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Proposed Illyrian vocabulary

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This article contains information about Illyrian vocabulary. No Illyrian texts survive, so sources for identifying Illyrian words have been identified by Hans Krahe[1] as being of four kinds: inscriptions, glosses of Illyrian words in classical texts, names—including proper names (mostly inscribed on tombstones), toponyms and river names—and Illyrian loanwords in other languages. The last category has proven particularly contentious. The names occur in sources that range over more than a millennium, including numismatic evidence, as well as posited original forms of placenames.[1] Messapic, an ancient language of Apulia which was of Balkan provenance and is grouped in the 'Illyric branch' of the Indo-European family,[2][3] does have an epigraphic corpus, and some words have been recorded by ancient authors. Messapic words and relevant etymologies are listed in Messapic language#Lexicon.

Proposed etymologies

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Illyrian lemmas

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This is a list of lemmas explicitly mentioned as Illyrian by classical authors.

Lemma Attestation English meaning PIE etymology Proposed cognates
bra (βρα) Hesychius:[4]

<βρα>· ἀδελφοί, ὑπὸ Ἰλλυρίων

"brother" PIE *bʰréh₂tēr Alb. vëlla/vllâ "brother", Germ. "Bruder", Eng. "brother"[citation needed]
deuádai (Δευάδαι) Hesychius:[5]

<Δευάδαι>· οἱ Σάτοι, παρὰ Ἰλλυρίων

"satyrs" PIE *dʰu̯ésmi Alb. dash "ram", Skt. dhūnoti "he shakes", Gk. thýein "to rage, seethe", théeion "sulfur vapor", Eng. dizzy, Paeonian Dýalos "Dionysos", Lat. furere "to rage", belua "wild animal", Old Ir. dásacht "rage, fury", Lith. dvėsti "to croak, perish, die (animals)", dvelksmas "breath, waft, aura", Hitt. tuhhai "to gasp", Rus. dɨhánije "breath, waft", duh "spirit, soul, mind, aura, ghost, wind" also "aliveness, breathing, willingness, meaningfulness, truthfulness", dušá "spirit, soul; heart, kindness, truthfulness".[citation needed]
*rhinos or rhinon (ῥινόν) Scholion to Odyssey 5.281:[6][7]

Οί δέ λέγουσιν Ἰλλυριούς ῥινόν λέγειν τήν άχλύν

"fog, mist" PIE *h₁rinéHti Old Alb. ren, mod. Alb. re, rê "cloud",[8] singularized plural of *ri, which goes back to PAlb *rina, etymologically identical to the Illyrian form; also Alb. rij, rî 'to make humid'.[9]
Further connected to Gk. (Lesbian) orínein "to move", Old Ch. Slav. rinǫti "to flow", Skt. riṇá-ti "to pour, let flow".[10]
sabaia, sabaium, *sabaius Ammianus Marcellinus:[11]

Est autem sabaia ex ordeo vel frumento in liquorem conversus paupertinus in Illyrico potus

Jerome:[12]

ζύθον, quod genus est potionis ex frugibus aquaque confectum et vulgo in Dalmatiae Pannoniaeque provinciis gentili barbaroque sermone appellatur sabaium

"a type of beer" PIE *sap- Eng. sap, Lat. sapere "to taste", Skt. sabar "sap, juice, nectar", Avestan višāpa "having poisonous juices", Arm ham, Gk. hapalós "tender, delicate", Old Ch. Slav. sveptŭ "bee's honey"; borrowed into Lat. and from there into Ital. zabaione "frothy drink".[citation needed]
*sibina (La. sibyna ~ sybina; Gr. σιβυνη ~ σιβυνης ~ συβινη ~ ζιβυνη) Ennius (Annals, 5.540):[13]

Illyrii restant sicis sybinisque fodentes

Festius compared it to συβηνη (Gk.), "flute case", a word found in Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusai

"a hunting spear", generally, "a spear", "pike" Alb. thupën/thupër "bar, stick" (Proto-Alb. *tsupina "stick");[14]
Pers. zôpîn, Arm. səvīn "a spit".[citation needed]
sica (Lat. sica ~ sicca) First mentioned in Ennius (Annals, 5.540):[13]

