stdin.readline()
print (username)

# reading 'n' number of characters from stdin
print ('Enter few characters and press Ctrl-D')
data = sys.stdin.read(1024)
print('len(data):', len(data))

# reading lines (separated by newlines) from stdin
print('Enter few lines and press Ctrl-D')
lines = sys.stdin.readlines()
print ('total lines read:', len(lines))

Python built-in open function is the standard interface for working with files. open returns a file object with familiar methods for performing read/write operations.

open(file, mode='r')

• file: absolute or relative path of the file. e.g: /etc/passwd, ./ip-list.txt
• mode: an optional string specifying mode in which the file is opened. Default's to r for reading in text mode. Common values are:
• w write only (truncates the file already exists)
• x create and write to a new file (if file already exists then open fails)
• a append to a file (insert data to end of the file)
• + updating a file (reading and writing). e.g: r+ w+
• b binary mode for non-text files. Contents are returned as byte objects.
• t text mode (default). Contents are returned as strings.

• .close()
• .read(size=-1) read at most n characters. If n is negative or ommited, reads the whole file until EOF.
• .readline() Read single line until newline or EOF.
• .readlines() Read all newlines and returns as a list.
• .write(data) Write data to file. Returns number of characters written.
• .writelines(list) Write all data in the list. Useful for writing multiple lines to a file.

## Reading a file
r = open('/etc/passwd')
# same as:
# r = open('/etc/passwd', 'r')
passwd = r.readlines()
for line in passwd:
	line = line.strip()
	size = len(line)
	print(size, line)
r.close()

## Reading a file using `with` statement, automatically closes the file
with open('/etc/passwd') as f:
	pass

## Writing to a file
w = open('test.txt', 'w')
w.write('127.0.0.1\n')
w.flush()
lines = ['1.1.1.1\n', '2.2.2.2\n', '3.3.3.3\n']
w.writelines(lines)
w.close()

All open related errors raises IOError exception.

try:
	f = open('/etc/passwd')
except IOError as e:
	print ('Opps, something went wrong.')
	print (e)

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# working-with-files-01.py

def main():
	try:
		with open('/etc/passwd') as f:
			for no, line in enumerate(f, 1):
				if '/bin/bash' in line:
					line = line.strip()
					print(f'{no} {line}')
	except IOError as e:
		print(e)

if __name__ == '__main__': main()

fileinput module allows to quickly write a loop over standard input or a list of files.

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# linescount-02.py

import fileinput

lines = 0
for line in fileinput.input():
	lines += 1

print('totat lines:', lines)

$ cat /etc/passwd | python3 linescount.py
totat lines: 86
$ python3 linescount.py /etc/services
totat lines: 13921
$ python3 linescount.py /etc/services /etc/passwd /etc/hosts
totat lines: 14023

By default, fileinput.input() will read all lines from files given as an argument to the script; if no arguments given then defaults to standard input.

sys module provides argv variable containing the list of arguments passed to the script when executed as a command-line application.

NOTE: The first argument sys.argv[0] is always the name of the script itself.

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# argv_01.py

import sys

print ('sys.argv:', sys.argv)
print ('length:', len(argv))

$ python3 args_01.py --help
['argv-01.py', '--help']
2
$ python3 args_01.py 1 2 3
['argv-01.py', '1', '2', '3']
4

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# args-02.py
import sys

# NOTE: [1:] excludes the first item at index 0, i.e script name
argv_len = len(sys.argv[1:])

if not argv_len == 2:
	sys.exit(f'invalid number of arguments (expected 2, given: {argv_len})')

print('two arguments are:', sys.argv[1:])

$ python args_02.py
invalid number of arguments (expected 2, given: 0)
$ python args_02.py 1
invalid number of arguments (expected 2, given: 1)
$ python args_02.py 1 2  
two arguments are: ['1', '2']
$ python args_02.py 1 2 3
invalid number of arguments (expected 2, given: 3)

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# grep.py

import sys

script = sys.argv[0]

def print_usage():
	sys.exit(f'Usage: python {script} pattern')

def main(argv):
	if not len(argv) == 1:
		print_usage()

	pattern = argv[0]

	for line in sys.stdin:
		if pattern in line:
			print(line.strip())

if __name__ == '__main__':
	main(sys.argv[1:])

$ cat /etc/services | python3 grep.py 8080
http-alt	8080/udp     # HTTP Alternate (see port 80)
http-alt	8080/tcp     # HTTP Alternate (see port 80)

• Extend grep.py to read from a file instead of standard input, and can be run as:

$ python3 grep.py 8080 /etc/services

• Extend grep.py to read from a file if given as a second argument or default back to read from standard input similar to what grep does.

