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The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of [[Stefan the First-Crowned|Stefan Nemanjić]], most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of [[Hilandar|Hilandar monastery]] with aid from the inhabitants of the area of [[Prizren]].<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/36939351/The%20heritage%20of%20Western%20Balkan%20Vlachs Octavian Ciobanu : The heritage of Western Balkan Vlachs]</ref>
The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of [[Stefan the First-Crowned|Stefan Nemanjić]], most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of [[Hilandar|Hilandar monastery]] with aid from the inhabitants of the area of [[Prizren]].<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/36939351/The%20heritage%20of%20Western%20Balkan%20Vlachs Octavian Ciobanu : The heritage of Western Balkan Vlachs]</ref>

From the very end of the 12th century, several Serbian documents mention the Vlachs shepherding in the mountains between the [[Drina]] and the [[Morava Valley|Morava]].<ref>{{Cite journal |title=A „ROMÁNOK FÖLDJE” |url=https://www.arcanum.com/hu/online-kiadvanyok/ErdelyHun-erdely-tortenete-harom-kotetben-1/elso-kotet-a-kezdetektol-1606-ig-6/iii-erdely-a-kozepkori-magyar-kiralysagban-8961526-323/2-a-magyar-honfoglalastol-a-tatarjarasig-362/a-romanok-foldje-3CB/ |journal= |language=Hungarian}}</ref>


=== 13th century ===
=== 13th century ===

Revision as of 09:19, 27 April 2023

For other uses, see Vlachs (disambiguation).
"Vlach", "Wallach", and "Oláh" redirect here. For other uses, see Vlach (disambiguation), Wallach (disambiguation), and Oláh (disambiguation).

Théodore Valerio, 1852: Pâtre valaque de Zabalcz ("Wallahian Shepherd from Zăbalț")

Vlach (English: /ˈvlɑːx/ or /ˈvlæk/), also Wallachian (and many other variants[1]), is a historical term and exonym used from the Middle Ages until the Modern Era to designate speakers of Eastern Romance languages living in the Balkans and north of the Danube.[2]

Although it has also been used to name present-day Romanians, the term “Vlach” today refers primarily to speakers of the Balkan Romance languages who live south of the Danube, in Albania, Bulgaria, northern Greece, Northern Macedonia and eastern Serbia. These people include the ethnic groups of the Aromanians, the Megleno Romanians and, in Serbia, the Timok Romanians.[3] The term also became a synonym in the Balkans for the social category of shepherds,[4] and was also used for non-Romance-speaking peoples, in recent times in the western Balkans derogatively.[5] The term is also used to refer to the ethnographic group of Moravian Vlachs who speak a Slavic language but originate from Romanians, as well as for Morlachs and Istro-Romanians.[6]

Vlachs were initially identified and described during the 11th century by George Kedrenos. According to one origin theory, modern Romanians, Moldovans and Aromanians originated from Dacians.[7] According to some linguists and scholars, the Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the lower Danube basin during the Migration Period[8] and western Balkan populations known as Vlachs also have had Romanized Illyrian origins.[9] However, many non-Romanian historian believe that Vlachs originated in the southern Balkans and migrated north from there from the 11th-12th centuries onwards.[10][11][12][13]

Currently, Eastern Romance-speaking communities are estimated at 26–30 million people worldwide (including the Romanian diaspora and Moldovan diaspora).[14]

Etymology

Further information: Walhaz
Map of the Balkans with regions inhabited by Romanians/Vlachs (Eastern Romance speakers) highlighted

The word Vlach/Wallachian (and other variants such as Vlah, Valah, Valach, Voloh, Blac, oláh, Vlas, Ulah, etc.[1]) is etymologically derived from the ethnonym of a Celtic tribe,[5] adopted into Proto-Germanic *Walhaz, which meant "stranger", from *Wolkā-[15] (Caesar's Template:Lang-la, Strabo and Ptolemy's Greek: Ouolkai).[16] Via Latin, in Gothic, as *walhs, the ethnonym took on the meaning "foreigner" or "Romance-speaker" and later "shepherd, nomad".[16][5] The term was adopted into Greek as Vláhoi (Βλάχοι), Slavic as Vlah (pl. Vlasi), Hungarian as oláh and olasz, etc.[17][18] The root word was notably adopted in Germanic for Wales and Walloon, and in Switzerland for Romansh-speakers (German: Welsch),[5] and in Poland Włochy or in Hungary olasz became an exonym for Italians.[16][1] The Slovenian term Lahi has also been used to designate Italians.[19]

Vlach Herdsmen in Greece (Amand von Schweiger-Lerchenfeld [de], 1887)

Romanian scholars have suggested that the term Vlach appeared for the first time in the Eastern Roman Empire and was subsequently spread to the Germanic- and then Slavic-speaking worlds through the Norsemen (possibly by Varangians), who were in trade and military contact with Byzantium during the early Middle Ages (see also Blakumen).[20][21]