Illyrii restant sicis sybinisque fodentes

Of Illyrian soldiers;[15] later used in Pliny to describe Thracian implements

"curved knife, dagger" PIE *ḱeh₁kʷeh₂ Alb. thika 'knife',[16] which goes back to PAlb *tsika;[17]
Skt. śitá "sharp", Arm. sur "sharp", srem "to sharpen"[17]
Illyrian term borrowed into Lat. sica "dagger",[16] the root of Lat. sicarii "assassins", Rus. siečiénije "cut, section; cross-section", siečj, rassiekatj "to whip, flog; to cut, shred, split, sever".

Messapic lemmas

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Messapic language is oftentimes regarded as close to Illyrian[18] even though there is still no consensus among scholars regarding their proximity.[19][20] See Messapic lemmas for a list of Messapic words.

Toponyms, hydronyms, anthroponyms

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Some words have been extracted from toponyms and anthroponyms.

Name Notes Proposed cognates English meaning PIE etymology Related words
Balios (Βάλιος) Name of one of Achilles's horses. Suspected to be of foreign origin (Thracian, Phrygian or Illyrian).[21] Athanassakis supposes a loanword into Latin from Osco-Umbrian language badius/*balius, via an Illyrian source.[22] Alb. balë 'horse with white spot on forehead', Gk. phaliós 'having a white patch', Lith. balas/baltas 'white', OCS bĕlu 'white' 'dapple', 'related to a white color' *bʰĕl-
Bardylis (Βάρδυλις) Illyrian king Alb. i bardhë[23][24]

Messapic: bardulos[25]

Alb. "white"

Messapic: "grey"

*bʰreh₁ǵ-
Dalmatae Illyrian tribe Alb. delmë, delë[26][27][28][29][30][31]

Orel rejects this analogy[32]

"sheep" Delminium (capital city of the Dalmatae, near Tomislavgrad)[33][34][35]

Dalmana (ancient city in N. Macedonia)[36]

Dardani (Δαρδάνιοι, Δάρδανοι) Tribe which lived in the historical region of Dardania in the central Balkans. Dardania is placed in a transitional onomastic region between southern Illyrian and Dalmatian with regional features.

Connected to Albanian dardhë.[37][38] It appears as a toponym in many Albanian-speaking regions: Dardhishte (Kaçanik), Dardhë (Korçë), Dardhas (Pogradec), Zall i Dardhës (Dibër), Darza (Ulcinj), Dardhatar (Zelenikovo), Dardhës (Molise), Dardhëza (Morea). Kruševo (from Proto-Slavic kruša, "pear") and other related toponyms have been proposed as South Slavic translations of Darda- toponyms.[39]

Alb. dardhë[37][38] "pear" *g'hord-, *dheregh- Dardanoi in the area of ancient Troy

Dardanelles

Dardi in Daunia

Dassareti (Δασσαρῆται, Δασσαρήτιοι) - Sessarethes (Σεσαρήθιος) Illyrian tribes with possibly related names.[40][41] Ep. Gr. daksa (δάξα)[42] "sea" Affine to the Chaonian Greek Dexaroi[42][43]
Deipatyros (Δειπάτυροϛ) Deity of the Epirotic Stymphians,[44][45] regarded as a name of Illyrian origin[45][46][47] "sky father" Demeter[46]
Dimallum - Dimale (Διμάλη) Illyrian city on the border with Epirus Alb. dy male[48][49][50] 'two mountains'
Enchelii (Ἐγχέλιοι/Ἐγχελεῖς) Illyrian tribe Alb. ngjalë[51] "eel" *h₂engʷʰ-
Rhizon (Ῥίζων), Risinium Capital city of the Illyrian kingdom under the Ardiaei Alb. rrjedh, rrjedhon 'flow, stream'[52] 'flow, river, stream' *(H)reǵ-
Skárdon, Scardus (Σκάρδον) Mountain range in Illyria Alb. hardhë- 'lizard' < PAlb. *skard- 'digger', Greek (σ)κορδύλ- 'lizard, newt', Lith. skard-ús/-ýti 'steep / to dig', Latv. skārdît 'to split, crush'[53][54][55][56][57] 'steep, to dig, cut, split' *skord-, *(s)kerdʰ- or *(s)kerd- Scardona, Scordisci
Taulantii (Ταυλάντιοι) Illyrian tribe