$ cat /etc/services | python3 grep.py 8080
# and also should works as
$ python3 grep.py 8080 /etc/services

Python built-in os module exposes operating system dependent functionality in a portable way, thus works across many different platforms.

import os

• os.environ a dictionary mapping system environment variables. e.g. os.environ.get('SHELL')
• os.getenv(key) retrieve a specific variable.
• os.putenv(key, value). change variable to specific value. e.g. os.putenv('HOME', '/opt')

• os.tmpnam returns a unique file name that can be used to create temporariry file. mktemp() from tempfile module is more secure.
• os.mkdir(path) os.rmdir(path) os.chdir(path) os.listdir(path)
• os.getcwd() returns current working directory as string. Similar to pwd command.
• os.stat(path) similar to stat command
• os.walk(path) recursively walk the dictionary tree, similar to ls -R. Returns generator yielding 3-tuple (dirpath, dirnames, files)

>>> import os

# environment variables
>>> os.environ['SHELL'] # or os.environ.get('SHELL') or os.getenv('SHELL')
'bash'

# Get a temporary filename using `tempfile` module
>>> from tempfile import mktemp
>>> temp = mktemp()
'/var/folders/6s/4xn2fv852_1ghssypng0wwfw0000gn/T/tmp15O9aR'

# Create the temporary file and write 'test'
>>> with open(temp, 'w') as f:
... 	f.write('test\n')

# Get the file stat, such as creation timestamp (ctime)
>>> st = os.stat(temp)
>>> st.st_ctime
1436466688.0

# convert timestamp to human readable format, we'll cover date & time later.
>>> import datetime
>>> d = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(st.st_ctime)
>>> d.year # d.month, d.hour and so on...
2016

--

• os.path.abspath(path) get absolute path.
• os.path.basename(path) get the filename excluding the directory part. Opposite of os.path.dirname which excludes filename part and returns directory path.
• os.path.exists(path) returns True if path exists else False.
• os.path.getsize(path) return size (in bytes) for a given path.
• os.path.isfile(path), os.path.isdir(path) returns True or False if path is file or a directory.
• os.path.getctime(path), os.path.getmtime(path) Similar to os.stat(path).ctime, os.stat(path).mtime()

>>> os.path.isdir('/etc')
True

>>> os.chdir('/etc')

>>> os.getcwd()
'/etc'

>>> os.path.abspath('hosts')
'/etc/hosts'

>>> os.path.isfile('/etc/hosts')
True

>>> os.path.getsize('/etc/hosts')
475

>>> print (os.path.basename('/etc/passwd'))
'passwd'

>>> print (os.path.dirname('/etc/passwd'))
'/etc'

• os.getpid() get id of current process and os.getppid()to get parent process id.
• os.system(command) execute a command and returns exit code.

• os.uname() returns a 5-tuple (sysname, nodename, release, version, machine) identifying the current OS. Similar to uname -a command.
• os.getloadavg() returns 3-tuple containing 1-min, 5-min and 15-min load average.

--

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# filesizes.py

import os
import sys

script = sys.argv[0]

def print_usage():
	print(f' >> {sys.stderr}, "Usage: python3 {script} DIR"')
	sys.exit(1)

def filesizes(path):
	''' calculate and print size of each file in a given directory. '''

	for dirpath, dirnames, filenames in os.walk(path):
		for filename in filenames:
			filepath = os.path.join(dirpath, filename)
			_bytes = os.path.getsize(filepath)
			print (f'{_bytes}, {filepath}')

def main(argv):
	if not len(argv) == 1:
		print_usage()

	path = argv[0]
	filesizes(path)

if __name__ == '__main__':
	main(sys.argv[1:])