Historical and modern uses

The term first appeared in late medieval sources and was used primarily as an exonym for speakers of the Balkan Romance languages, especially Romanians.[1][3] But testimonies from the 13th and the 14th centuries show that, although in Europe and beyond, they were called Vlachs or Wallachians (oláh in Hungarian, Vláchoi (Βλάχοι) in Greek, Volóxi (Воло́хи) in Russian, Walachen in German, Valacchi in Italian, Valaques in French, Valacos in Spanish), the Romanians used the endonym Rumân or Român, from the Latin Romanus, meaning "Roman".[1][22]

However, in historical sources the term "Vlach" could also refer to different peoples: "Slovak, Hungarian, Balkan, Transylvanian, Romanian, or even Albanian".[23] In late Byzantine documents, the Vlachs are mentioned as Bulgaro-Albano-Vlachs (Bulgaralbanitoblahos), or Serbo-Albano-Bulgaro-Vlachs.[24] According to the Serbian historian Sima Ćirković, the name "Vlach" in medieval sources had the same rank as the name "Greek", "Serb" or "Latin".[25]

Map depicting the current distribution of Balkan Romance-speaking peoples

During the early history of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, there was a military class of Vlachs in Serbia and Ottoman Macedonia, made up of Christians who served as auxiliary forces and were exempted of certain taxes until the beginning of the 17th century.[4] Some Greeks used Vlacho[when?] as a pejorative term.[citation needed] In Žumberak, members of the Greek Catholic Church were called Vlachs, while in Carniola, all inhabitants of Žumberak were called as such.[citation needed] In the Posavina and Bihać areas, Muslims used the term Vlasi for all Christians (both Orthodox and Catholics), while the Catholics used that name to refer to Eastern Christian Orthodox.[citation needed] Under the Ottoman rule, a large part of the Dalmatian hinterland was repopulated by Slavic settlers, both Orthodox and Catholic, speaking the Shtokavian dialect and called Vlach or Morlach by the inhabitants of the Dalmatian coast and islands. In these areas, the term Vlah evolved to Vlaj (pl. Vlaji) and is still used as a derogatory term to refer to the rural inhabitants of the hinterland, both Croats and Serbs, as "peasants" and "ignorants".[26] In Istria, the ethnonym Vlach is used by the Chakavian-speaking Croatian inhabitants to refer to the Istro-Romanians and the Slavs who settled in the 15th and 16th centuries.[27]

Nowadays, the term Vlachs (also known under other names, such as "Koutsovlachs", "Tsintsars", "Karagouni", "Chobani", "Vlasi", etc.[28]) is used in scholarship for the Romance-speaking communities in the Balkans, especially those in Greece, Albania and North Macedonia.[29][30] In Serbia the term Vlach (Serbian Vlah, plural Vlasi) is also used to refer to Romanian speakers, especially those living in eastern Serbia.[3] Aromanians themselves use the endonym "Armãn" (plural "Armãni") or "Rãmãn" (plural "Rãmãni"), etymologically from "Romanus", meaning "Roman". Megleno-Romanians designate themselves with the Macedonian form Vla (plural Vlaš) in their own language.[3]

Medieval usage

See also: History of Romania, Origin of the Romanians, and History of the Aromanians
Map of southeastern Europe, delineating Roman and Greek influence
The Jireček Line between Latin- and Greek-language Roman inscriptions
Hypothetical map projecting the transhumance paths of the Vlach shepherds in the past

8th century

First precise data about Vlachs are in connection with the Vlachs of the Rynchos river (present-day North Macedonia); the original document containing the information is from the Konstamonitou monastery.[31]

9th century

According to the medieval Hungarian book Gesta Hungarorum ("The deeds of the Hungarians"), when the Hungarians of Grand Prince Árpád conquered the Carpathian Basin, Slavs, Bulgarians and Blachij, and also the shepherds of the Romans (sclauij, Bulgarij et Blachij, ac pastores romanorum) inhabited it.[32] Most researchers say that the Blachij are the Vlachs,[33] others that they are the Bulaqs, a Turkic people.[34] The chronicle's authenticity is in question in historiography.[35][36][37][38]

10th century

During the Middle Ages, the term "Magna Vlachia" appears in Byzantine documents, meaning the ancestral homeland of the Vlachs, this name was used for Thessaly and present-day North Macedonia.[39][40][41]

John Skylitzes mentioned the Vlachs in 976, as guides and guards of Byzantine caravans in the Balkans. Between Prespa and Kastoria, they met and fought with a Bulgarian rebel named David. The Vlachs killed David in their first documented battle.[42]

Byzantine writer Kekaumenos, author of the Strategikon (1078), writes about a leader, Nikulitsa, who is given command by Basil II over the Vlachs in Hellada theme. Nicolitzas switched alliance to Samuel of Bulgaria after the conquest of Larissa by the Bulgarian Tsar.[43][44]