Living nearfter the Chelidones (meaning "swallow" in Greek, main reason for the connection with Alb. "dallëndyshe")[58][59][60]

Alb. tallandushe, dallëndyshe[61][58][62] "swallow" Chelidones (Χελιδόνιοι)
Tergeste Illyrian city Alb. treg[63][64] Română: târg 'marketplace' Tergolape, Opitergium[64]
Teuta(na) (Τεύτα) Teuta is the diminutive of Teutana[65] Got. þiudans "king"[66][67] "people" *teutéh₁-
Ulcinium (Ουλκίνιον) Illyrian city Alb. ujk - ulk[37][68][69] "wolf" *wĺ̥kʷos Ulcisia castra
Vendum Illyrian city Alb. vend[70] 'place, location'

Non Illyrian words of possible Illyrian origin

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Additionally to the words explicitly mentioned as Illyrian, scholars have extracted a list of non-Illyrian words that may have derived from Illyrian language.

Lemma Source language Notes English meaning PIE etymology Proposed cognates
bagaron (βαγαρόν) Laconian Greek[71] Hesychius:[71]

<βάγαρον>· χλιαρόν. Λάκωνες

Defined as "Gk.-Illyr." by Pokorny.[72]

"warm" PIE *bʰōg- Alb. bukë "bread", Phrygian bekos "bread", Eng. bake, Lat. focus "hearth", Old Ir. goba "blacksmith", Gk. phōgein "to roast", Armenian bosor "red", bots "flame", Rus. bagrovɨj, bagrianɨj "crimson, saturated red, color of dark blood, purpur", bagriéc, bagrianiec "redness of someone's face, cheeks, of heated up material (e.g. metal), crimson cloth, fabric".[citation needed]
brisa Latin[73] Passed from Illyrian to Latin, ultimately of Thracian origin.[74]

Pokorny instead talks of a Messapic or Venetic origin of brisa.[72]

"husk of grapes" Alb. bërsí "lees, dregs; mash", Eng. broth, Lat. defrutum "new wine boiled down", Welsh brwd "brewage", Old Ir. bruth "heat, wrath", Thrac. brỹtos "barley alcohol", brỹtion "wine must", Gk. apéphrysen "to seethe, boil", ? Lith. bręsti "to mature, ripe", brendimas "ripening", also brinkti "to swell", brinkìmas "swelling" ?, Rus. braga, bražka "must, ale, unfinished or badly produced alcohol drink", broditj "to ferment (brew)", brožénije "fermentation (brewage)".[citation needed]
daksa -*dassa

(δάξα)

Epirotic Greek[75] Hesychius:[75]

<δάξα>· θάλασσα. Ἠπειρῶται

Regarded to be of Illyrian origin.[42]

May be connected to the Illyrian tribe of the Dassareti[42] and the Chaonian Greek tribe of the Dexaroi[43] (see table below)

"sea"

Other lemmas

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Other proposed lemmas are:

  • Agruvium "along the coast between Risinum and Butua": IE *aĝr-; cf. Skt. ájraḥ "pasture, field", Lat. ager, Gk. agrós, Goth. akrs
  • Bindus "river god"; Old Ir. banne "drop", Skt. bindú, vindú "drops, gob, spot", possibly Lat. fōns Bandusiae and Lusit. Bandua.[76]
  • Bosona "Bosna river", literally "running water": IE *bheg-, bhog- "to run"; Alb. dë-boj "to chase, to drive away", Rus. bĕg "running; (work)flow", Old Ch. Slav. bĕžati and Rus. bĕžatj "to flee, run; to work, to flow", Lith. bėgti "to flee, to run", Gk. phébesthai "to flee", phóbos "fear", Eng. beck "brook, stream", Middle Ir. búal "flowing water", Hindi bhāg "to flee"
  • mons Bulsinus "Büžanim hill": IE *bʰl̥kos;[77] cf. Eng. balk, Alb. bligë "forked piece of wood", Middle Ir. blog "piece, fragment", Lat. fulcrum "bedpost", Gk. phálanx "trunk, log", Lith. balžiena "crossbar", Serb. blazína "roof beam", Skt. bhuríjāu "cart arms"
  • Derbanoí, Anderva: IE *derw;[77] cf. Eng. tree, Alb. dru "wood", Old Ch. Slav. drĕvo "tree", Rus. dérevo "tree, wood", Welsh derw "oak", Gk. dóry "wood, spear", drýs "oak, tree", Lith. derva "pine wood", Hitt. taru "tree, wood', Thrac. taru "spear", Skt. dru "tree, wood", daru "wood, log"
  • Dizēros, Andízētes: IE *digh;[77] cf. Eng. dough, Gk. teîkhos "wall", Lat. fingere "to shape, mold", Old Ir. com-od-ding "he builds, erects", Old Rus. dĕža "kneading trough", Arm. dez "heap", Skt. dehah "body, form"
  • Domator, personal name; cf. Old Ir. damnaid "he binds, breaks a horse", dam "ox", Eng. tame, dialectal Germ. zamer "ox not under the yoke", Alb. dem "young bull", Lat. domāre "to tame", domitor "tamer", Gk. dámnēmi "to break in", dámalos "calf", Skt. dāmyáti "he is tame; he tames", Rus. odomashnivat' "to tame"
  • Loúgeon: Strabo in his Geography mentions "a marsh called Lougeon" (which has been identified as Lake Cerknica in Slovenia) by the locals (Illyrian and Celtic tribes), Lougeon being Strabo's rendition of the local toponym into Greek. cf. Alb. lag "to wet, soak, bathe, wash", lëgatë "pool", lug "trough, water-channel, spillway", Lith. liűgas "pool", Old Ch. Slav. & Rus. luža "pool", Rus. loža, lože, lógovo "rest place, lounge place, bed, den", Rus. ležátj "to lie, rest, lounge" and ložitj "to lay, put", Thrac. Lýginos, river name[78]
  • stagnus Morsianus "marshlands in Pannonia": IE *merĝ; cf. Middle High Germ. murc "rotten, withered, boggy", Old Ir. meirc "rust", Alb. marth "to shiver, shudder", Lith. markýti "to rust"
  • Naro: IE *nor; cf. Alb. "hum-nerë" "abyss, chasm", Lith. nãras "diving duck; diver", Russ. norá "hole, burrow", Serbo-Croat. po-nor "abyss"
  • Nedinum: IE *ned; cf. Skt. nadas "roarer"[77]
  • Oseriates "lakes": IE *h1eĝʰero;[77] cf. Serb-Croat. jȅzero, Rus. ózero, Lith. éžeras, Latvian ȩzȩrs, Gk. Achérōn "river in the underworld"
  • Pelso (Latin authors referred to modern Lake Balaton as "lacus Pelso", Pelso being a hydronym from the local inhabitants), Pelso apparently meant "deep" or "shallow": IE *pels-; cf. Rus. ples (deep place in lake or river), North Alb. fellë (from fell "deep"), Czech pleso "deep place in a river, lake", Welsh bwlch "crack", Arm. pelem "to dig"
  • Volcos, river name in Pannonia; cf. Old Ir. folc "heavy rain, wet weather", Welsh golchi "to wash", obsolete Eng. welkin "cloud", Old High Germ. welk "moist", German Wolke "cloud", Old Ch. Slav. and Rus. vlaga "moisture, plant juice", Volga, river name in Russia, ? vŭlgŭkŭ "wet", Latv. val̃gums "wetness", Alb. ulmej "to dampen, wet"

Proposed Illyrian anthroponyms

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See also: Liburnian language § Anthroponyms
Greek inscription with Illyrian onomastics (name and patronymic) on a funerary stele, 2nd century BC, Apollonia, Albania.[79]