$ python3 filesizes.py .
678 ./filesizes.py
```

Python built-in sys module exposes system-specific parameters and functions. This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the interpreter and functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. sys module is always available.

import sys

• sys.argv contains list of command-line arguments. Already covered.
• sys.exit([arg]) exit the program. arg is optional, can be 0 to indicate success, > 0 for failure or string to display the errors during exit.
• sys.version stores version of Python installed.
• sys.stdin sys.stdout sys.stderr File objects corresponding to the interpreter's standard input, output and error pipes.
• sys.platform stored the name of the platofrm Python is running. Such as darwin for MacOS, linux for Linux and others
• sys.path A list of strings that specified the search path while importing modules via import statement.
• sys.modules A dictionary mapping the { 'module_name': 'module_path', ... } which have already been loaded.

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# sys-01.py

import sys
from sys import argv

print (f'''
Python version installed: {sys.version}

Python running on platforn: {sys.platform}
''')

if len(argv) == 10:
	sys.exit('error: too many arguments')

print(f'''
argv = {argv}
len(argv) = {len(argv)}
''')

print ('Printing to stdout')
print (f'>> {sys.stderr}, "Printing to stderr"')

print(f'''
total modules search path: {len(sys.path)}
total modules loaded: {len(sys.modules)}
''')

# success
sys.exit(0)

$ python3 sys-01.py

Python version installed: 3.7.4 (default, Jul  9 2019, 16:48:28)
[GCC 8.3.1 20190223 (Red Hat 8.3.1-2)]

Python running on platforn: linux


argv = ['sys_01.py']
len(argv) = 1

Printing to stdout
>> <_io.TextIOWrapper name='<stderr>' mode='w' encoding='UTF-8'>, "Printing to stderr"

total modules search path: 7
total modules loaded: 57


$ echo $?
0

The shutil module provides high-level operations on files or collection of files.

• shutil.copy(src, dst) Copy src file to dst file or directory.
• shutil.copymode(src, dst) Copy permission mode of src file to dst file.
• shutil.copystat(src, dst) Copy permission mode, modification and creation date from src file to dst file.
• shutil.copy2(src, dst) Similar to cp -p command or equivalent of shutil.copy and shutil.copystat.

• shutil.move(src, dst) Move src file to dst file or directory.

The glob module finds all the pathnames matching a specified pattern according to the rules used by the Unix shell.

• glob.glob(pattern) Return a list of path names that match the path pattern. Path can be absolute /usr/local/bin/*.py or relative local/bin/*.py.

>>> import glob
>>> glob.glob('/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg*')
['/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-venet0',
 '/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-lo']

>>> glob.glob('/etc/*.conf')
['/etc/vnstat.conf',
 '/etc/sudo.conf',
 '/etc/resolv.conf',
 '/etc/host.conf',
 '/etc/logrotate.conf']

The time module exposes the time-related functions from the underlying C library.

• time.time() returns the number of seconds since the start of the epoch as a floating-point value.
• time.ctime() returns a human-friendly date and time representation.
• time.gmtime() returns an object containing current time in UTC format.
• time.localtime() returns an object containing the current time in current time zone.
• time.tzset() sets the time zone based on TZ environment variable: os.environ.get('TZ')

>>> import time
>>> time.time()
1459924583.396017

>>> # current time in UTC
>>> utc = time.gmtime()
>>> dir(utc)
['tm_hour',
 'tm_isdst',
 'tm_mday',
 'tm_min',
 'tm_mon',
 'tm_sec',
 'tm_wday',
 'tm_yday',
 'tm_year']

>>> # current time in GMT by updating timezone
>>> import os
>>> os.putenv('TZ', 'GMT') # or os.environ['TZ'] = 'GMT'
>>> time.tzset()
>>> gmt = '{} {}'.format(time.ctime(), time.tzname[0])

The datetime module includes functions and classes for doing date and time parsing, formatting, and arithmetic.

• datetime.date.today() returns current date object without the time
• datetime.datetime.today() returns current date and time object
• datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(float) convert unix timestamp to datetime object
• datetime.timedelta future and past dates can be calculated using basic arithmetic (+, -) on two datetime objects, or by combining a datetime with a timedelta object.

>>> import datetime
>>> today_date = datetime.date.today()
>>> ten_days = datetime.timedelta(days=10)
>>> today_date - ten_days # past
>>> today_date + ten_days # future

>>> import datetime

# convert datetime to custom format
>>>  format = "%a %b %d %H:%M:%S %Y"
>>> today = datetime.datetime.today()
>>> today.strftime(format)
'Mon Oct 14 17:56:24 2019'

# convert formatted string to datetime object
>>> datetime.datetime.strptime('Mon Oct 14 17:56:24 2019', format)
datetime.datetime(2019, 10, 14, 17, 56, 24)

The subprocess module allows to run new processes, connect to their input/output/error pipes, and obtain their return codes.