Mutahhar al-Maqdisi, "They say that in the Turkic neighbourhood there are the Khazars, Russians, Slavs, Waladj, Alans, Greeks and many other peoples".[45]

Ibn al-Nadīm published in 998 the work Kitāb al-Fihrist mentioning "Turks, Bulgars and Vlahs" (using Blagha for Vlachs)[46][47]

11th century

The names Blakumen or Blökumenn is mentioned in Nordic sagas dating between the 11th–13th centuries, with respect to events that took place in either 1018 or 1019 somewhere at the northwestern part of the Black Sea and believed by some to be related to the Vlachs.[48][49] Non-Romanian scholars on the subject, such as Omeljan Pritsak, however, point out that the texts probably refer to a nomadic Turkic people, since the "Blakumen" in the texts are “non-christian heathens” and nomadic horsemans.[50][page needed]

Kekaumenos writes about the revolt in 1066 in the region of Thessaly led by Nikoulitzas Delphinas, nephew of the homonymous 10th century military commander, and father in law of the writer.[51]

In 1094, the Cuman army crossing the mountains of southern Bulgaria was led through the mountains by the Vlachs.[39]

Also in 1094 the first mention of Vlachs in Moglena region is made, the document is kept in the archive of the monastery Great Lavra on Mount Athos. According to this Emperor Alexios I Komnenos replies to the monks of the monastery complaining that people on their domain are not paying taxes. The document contains some of the first Romanian names, such as Stan, Radu cel Şchiop, and Peducel.[52]

In 1099, crusading armies were attacked by Vlachs, in the mountains along the road from Braničevo to Niš.[39][53]

12th century

Map of Central-Southern Europe during the late Middle Ages/early Modern period by Transylvanian Saxon humanist Johannes Honterus.

The Russian Primary Chronicle, written c. 1113 states that the Volochi people attacked the Slavs of the Danube and settled among them and oppressed them, leading to the Slavs departing and settling around the Vistula under the name of Leshi.[54] Later, the Hungarians drove the Vlachs away, taking and settling the land.[55][56] The Primary Chronicle thus contains a possible reference to Romanians, although most non-Romanian historians consider the Volochi the Franks, as their country is placed west to Baltic Sea and near England by the author of the work, Nestor the Chronicler.[57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65] The Frankish Empire stretched from the North Sea to the Danube.

In 1105, monks on Mount Athos were tempted by Vlach women dressed as men selling milk and wool products.[39]

Traveler Benjamin of Tudela (1130–1173) of the Kingdom of Navarre was one of the first writers to use the word Vlachs for a Romance-speaking population.[66]

Byzantine historian John Kinnamos described Leon Vatatzes' military expedition along the northern Danube, where Vatatzes mentioned the participation of Vlachs in battles with the Magyars (Hungarians) in 1166.[67][68]

Plan of the fortress Prosek, seat of Dobromir Chrysos

The uprising of brothers Asen and Peter was a revolt of Bulgarians and Vlachs living in the theme of Paristrion of the Byzantine Empire, caused by a tax increase. It began on 26 October 1185, the feast day of St. Demetrius of Thessaloniki, and ended with the creation of the Second Bulgarian Empire, also known in its early history as the Empire of Bulgarians and Vlachs.

Mentions of Vlachs in Medieval Bulgaria also come from Niketas Choniates who writes about a Vlach called Dobromir Chrysos who established an autonomous polity in the upper region of Vardar river and Moglena.[69] A similar event is recorded by the same author in the area of Philippopolis where a Vlach called Ivanko, formerly a boyar at the Asen brothers' court was given military command by Emperor Isaac and expanded his rule to Smolyan, Mosynopolis, and Xanthi.[70]

The first mention of Vlachs in Serbian medieval chronicles is dated from the time of Stefan Nemanjić, most likely 1198-1199, and it is related to a donation act towards restoration of Hilandar monastery with aid from the inhabitants of the area of Prizren.[71]

From the very end of the 12th century, several Serbian documents mention the Vlachs shepherding in the mountains between the Drina and the Morava.[72]

13th century

Sándor Timaru-Kast alleges that the Venetian Chronicle refers to the land that would become Wallachia as "Black Cumania", the colony of "black Vlachs" who migrated northwards.[73]

In 1213, an army of Vlachs, Saxons and Pechenegs, led by the Count of Sibiu, Joachim Türje, attacked the Bulgarians and Cumans from Vidin.[74] After this, all Hungarian battles in the Carpathian region were supported by Romance-speaking soldiers from Transylvania.[75]

In 1220, king Stefan the First-Crowned proclaimed that all Vlachs of his kingdom belonged to the Eparchy of Žiča.[76]