The following anthroponyms derive from Illyrian or are not yet connected with another language unless noted, such as the Delmatae names of Liburnian origin. Alföldy identified five principal onomastic provinces within the Illyrian area:[dubious – discuss] 1) the "real" Illyrians south of the river Neretva in Dalmatia and extending south to Epirus; 2) the Delmatae, who occupied the middle Adriatic coast between the "real Illyrians" to the south and the Liburni to the north; 3) the Liburni, a branch of Venetic in the northeast Adriatic; 4) the Iapodes, who dwelt north of the Delmatae and behind (inland from) the coastal Liburnians; 5) the Pannonians in the northern lands, and in Bosnia, northern Montenegro and Western Serbia.[citation needed] Katičić does not recognize a separate Pannonian onomastic area, and includes the Pannoni with the Delmatae.[80] Below, names from four of Alföldy's five onomastic areas are listed, Liburnian excluded, having been identified as being akin to Venetic. A Dardanian area is also detailed.[81][82][83]

South Illyrian

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Coin from Apollonia bearing the inscription ΒΑΤΩΝ
Coin from Dyrrhachion bearing the inscription ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΜΟΝΟΥΝΙΟΥ

Delmatae

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Hundreds of Delmatae names have been recorded. Characteristic names include:

  • Andena, Andes, Andis, Andio, Andia
  • Aplis, Apludus, Aplus, Aplius
  • Apurus
  • Baezo
  • Beusas, Beuzas
  • Curbania
  • Cursulavia
  • Iato
  • Lavincia
  • Ledrus
  • Messor
  • Paio, Paiio
  • Panes, Panias, Panius (or Pantus, inscription unclear), Panentius
  • Pant(h)ia/Panto (f.)
  • Pinsus
  • Pladomenus
  • Platino
  • Samuntio
  • Seio, Seiio
  • Statanius, Staticus, Stato, Status
  • Sestus, Sextus, Sexto
  • Tito
  • Tizius
  • Tritus
  • Var(r)o

Delmatae names in common with the Pannoni (some also occur among the south Illyrians):

  • Bardurius.
  • Bato
  • Carius
  • Dasantilla
  • Dasas, Dazas
  • Dasto
  • Plator, Platino
  • Scenobarbus, Scenobardos (?)
  • Verzo
  • Verzulus

Some Delmatae names probably originate from the Liburnians. This conclusion is based on the Liburnian suffixes: -icus, -ica, -ocus, -ico; and from the distribution of the names among the Liburni/Veneti, and from their absence or scarcity in other onomastic areas:

  • Acenica
  • Clevata
  • Darmocus
  • Germanicus (the native Delmatae stem Germanus, Germus, with the Venetic/Liburnian -icus suffix)
  • Labrico
  • Lunnicus
  • Melandrica
  • Turus

From the southern Illyrians, the names Boria, Epicadus, Laedicalius, Loiscus, Pinnes and Tato and some others are present. From the Iapodes, Diteio and Ve(n)do, and a few names of Celtic origin (not shown here).

Pannoni

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Some names attested among the Pannoni:

  • Bato (also common among the Delmatae)
  • Dasas, Dasius (also common among the Delmatae)
  • Scenobarbus (also common among the Delmatae)
  • Carvus
  • Laidus
  • Liccaius
  • Plator
  • Temans
  • Tueta
  • Varro
  • Verzo

The following names are confined to the Pannonian onomastic province:

  • Arbo
  • Arsa (possibly Thracian)
  • Callo
  • Daetor
  • Iauletis (genitive)
  • Pirusta
  • Proradus
  • Scirto
  • Vietis (genitive)

Northern Pannoni:

  • Bato
  • Breucus
  • Dases
  • Dasmenus
  • Licco
  • Liccaius

Names attested among the Colapiani, an Illyric tribe of Pannonia:

  • Bato
  • Cralus
  • Liccaius
  • Lirus
  • Plassarus

Among the Jasi: Scenus. The Breuci: Scilus Bato (first and last name), Blaedarus, Dasmenus, Dasius, Surco, Sassaius, Liccaius, Lensus. The Amantini, the Scordisci: Terco, Precio, Dases, Dasmenus.