The module defines a many helper functions and a class called Popen which allows to set up the new process so the parent can communicate with it via pipes.

To run an external command without interacting with, use subprocess.call(command, shell=True) function.

>>> import subprocess
>>> rc = subprocess.call('ls -l /etc', shell=True)
0
>>> rc = subprocess.call('ls -l no_such_file.txt', shell=True)
1

Setting the shell argument to a True value causes subprocess to spawn a shell process (normally bash), which then runs the command. Using a shell means that variables, glob patterns, and other special shell features in the command string are processed before the command is run.

>>> import subprocess
>>> subprocess.call('echo $PATH' )

# will return error
subprocess.call('echo $PATH', shell=True)
# will print the shell PATH variable value

--

The return value from subprocess.call() is the exit code of the program and is used to detect errors. The subprocess.check_call() function works like call(), except that the exit code is checked, and if it returns non-zero, then a subprocess.CalledProcessError exception is raised.

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# check_call.py

import sys
import subprocess

try:
	cmd = 'false'
	print ('running command:',cmd)
	subprocess.check_call(cmd, shell=True)
except subprocess.CalledProcessError as error:
	sys.exit(f'error: {error}')

$ python3 check_call.py
running command: false
error: Command 'false' returned non-zero exit status 1

To run an external command and capture it's output, use check_output(command, shell=True) to capture the output for later processing. If command returns non-zero, then a CalledProcessError exception is raised similar to check_call.

Execute cat /etc/hosts and write the output to a file hosts.txt

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# capture_output.py

import subprocess
import sys

try:
	cmd = 'cat /etc/hosts'
	print('running command:', cmd)
	output = subprocess.check_output(cmd, shell=True, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT)
except subprocess.CalledProcessError as error:
	sys.exit('error: {error}')
else:
	print('success!')
	with open('hosts.txt', 'w') as f:
		f.write(output)
		#this should give an error in python3.6+

By default, check_output captures outputs written to stdout. Setting the stderr=subprocess.STDOUT causes stderr outputs to redirected to stdout, so errors can be captured as well.

The call(), check_call(), and check_output() are wrappers around the Popen class. Using Popen directly gives more control over how the command is run and how its input and output streams are processed.

To run a process and capture it's output, set the stdout and stderr arguments to subprocess.PIPE and call communicate().

communicate() returns 2-tuple (stderr_output, stderr_putput)

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# one-way.py
import subprocess
import sys

script = sys.argv[0]

def main(argv):
	if not len(argv) == 1:
		sys.exit(f'usage: python3 {script} command')
	cmd = sys.argv[1]
	print ('running command:', cmd)
	proc = subprocess.Popen(cmd, shell=True, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.PIPE)
	stdout, stderr = proc.communicate()
	print(f'''
exit code: {proc.poll()}

stdout:
{stdout or None}

stderr:
{stderr or None}
''')

if __name__ == '__main__':
	main(sys.argv[1:])

$ python3 one_way.py ls
running command: ls

exit code: 0

stdout:
b'capture_output.py\ncheck_call.py\nhosts.txt\none_way.py\nsys_01.py\n'

stderr:
None

To set up the Popen instance for reading and writing at the same time, pass additional argument stdin=subprocess.PIPE.

#!/usr/bin/env python3
# bidirectional.py
import subprocess
from subprocess import PIPE
import sys

cmd = 'bc'
send = '1 + 1\n'

print('running command:', cmd, 'and sending input:', send)

proc = subprocess.Popen(cmd, shell=True, stdin=PIPE, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE)
stdout, stderr = proc.communicate(send)

print(f'''
exit code: {proc.poll()}

stdin:
{send}

stdout:
{stdout or None}

stderr:
{stderr or None}
''')

$ python3 bidirectional.py
running command: bc and sending input: 1 + 1

exit code: 0

stdin:
1 + 1

stdout:
2

stderr:
None

Python built-in argparse is parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands. The argparse module provides argument management just like sys.argv, but with options, e.g it generates help and usage messages and issues errors when users give the program invalid arguments. Let’s show the sort of functionality by making use of the ls command:

$ ls
examples  LICENSE  README.md
$ ls -l
total 44
drwxrwxr-x.  4 que que  4096 Oct 14 18:05 .
drwxrwxr-x. 24 que que  4096 Oct 13 15:32 ..
drwxrwxr-x.  2 que que  4096 Oct 14 18:48 examples
drwxrwxr-x.  8 que que  4096 Oct 15 01:01 .git
-rw-rw-r--.  1 que que  1210 Oct 13 15:32 LICENSE
-rw-rw-r--.  1 que que 24357 Oct 15 01:02 README.md
$ ls --help
Usage: ls [OPTION]... [FILE]...
List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default).
Sort entries alphabetically if none of -cftuvSUX nor --sort is specified.
...

A few concepts we can learn from the four commands:

• When you run the "ls -l" command with options, it will default displaying the contents of the current directory
• The "-l" is knowns as an "optional argument"
• If you want to display the help text of the ls command, you would type "ls --help"

To start using the argparse module, we first have to import it.

>>> import argparse

The following code is a Python program that takes a list of integers and produces either the sum or the max:

#!/usr/bin/env python3
#app.py
import argparse

parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')
parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
                   help='an integer for the accumulator')
parser.add_argument('--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const',
                   const=sum, default=max,
                   help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')

args = parser.parse_args()
print(args.accumulate(args.integers))

Assuming the Python code above is saved into a file called app.py, it can be run at the command line and provides useful help messages

$ app.py -h
usage: prog.py [-h] [--sum] N [N ...]

Process some integers.

positional arguments:
 N           an integer for the accumulator

optional arguments:
 -h, --help  show this help message and exit
 --sum       sum the integers (default: find the max)

$ app.py 1 2 3 4
4

$ app.py 1 2 3 4 --sum
10

The first step in using the argparse is creating an ArgumentParser object:

>>> parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Process some integers.')

The ArgumentParser object will hold all the information necessary to parse the command line into python data types.

Filling anArgumentParser with information about program arguments is done by making calls to the ArgumentParser.add_argument method. Generally, these calls tell the ArgumentParser how to take the strings on the command line and turn them into objects. This information is stored and used when ArgumentParser.parse_args is called. For example:

>>> parser.add_argument('integers', metavar='N', type=int, nargs='+',
...                     help='an integer for the accumulator')
>>> parser.add_argument('--sum', dest='accumulate', action='store_const',
...                     const=sum, default=max,
...                     help='sum the integers (default: find the max)')

Later, calling parse_args will return an object with two attributes, integers and accumulate. The integers attribute will be a list of one or more ints, and the accumulate attribute will be either the sum function, if --sum was specified at the command line, or the max function if it was not.

ArgumentParser parses args through the ArgumentParser.parse_args method. This will inspect the command-line, convert each arg to the appropriate type and then invoke the appropriate action. In most cases, this means a simple namespace object will be built up from attributes parsed out of the command-line:

>>> parser.parse_args(['--sum', '7', '-1', '42'])
Namespace(accumulate=<built-in function sum>, integers=[7, -1, 42])

In a script,ArgumentParser.parse_args will typically be called with no arguments, and the ArgumentParser will automatically determine the command-line args from sys.argv.

Create a new ArgumentParser object. Each parameter has its own more detailed description below, but in short they are:

• description - Text to display before the argument help.
• epilog - Text to display after the argument help.
• add_help - Add a -h/--help option to the parser. (default: True)
• argument_default - Set the global default value for arguments. (default: None)
• parents - A list of ArgumentParser objects whose arguments should also be included.
• prefix_chars - The set of characters that prefix optional arguments. (default: '-')
• fromfile_prefix_chars - The set of characters that prefix files from which additional arguments should be read. (default: None)
• formatter_class - A class for customizing the help output.
• conflict_handler - Usually unnecessary, defines strategy for resolving conflicting optionals.
• prog - The name of the program (default:sys.argv[0])
• usage - The string describing the program usage (default: generated)

SQLite is a C-language library that implements a SQL like database engine which is relatively quick, serverless and self-contained, high-reliable. SQLite comes built-in with most of the moden software, hardware devices and browsers, thus Python also has embedded SQLite engine named sqlite3.

To Start using the sqlite3 library:

>>> import sqlite3

• sqlite3.connect() - A connection object is created using the connect() function e.g connection = sqlite.connect('name_of_file_db.db')
• connection.cursor() - To execute SQLite statements, cursor object is needed. You can create it using the cursor() method. e.g cursor_object = connection.cursor()
• connection.execute() - To create a table in SQLite3, you can use the Create Table, Insert Into Table, Update Table, or Select query with the execute() method of SQLite library. For example cursor_object.execute("CREATE TABLE employees()"); connection.commit()
• connection.commit() - The commit() method saves all the changes we make.