Shortly after the fall of the Land of the Olt, a church was built at the Cârța Monastery and Catholic German-speaking settlers from Rhineland and Mosel Valley (known as Transylvanian Saxons) began to settle in the Orthodox region.[77] In the Diploma Andreanum issued by King Andrew II of Hungary in 1224, "silva blacorum et bissenorum" was given to the settlers.[78] The Orthodox Vlachs spread further northward along the Carpathians to Poland, Slovakia, and Moravia and were granted autonomy under Ius Vlachonicum (Walachian law).[79]

In 1246, Béla IV of Hungary reinforced the privilages of the Archbishopric of Esztergom and gave it new privilages as well. One of the new rights of the archbishopric was the right to collect taxes from the Székelys and the Vlachs, "wherever the Vlachs come into the country, they have to pay".[80][81][82]

In 1247, Béla IV of Hungary gives the "Land of Severin" to the Knights Hospitallers with two polities (kenezatus of John and Farkas), except kenezatus of voivode Litovoi which was left to the Vlachs as they held it.[83]

In the grant (around 1280) by his wife and queen, Helen of Anjou, which confirmed the grant given by Stefan Vladislav to the Vranjina monastery, the Vlachs are separately mentioned, along with Arbanasi (Albanians), Latins and Serbs.[84]

In 1285 Ladislaus the Cuman fought the Tatars and Cumans, arriving with his troops at the Moldova River. A town, Baia (near the said river), was documented in 1300 as settled by the Transylvanian Saxons (see also Foundation of Moldavia).[85][86] In 1290 Ladislaus the Cuman was assassinated; the new Hungarian king allegedly drove voivode Radu Negru and his people across the Carpathians, where they formed Wallachia along with its first capital Câmpulung (see also Foundation of Wallachia).[87]

At the end of the 13th century, during the reign of Ladislaus the Cuman, Simon of Kéza wrote about the Blacki people and placed them in Pannonia with the Huns.[88][89] According to some Romanian historians, archaeological discoveries indicate that Transylvania was gradually settled by the Magyars, and the last region defended by the Vlachs and Pechenegs (until 1200) was between the Olt River and the Carpathians.[90][91] Other historians argue that there is absolutely no evidence for such an event.[38][35][34][13][57][12][11][10][36][92][39]

14th century

Fra Mauro's map, sector XXIX, showing Vlachia Piccola in Thessaly and Monte de Murlachi in Dalmatia - ca. 1450 CE

First mention of a Vlach called Radul in 1329, in the Istrian Peninsula.[93]

Croatian chronicler Miha de Barbazanis writes that Vlachs from the area of Cetina River fought for Mladen II Šubić of Bribir against Charles I of Hungary and Ban John Babonić.[94][95]

In the 14th century, royal charters from the Kingdom of Serbia included segregation policies stating that “a Serb shall not marry a Vlach.”[96][97] However, these laws were not successful and intermarriage between Slavs, Vlachs and also Albanians did take place.[96]

15th century

In 1404, Archbishop Johannes de Galonifontibus, in his Libellus de notitia orbis, notes that the Vlachs originated from Macedonia, but were already living in "Great Vlachia" too, which corresponds to Wallachia.[98]

The biggest caravan shipment between Podvisoki in Bosnia and Republic of Ragusa was recorded on 9 August 1428, where Vlachs transported 1500 modius of salt with 600 horses.[99][100]

Nicholas of Ilok styled himself as Bosniae and Valachiae Rex.[101]

Toponymy

The territories of the Bolohoveni
Bolohoveni territory, according to V. A. Boldur

In addition to the ethnic groups of Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians who emerged during the Migration Period, other Vlachs could be found as far north as Poland, as far west as Moravia and Dalmatia.[102] In search of better pasture, they were called Vlasi or Valaši by the Slavs.

States mentioned in medieval chronicles were:[citation needed]

Regions and places are:

Little Wallachia in Croatia and Bosnia

Shepherd culture

As national states appeared in the area of the former Ottoman Empire, new state borders were developed that divided the summer and winter habitats of many of the transhumance groups. During the Middle Ages, many Vlachs were shepherds who drove their flocks through the mountains of Central and Eastern Europe. Vlach shepherds may be found as far north as southern Poland (Podhale) and the eastern Czech Republic (Moravia) by following the Carpathians, the Dinaric Alps in the west, the Pindus Mountains in the south, and the Caucasus Mountains in the east.[111]

Some researchers, like Bogumil Hrabak and Marian Wenzel, theorized that the origins of Stećci tombstones, which appeared in medieval Bosnia between 12th and 16th century, could be attributed to Vlach burial culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina of that times.[112]

Legacy

According to Ilona Czamańska "for several recent centuries the investigation of the Vlachian ethnogenesis was so much dominated by political issues that any progress in this respect was incredibly difficult." The transhumance of Vlachs, the heirs of Roman citizens, may be a key for solving the problem of ethnogenesis, but the problem is that many migrations were in multiple directions during the same time. These migrations were not just part of the Balkans and the Carpathians, they exist and in the Caucasus, the Adriatic islands and possibly over the entire region of the Mediterranean Sea. Because of this, our knowledge concerning primary migrations of the Vlachs and the ethnogenesis is more than modest.[114]