Messapic

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  • Dasius, Latin form of a Messapic name from southern Italy.[85]

Illyrian theonyms

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Main article: Illyrian religion
See also: Liburnian language § Theonyms

The following names of gods (theonyms) derive from possibly several languages (Liburnian, Illyrian, etc.) and are names of gods worshipped by the Illyrians. However, they are known through Interpretatio romana and their names may have been corrupted.[86]

External influences

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See also: Jireček Line

The Ancient Greek language would have become an important external influence on Illyrian-speakers who occupied lands adjacent to ancient Greek colonies, mainly on the Adriatic coast.[91] The Taulantii around Epidamnos and the Bylliones experienced a certain degree of bilingualism.[92] Invading Celts who settled on lands occupied by Illyrians brought the Illyrians into contact with the Celtic languages and some tribes were Celticized especially those in Dalmatia[93][94] and the Pannoni.[95] Intensive contact may have happened in what is now Bosnia, Croatia, and Serbia. Due to this intensive contact, and because of conflicting classical sources, it is unclear whether some ancient tribes were Illyrian or Celtic (ex: Scordisci)[96] or mixed in varying degree. Thracians and Paeonians also occupied lands populated by Illyrians, bringing Illyrians into contact with the Thracian language and Paeonian language. Certainly, no serious linguistic study of Illyrian language could be made without the inclusion of Latin, in addition to ancient Greek, Thracian and Celtic languages, as the peoples that spoke those languages were recorded by both ancient and modern historians to have lived in lands inhabited by Illyrians at one period of time in history or another. Last, but certainly not least, any comprehensive study of Illyrian language must take into account the Indo-European glossary.[97]

Celtic

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The following Illyrian names derive from Celtic:

Thracian

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The following names derive from Thracian:

Greek

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The following names may derive from Greek:

  • Ardiaioi, the ancient Greek name for Ardiaei (ardis, 'head of the arrow, sting'). One challenge to this theory is that the suggested root-word ardis does not necessarily form 'Ardiaioi', by the rules of Greek language
  • Ceraunii, tribal exonym, ("Κεραύνιοι, "Thunderbolt-men)"[106]
  • Cleitus, ("κλειτός", "renowned man")
  • Glaukias, ("γλαυκός", "gleaming man")
  • Illyrians, gr. Ἰλλυριοί, tribal exonym
  • Mellito, Greek and Celtic element,[99] gr. μελλιτόεις, "like honey"
  • Plator, gr. Πλάτων, "wide man"
  • Pleuratus, gr. πλευρά, "side'"

Latin

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The following names may derive from Latin:

  • Ardiaei, (ardea, 'heron'). However, the problem with the theory supporting the Latin etymology for the Ardiaei is that Ardiaioi, a Greek form of Ardiaei is found in several pre-Roman sources, and it turns that it precedes the Roman/Latin Influence, as it precedes the Vardaei, another form of this name. Greek historian Strabo says in paragraph 6 (Book 7, chapter 5) of his Geographica: “The Ardiaei were called by the men of later times "Vardiaei".[97]