• cursor_object.fetchall() - To fetch the data from a database we will execute the SELECT statement and then will use the fetchall() method of the cursor object to store the values into a variable, e.g cursor_object.execute('SELECT * FROM employees') ; rows = cursor_object.fetchall()
• cursor_object.rowcount() - The SQLite3 rowcount is used to return the number of rows that are affected or selected by the latest executed SQL query
• cursor_object.executemany() - It can use the executemany statement to insert multiple rows at once.
• connection.close() - You are done with your database, it is a good practice to close the connection with close() method. e.g. connection.close()

JSON is text, written with JavaScript object notation. JSON is a syntax for storing and exchanging data. It is commonly used for transmitting data in web applications (e.g., sending some data from the server to the client, so it can be displayed on a web page and vice versa

• json.loads()

• take a file object and returns the json object. A JSON object contains data in the form of key/value pair. The keys are strings and the values are the JSON types

• json.dumps() -json.dumps() function converts a Python object into a json string .It is the exact opposite of json.loads.

THIS IS THE ENCODING DECODING LIST

JSON -Python

1)object- DICT
2)array - list
3)string - str
4)int - int
5)real - float 6)true - true
7)False - False 8)NULL - NONE

• Encoding is from python to JSON(final type)

json.JSONEncoder().encode({"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}) '{"foo": ["bar", "baz"]}'

• Decoding is from JSON to python(final type)

• iterencode(o) -Encode the given object, o, and yield each string representation as available. For example:

for chunk in json.JSONEncoder().iterencode(bigobject): mysocket.write(chunk)]

-sort-keys -Sort the output of dictionaries alphabetically by key.

-h, --help¶- help box

infile-to check your Json file for syntax

outfile-Write the output of the infile to the given outfile

If the optional infile and outfile arguments are not specified, sys.stdin and sys.stdout will be used respectively:

json.tool - to validate and pretty-print JSON objects.

raw_decode- This can be used to decode a JSON document from a string that may have extraneous data at the end.

CSV - comma-separated values file is a text file with it's content delimited by comma (most often but any other delimiter is acceptable, yet it is advised to stick to the standards) defined by RFC 4180. These files are really useful when it comes to share, read and save data. Structure of such file is very simple:

header1,header2,header3
datacell11,datacell12,datacell13
datacell21,datacell22,datacell23
datacell31,datacell32,datacell33

You can easily read and write CSV files with Python using csv module. To open CSV file we need code like this:

import csv
with open('file.csv') as f:
    f_csv = csv.reader(f, delimiter=',', quotechar='"')
    headers = next(f_csv)   # this line uses next() function to save first row of the file and skip it. Rest is our data.
    # now we are ready to process our rows. Example:
    for row in f_csv:
        print(row[0], row[1], row[2])

Script would just print data like this:

$> datacell11 datacell12 datacell13
$> datacell21 datacell22 datacell23
$> datacell31 datacell32 datacell33

Here's explanation for some parameters of csv.reader:

delimiter - is as it name shows - character or set of them that determines where are columns of value and how they are separated

quotechar - is a char starting and ending a quote in our CSV file. It prevents our script from breaking output when we would have somethin like: datacell21,"datacell22",datacell23

If the file is more complicated than this (and it probably will) it is advised to use DictReader. It would look like this:

import csv
with open('file.csv') as f:
    f_csv = csv.DictReader(f, delimiter=',', quotechar='"')
    headers = next(f_csv)   # this line uses next() function to save first row of the file and skip it. Rest is our data.
    # now we are ready to process our rows. Example:
    for row in f_csv:
        print(row['header1'], row['header2'], row['header3'])

Instead of column indexes it is possible to use their names from header.

To write file we can simply do this:

import csv
data = [
    ['data1', 'data2', 'data3'],
    ['data4', 'data5', 'data6']
    # ...
]
with open('newfile.csv', 'w') as nf:
    headers = ['header_1', 'header_2', 'header_3']
    csv_writer = csv.writer(nf)
    csv_writer.writerow(headers)
    csv_writer.writerows(data)

We use writerow for writing header for our data and then writerows to simply handle a few(hundred) rows of data

Alternatively we DictWriter can be used:

import csv

data = [
    {'header_1': 'data1', 'header_2': 'data2', 'header_3': 'data3'},
    {'header_1': 'data4', 'header_2': 'data5', 'header_3': 'data6'},
    {'header_1': 'data7', 'header_2': 'data8', 'header_3': 'data9'}
]
with open('countries.csv', 'w', encoding='UTF8', newline='') as f:
    headers = ['header_1', 'header_2', 'header_3']
    writer = csv.DictWriter(f, fieldnames=headers)
    writer.writeheader()
    writer.writerows(data)