Researcher have also raised a concern about cultural appropriation of Vlach heritage in the Balkans, denial of Vlach descend of various groups and personalities, and exclusion from political life.[115]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e Ioan-Aurel Pop. "On the Significance of Certain Names: Romanian/Wallachian and Romania/Wallachia" (PDF). Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  2. ^ "Valah". Dicționare ale limbii române. dexonline.ro. Retrieved 18 June 2018.
  3. ^ a b c d Vlach at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  4. ^ a b Sugar, Peter F. (1996). Southeastern Europe under Ottoman Rule, 1354–1804. University of Washington Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-295-96033-7.
  5. ^ a b c d Tanner 2004, p. 203.
  6. ^ Ivan Mužić (2011). Hrvatska kronika u Ljetopisu pop Dukljanina (PDF). Split: Muzej hrvatski arheoloških spomenika. p. 66 (Crni Latini), 260 (qui illo tempore Romani vocabantur, modo vero Moroulachi, hoc est Nigri Latini vocantur.). In some Croatian and Latin redactions of the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, from 16th century.
  7. ^ Fine, John V. A. Jr. (1991) [1983]. The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. p. 10. ISBN 0-472-08149-7. Traditionally scholars have seen the Dacians as ancestors of the modern Rumanians and Vlachs and the Illyrians as the proto-Albanians.
  8. ^ According to Cornelia Bodea, Ştefan Pascu, Liviu Constantinescu: "România: Atlas Istorico-geografic", Academia Română 1996, ISBN 973-27-0500-0, chap. II, "Historical landmarks", p. 50 (English text), the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the Lower Danube basin during the Migration Period is an obvious fact: Thraco-Romans haven't vanished in the soil & Vlachs haven't appeared after 1000 years by spontaneous generation.
  9. ^ Winnifrith, Tom J. (2002). Badlands-Borderland. A History of Southern Albania/Northern Epirus. London: Duckworth. p. 44. ISBN 9780715632017. Romanized Illyrians, the ancestors of the modern Vlachs
  10. ^ a b Schramm, Gottfried (1997). Ein Damm bricht. Die römische Donaugrenze und die Invasionen des 5-7. Jahrhunderts in Lichte der Namen und Wörter [=A Dam Breaks: The Roman Danube frontier and the Invasions of the 5th-7th Centuries in the Light of Names and Words] (in German). R. Oldenbourg Verlag. p. 326.
  11. ^ a b Herbert J., Izzo (1986). On the history of Romanian (Marino, Mary C.; Pérez, Luis A. ed.). The Twelfth LACUS Forum, 1985. Linguistic Association of Canada and the United States. pp. 139–146.
  12. ^ a b Schramm, Gottfried; von Puttkamer, Joachim; Arens, Meinolf, Virgil Ciocîltan, Zoltán Szász, Daniel Bein, Thede Kahl, Hansgerd Göckenjan, Wolfgang Dahmen, Hans-Martin Gauger, Johannes Kramer (2002). Hogyan kerültek a románok többségbe jelenlegi államuk területén? [How did the Romanians became majority in Romania?] (PDF) (in Hungarian). pp. 332–343.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b Malcolm, Noel (1998). Kosovo, a short history. London: Macmilan. pp. 22–40. The name 'Vlach' was a word used by the Slavs for those they encountered who spoke a strange, usually Latinate, language; the Vlachs' own name for themselves is 'Aromanians' (Aromani). As this name suggests, the Vlachs are closely linked to the Romanians: their two languages (which, with a little practice, are mutually intelligible) diverged only in the ninth or tenth century. While Romanian historians have tried to argue that the Romanian-speakers have always lived in the territory of Romania (originating, it is claimed, from Romanized Dacian tribes and/or Roman legionaries), there is compelling evidence to show that the Romanian-speakers were originally part of the same population as the Vlachs, whose language and way of life were developed somewhere to the south of the Danube. Only in the twelfth century did the early Romanian-speakers move northwards into Romanian territory.
  14. ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Recommendation 1333 (1997)". Assembly.coe.int. 24 June 1997. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
  15. ^ Ringe, Don. "Inheritance versus lexical borrowing: a case with decisive sound-change evidence." Language Log, January 2009.
  16. ^ a b c Juhani Nuorluoto; Martti Leiwo; Jussi Halla-aho (2001). Papers in Slavic, Baltic, and Balkan studies. Dept. of Slavonic and Baltic Languages and Literatures, University of Helsinki. ISBN 978-952-10-0246-5.
  17. ^ Kelley L. Ross (2003). "Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History". The Proceedings of the Friesian School. Retrieved 13 January 2008. Note: The Vlach Connection
  18. ^ Entangled Histories of the Balkans: Volume One: National Ideologies and Language Policies. BRILL. 2013. pp. 42–. ISBN 978-90-04-25076-5.