References

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  1. ^ a b Krahe 1955.
  2. ^ Hyllested, Adam; Joseph, Brian D. (2022). "Albanian". In Olander, Thomas (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family : A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–245. doi:10.1017/9781108758666.013. ISBN 9781108758666. S2CID 161016819. p. 235.
  3. ^ Yntema, Douwe (2017). "The Pre-Roman Peoples of Apulia (1000-100 BC)". In Gary D. Farney, Guy Bradley (ed.). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. De Gruyter Reference. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 337–. ISBN 9781614513001. p. 337.
  4. ^ "Γλώσσαι/Β - Βικιθήκη". el.wikisource.org (in Greek). Retrieved 2021-05-29.
  5. ^ "Γλώσσαι/Δ - Βικιθήκη". el.wikisource.org (in Greek). Retrieved 2021-05-29.
  6. ^ Radoslav Katičić (1976). Ancient Languages of the Balkans.
  7. ^ Wilhelm, Dindorf. Scholia Gr?ca in Homeri Odysseam Ex Codicibus Aucta Et Emendata (in Greek). Рипол Классик. ISBN 978-5-87561-453-8.
  8. ^ Matasovic, Ranko (2019). A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for Students of Indo-European. University of Zagreb. Page 5.
  9. ^ Orel 1998, p. 366.
  10. ^ Orel 1998, pp. 366, 371.
  11. ^ "Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum, Liber XXVI, chapter 8, section 2". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
  12. ^ "RE:Sabaia, sabaium – Wikisource". de.wikisource.org (in German). Retrieved 2021-05-29.
  13. ^ a b Wilkes, John (1996-01-09). The Illyrians. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-631-19807-9.
  14. ^ Hamp & Ismajli 2007.
  15. ^ Cicero & Dyck 2008, "COMMENTARY: 1.16.1-8", p. 96.
  16. ^ a b Best, de Vries & Henri Frankfort Foundation 1982, pp. 134–135, Note #20.
  17. ^ a b Orel 1998, p. 477.
  18. ^ Boardman & Sollberger 1982, p. 870; Buda 1984, p. 50; Pisani 1987, p. 506; Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 378–379; West 2007, pp. 140, 176; Marchesini 2009, p. 154; Dzino 2014, p. 48
  19. ^ Woodard 2008, p. 11; Fortson 2004, p. 407
  20. ^ Matzinger 2015, p. 62: "Finché non sono risolti in maniera soddisfacente i vari e difficili problemi della fonologia storica dell’illirico vero e proprio è, al momento attuale, impossibile se non inutile effettuare una comparazione linguistica tra il messapico e l’illirico."; De Simone 2017, pp. 1842–1843: "At the present time, realistically speaking, it is not possible to situate Messapic within the framework of the Indo-European language family (...). The question of whether Messapic is a dialect of “Illyrian”, (...) much less the Illyrian language, is in my view an issue belonging to the history of scholarship and is no longer current."
  21. ^ Athanassakis, Apostolos N. “Akhilleus’s Horse Balios: Old and New Etymologies”. In: Glotta 78, no. 1/4 (2002): 1–2. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40267134.
  22. ^ Athanassakis, Apostolos N. “Akhilleus’s Horse Balios: Old and New Etymologies”. In: Glotta 78, no. 1/4 (2002): 7. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40267134.
  23. ^ Ivić, Pavle (1985). Zbornik Šeste jugoslovenske onomastičke konferencije: Donji Milanovac. Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti. p. 59. ISBN 9788670250758.
  24. ^ Rosetti, Alexandru (1973). Brève histoire de la langue roumaine des origines à nos jours. p. 52.
  25. ^ Arnold Joseph, Toynbee (1969). Some problems of Greek history. Oxford University Press. p. 116. ISBN 978-0-19-215249-7.
  26. ^ Wilkes, John (1996). The Illyrians. Wiley. p. 244. ISBN 9780631146711.
  27. ^ Duridanov, Ivan (2002). Lexikon der Sprachen des europäischen Ostens (PDF). In Bister, Feliks J.; Gramshammer-Hohl, Dagmar; Heynoldt, Anke. p. 952. ISBN 978-3-85129-510-8.
  28. ^ Šašel Kos, Marjeta (1993). "Cadmus and Harmonia in Illyria". p. 119.
  29. ^ Schütz, István (2006). Fehér foltok a Balkánon. Budapest: Balassi Kiadó. p. 127. ISBN 9635064721.
  30. ^ Morić, Ivana (2012). "Običaji Delmata". Rostra: Časopis Studenata Povijesti Sveučilišta u Zadru. 5 (5). University of Zadar: Rostra: 63.