  19. ^ Thomas M. Wilson; Hastings Donnan (2005). Culture and Power at the Edges of the State: National Support and Subversion in European Border Regions. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 122–. ISBN 978-3-8258-7569-5.
  20. ^ Ilie Gherghel, Câteva considerațiuni la cuprinsul noțiunii cuvântului "Vlach", București: Convorbiri Literare, 1920, p. 4-8.
  21. ^ G. Popa Lisseanu, Continuitatea românilor în Dacia, Editura Vestala, Bucuresti, 2014, p.78
  22. ^ H. C. Darby (1957). "The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries". The New Cambridge Modern History. Vol. 1. p. 34.
  23. ^ Jan Gawron; (2020) Locators of the settlements under Wallachian law in the Sambor starosty in XVth and XVIth c. Territorial, ethnic and social origins. p. 274-275; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA xxVI, [1]
  24. ^ Noel Malcolm; (1996) Bosnia: A Short History p. 101; NYU Press, ISBN 0814755615
  25. ^ Ćirković, Sima (2020). Živeti sa istorijom. Belgrade: Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji. p. 309.
  26. ^ Stjepanović, Dejan (2018). Multiethnic regionalisms in Southeastern Europe: statehood alternatives. London: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-137-58585-1. OCLC 1004716379.
  27. ^ Spicijarić Paškvan, Nina (2014). "Vlasi i krčki Vlasi u literaturi i povijesnim izvorima" [Vlachs from the Island Krk in the Primary Historical and Literature Sources] (PDF). In Editura Fundaţiei (ed.). Studii şi cercetări. Actele Simpozionului "Banat - istorie şi multiculturalitate". Zrenianin - 2012, Reşiţa - 2013 (in Croatian). Novi Sad, Zrenjanin. p. 348.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  28. ^ The Balkan Vlachs: Born to Assimilate? at culturalsurvival.org
  29. ^ Demirtaş-Coşkun 2001.
  30. ^ Tanner 2004.
  31. ^ Stelian Brezeanu, O istorie a Bizanțului, Editura Meronia, București, 2005, p.126
  32. ^ * Gesta Hungarorum (a translation by Martyn Rady)
  33. ^ E.g. Armbruster, Adolf (1972). Romanitatea românilor: Istoria unei idei; Kristó, Gyula (2002). Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon; Spinei, Victor (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century
  34. ^ a b E.g. Györffy, György (1963). Az Árpád-kori Magyarország Történeti Földrajza; Faragó, Imre (2017). Térképészeti földrajz; Rásonyi, László (1979), Bulaqs and Oguzs in Medieval Transylvania
  35. ^ a b Thoroczkay, Gábor (2009). Írások az Árpád-korról
  36. ^ a b Róna-Tas, András (1999)Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History
  37. ^ Gyula, Kristó (2002). Magyar historiográfia I.: Történetírás a középkori Magyarországon
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  61. ^ M. B., Sverdlov (1993). К изучению мордовских исторических произве- дений в составе «Повести временных лет (in Russian). pp. 18-19
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  64. ^ Ludolf, Müller (1977). Handbuch zur Nestorchronik IV (in German). p. 210
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  66. ^ "Tudela".
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  68. ^ V. Spinei, The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta From the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, p.132, ISBN 9789004175365
  69. ^ Octavian Ciobanu: The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils’ Expansion in the Balkans page 15
  70. ^ Octavian Ciobanu: The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils’ Expansion in the Balkans page 14
  71. ^ Octavian Ciobanu : The heritage of Western Balkan Vlachs
  72. ^ "A „ROMÁNOK FÖLDJE"" (in Hungarian). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  73. ^ Timaru - Kast, Sándor (2019). A románok eredetéről, Magna Vlachiától Ungrovlachiáig. A Kárpát-régió magyar földrajza (PDF) (in Hungarian).
  74. ^ Curta, 2006, p. 385
  75. ^ Ş. Papacostea, Românii în secolul al XIII-lea între cruciată şi imperiul mongol, București, 1993, 36; A. Lukács, Ţara Făgăraşului, 156; T. Sălăgean, Transilvania în a doua jumătate a secolului al XIII-lea. Afirmarea regimului congregaţional, Cluj-Napoca, 2003, 26-27
  76. ^ Zef Mirdita (1995). "Balkanski Vlasi u svijetlu podataka Bizantskih autora". Povijesni Prilozi (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. 14 (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades).
  77. ^ A. IONIŢĂ, Date noi privind colonizarea germană în Ţara Bârsei şi graniţa de est a regatului maghiar în cea de a doua jumătate a secolului al XII-lea, în RI, 5, 1994, 3-4.
  78. ^ J. DEER, Der Weg zur Goldenen Bulle Andreas II. Von 1222, în Schweizer Beitrage zur Allgemeinen Geschichte, 10, 1952, pp. 104-138
  79. ^ Stefan Pascu: A History of Transylvania, Wayne State Univ Pr, 1983, p. 57
  80. ^ György, Györffy. Adatok a románok XIII. századi történetéhez és a román állam kezdeteihez. p. 6.
  81. ^ Tamás, Lajos. Rómaiak Románok és Oláhok Dácia Trajánában. p. 192.
  82. ^ Grzesik, Ryszard. Wołosi na Węgrzech (in Polish). p. 376.
  83. ^ Roller, Mihail (1951). Documente privind istoria românilor] [Documents Regarding Romanian History]. Editura Academiei Republicii Populare Române. pp. 329–333.
  84. ^ Zef Mirdita (1995). "Balkanski Vlasi u svijetlu podataka Bizantskih autora". Povijesni Prilozi (in Serbo-Croatian). Zagreb: Croatian History Institute. 14 (14): 27-31 (Serbian), 31-33 (Crusades).
  85. ^ Pavel Parasca, Cine a fost "Laslău craiul unguresc" din tradiţia medievală despre întemeierea Ţării Moldovei [=Who was "Laslău, Hungarian king" of the medieval tradition on the foundation of Moldavia]. In: Revista de istorie şi politică, An IV, Nr. 1.; ULIM;2011 ISSN 1857-4076
  86. ^ O. Pecican, Dragoș-vodă – originea ciclului legendar despre întemeierea Moldovei. În "Anuarul Institutului de Istorie și Arheologie Cluj". T. XXXIII. Cluj-Napoca, 1994, pp. 221-232
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  88. ^ Simon de Kéza, Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum, IV,
  89. ^ G. Popa-Lisseanu, Izvoarele istoriei Românilor, IV, Bucuresti, 1935, p. .32
  90. ^ K. HOREDT, Contribuţii la istoria Transilvaniei în secolele IV-XIII, București, 1958, p.109-131. IDEM, Siebenburgen im Fruhmittelalter, Bonn, 1986, p.111 sqq.
  91. ^ I.M.Tiplic, CONSIDERAŢII CU PRIVIRE LA LINIILE ÎNTĂRITE DE TIPUL PRISĂCILOR DIN TRANSILVANIA(sec. IX-XIII)*ACTA TERRAE SEPTEMCASTRENSIS I, pp 147-164
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  94. ^ Dragomir, Silviu (1924). Originea coloniilor române din Istria] [Origin of Romanian Colonies in Istria]. Cultura Națională. pp. 3–4.
  95. ^ Srđan Rudić,Selim Aslantaş: State and Society in the Balkans Before and After Establishment of Ottoman Rule, 2017, pages 33-34
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  97. ^ Srđan Rudić,Selim Aslantaş: State and Society in the Balkans Before and After Establishment of Ottoman Rule, 2017, page 31
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  100. ^ „Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Тhome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Тhome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis. Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino. Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere. Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum. Renuntiando" (09.08. 1428.g.), Div. Canc., XLV, 31v.
  101. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2001). Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] [The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula]. Editura Corint. p. 58. ISBN 973-653-191-0.
  102. ^ Hammel, E. A. and Kenneth W. Wachter. "The Slavonian Census of 1698. Part I: Structure and Meaning, European Journal of Population". University of California.
  103. ^ A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992, pp 98-106
  104. ^ A. Boldur, Istoria Basarabiei, Editura Victor Frunza, Bucuresti 1992
  105. ^ Spinei, Victor (2009). The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth century. Koninklijke Brill NV. pp. 161–162. ISBN 978-90-04-17536-5.
  106. ^ a b c Since Theophanes Confessor and Kedrenos, in : A.D. Xenopol, Istoria Românilor din Dacia Traiană, Nicolae Iorga, Teodor Capidan, C. Giurescu : Istoria Românilor, Petre Ș. Năsturel Studii și Materiale de Istorie Medie, vol. XVI, 1998
  107. ^ Madgearu, Alexandru (2001). Originea medievală a focarelor de conflict din peninsula Balcanică] [The Medieval Origin of Conflict Centers in the Balkan Peninsula]. Editura Corint. p. 59. ISBN 973-653-191-0.
  108. ^ Map of Yugoslavia, file East, sq. B/f, Istituto Geografico de Agostini, Novara, in : Le Million, encyclopédie de tous les pays du monde, vol. IV, ed. Kister, Geneve, Switzerland, 1970, pp. 290-291, and many other maps & old atlases – these names disappear after 1980.
  109. ^ Mircea Mușat; Ion Ardeleanu (1985). From Ancient Dacia to Modern Romania. Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică. that in 1550 a foreign writer, the Italian Gromo, called the Banat "Valachia citeriore" (the Wallachia that stands on this side).
  110. ^ Z. Konečný, F. Mainus, Stopami minulosti: Kapitoly z dějin Moravy a Slezska/Traces of the Past: Chapters from the History of Moravia and Silesia, Brno:Blok,1979
  111. ^ Silviu Dragomir: "Vlahii din nordul peninsulei Balcanice în evul mediu"; 1959, p. 172
  112. ^ Marian Wenzel, "Bosnian and Herzegovinian Tombstobes—Who Made Them and Why?" Sudost-Forschungen 21 (1962): 102–143
  113. ^ Anca Tanașoca & Nicolae Șerban Tanașoca, Unitate romanică și diversitate balcanică, Editura Fundației Pro, 2004
  114. ^ Ilona Czamańska; (2015) The Vlachs – several research problems p. 14; BALCANICA POSNANIENSIA XXII/1 IUS VALACHICUM I, [2]
  115. ^ Octavian Ciobanu: Cultural appropriation of the Vlachs' heritage in Balkans

References

  • G. Weigand, Die Aromunen, Bd.Α΄-B΄, J. A. Barth (A.Meiner), Leipzig 1895–1894.
  • George Murnu, Istoria românilor din Pind, Vlahia Mare 980–1259 ("History of the Romanians of the Pindus, Greater Vlachia, 980–1259"), Bucharest, 1913
  • Ilie Gherghel, Câteva consideraţiuni la cuprinsul noţiunii cuvântului "Vlach". Bucuresti: Convorbiri Literare, (1920).
  • Theodor Capidan, Aromânii, dialectul aromân. Studiul lingvistic ("Aromanians, Aromanian dialect, Linguistic Study"), Bucharest, 1932
  • A.Hâciu, Aromânii, Comerţ. Industrie. Arte. Expasiune. Civiliytie, tip. Cartea Putnei, Focşani 1936.
  • Steriu T. Hagigogu, "Romanus şi valachus sau Ce este romanus, roman, român, aromân, valah şi vlah", Bucharest, 1939
  • Τ. Winnifrith, The Vlachs. The History of a Balkan People, Duckworth 1987
  • A. Koukoudis, Oi mitropoleis kai i diaspora ton Vlachon [Major Cities and Diaspora of the Vlachs], publ. University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 1999.
  • A. Keramopoulos, Ti einai oi koutsovlachoi [What are the Koutsovlachs?], publ 2 University Studio Press, Thessaloniki 2000.
  • Birgül Demirtaş-Coşkun; Ankara University. Center for Eurasian Strategic Studies (2001). The Vlachs: a forgotten minority in the Balkans. Frank Cass.
  • Victor A. Friedman, "The Vlah Minority in Macedonia: Language, Identity, Dialectology, and Standardization" in Selected Papers in Slavic, Balkan, and Balkan Studies, ed. Juhani Nuoluoto, et al. Slavica Helsingiensa: 21, Helsinki: University of Helsinki. 2001. 26–50. full text Though focussed on the Vlachs of North Macedonia, has in-depth discussion of many topics, including the origins of the Vlachs, their status as a minority in various countries, their political use in various contexts, and so on.
  • Asterios I. Koukoudis, The Vlachs: Metropolis and Diaspora, 2003, ISBN 960-7760-86-7
  • Tanner, Arno (2004). The Forgotten Minorities of Eastern Europe: The History and Today of Selected Ethnic Groups in Five Countries. East-West Books. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-952-91-6808-8.
  • Th Capidan, Aromânii, Dialectul Aromân, ed2 Εditură Fundaţiei Culturale Aromâne, București 2005
  • Nikola Trifon, Les Aroumains, un peuple qui s'en va (Paris, 2005) ; Cincari, narod koji nestaje (Beograd, 2010)

Further reading

  • The Watchmen, a documentary film by Alastair Kenneil and Tod Sedgwick (USA) 1971 describes life in the Vlach village of Samarina in Epiros, Northern Greece
  • John Kennedy Campbell, 'Honour Family and Patronage' A Study of Institutions and Moral Values in a Greek Mountain Community, Oxford University Press, 1974
  • Gheorghe Bogdan, MEMORY, IDENTITY, TYPOLOGY: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY RECONSTRUCTION OF VLACH ETHNOHISTORY, B.A., University of British Columbia, 1992
  • Franck Vogel, a photo-essay on the Valchs published by GEO magazine (France), 2010.
  • Adina Berciu-Drăghicescu, Aromâni, meglenoromâni, istroromâni : aspecte identitare şi culturale, Editura Universităţii din București, 2012, ISBN 978-606-16-0148-6
  • Octavian Ciobanu, "The Role of the Vlachs in the Bogomils' Expansion in the Balkans.", Journal of Balkan and Black Sea Studies, Year 4, Issue 7, December 2021, pp. 11–32.
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