  31. ^ Duridanov, Ivan (1975). Die Hydronymie des Vardarsystems als Geschichtsquelle (PDF). Böhlau Verlag. p. 25. ISBN 3412839736.
  32. ^ Orel 1998, pp. 58–59.
  33. ^ Wilkes, John (1996). The Illyrians. Wiley. p. 188. ISBN 9780631146711.
  34. ^ Stipčević, Aleksandar (1977). The Illyrians: History and Culture. Noyes Press. p. 197. ISBN 0-8155-5052-9.
  35. ^ Šimunović, Petar (2013). Folia Onomastica Croatica. p. 164.
  36. ^ Duridanov, Ivan (1975). Die Hydronymie des Vardarsystems als Geschichtsquelle (PDF). Böhlau Verlag. ISBN 3412839736.
  37. ^ a b c Wilkes, John (1992). The Illyrians. Wiley. p. 244. ISBN 9780631146711.
  38. ^ a b Demiraj, Bardhyl (1997). Albanische Etymologien: Untersuchungen zum albanischen Erbwortschatz. Leiden Studies in Indo-European (in German). Vol. 7. Amsterdam, Atlanta: Rodopi. p. 121.
  39. ^ Baliu, Begzad (2012). Onomastika e Kosoves: Ndermjet miteve dhe identiteteve [Onomastics of Kosovo: Between Myth and Identity] (PDF). Era. p. 73. ISBN 978-9951040556.
  40. ^ Ujes, Dubravka (2002). "Recherche sur la localisation de Damastion et ses mines". Revue numismatique. 6th (158): 103–129. doi:10.3406/numi.2002.1438.
  41. ^ Winnifrith, Tom J. (2002). Badlands-borderlands: a history of Northern Epirus/Southern Albania. London: Duckworth. p. 46. ISBN 0-7156-3201-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  42. ^ a b c d Kunstmann, Heinrich; Thiergen, Peter (1987). Beiträge zur Geschichte der Besiedlung Nord- und Mitteldeutschlands mit Balkanslaven (PDF). Sagner. pp. 111–112.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ a b Toynbee, Arnold Joseph (1969). Some problems of Greek history. Oxford University Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 9780192152497.
  44. ^ Mallory, James P.; Adams, Douglas (2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 408–409. ISBN 978-0-19-929668-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ a b Benveniste, Émile (2016). Dictionary of Indo-European Concepts and Society. Hau Books (University of Chicago Press). p. 166. ISBN 978-0-9861325-9-9.
  46. ^ a b West, Martin L. (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-0199280759.
  47. ^ Fortson, Benjamin W. (2009). Indo-European Language and Culture: an Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. p. 470. ISBN 978-1405188968.
  48. ^ Illyés, Elemér (1992). Ethnic continuity in the Carpatho-Danubian area. Internet Archive. Hamilton, Ont.: Hunyadi OCS, M K. ISBN 978-0-88033-146-3.
  49. ^ Doçi 2008, p. 718
  50. ^ Topalli, Kolec (2017). Fjalor Etimologjik i Gjuhës Shqipe (in Albanian). Durrës: Botimet Jozef. p. 932. ISBN 978-9928-241-33-7.
  51. ^ Topalli, Kolec (2017). Fjalor Etimologjik i Gjuhës Shqipe. Durrës, Albania: Jozef. p. 1060.
  52. ^ Savić & Ligorio 2022, p. 20.
  53. ^ Savić & Ligorio 2022, p. 21.
  54. ^ Lafe, Genc (2022). "I rapporti tra toponimi e voci ereditate dell'albanese sulla base dell'analisi della loro evoluzione fonetica". In Shaban Sinani; Francesco Altimari; Matteo Mandalà (eds.). Albanologu i arvanitëve "Atje kam u shpirtin tim...". Academy of Sciences of Albania. pp. 355–370. ISBN 978-9928-339-74-4. p. 363.
  55. ^ Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz (2011). "The Albanian name for badger". Zeitschrift für Balkanologie. 47 (2): 241–248. p. 244.
  56. ^ Borel, Francesco Rubat (2005). "Lingue e scritture delle Alpi occidentali prima della romanizzazione. Stato della questione e nuove ricerche". Bulletin d'Études Préhistoriques et Archéologiques Alpines. XVI. Société Valdôtaine de Préhistoire et d’Archéologie: 9–50. p. 32.
  57. ^ Orel 1998, p. 142.
  58. ^ a b Šašel Kos, Marjeta (1993). Cadmus and Harmonia in Illyria. Arheološki Vestnik. p. 119.
  59. ^ Wilkes, John J. (1992). The Illyrians. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. p. 98. ISBN 0-631-19807-5.
  60. ^ Eichner, Heiner (2004). Illyrisch – die unbekannte Sprache. Museum für Urgeschichte Asparn an der Zaya: Die Illyrer. Archäologische Funde des 1. Vorchristlichen Jahrtausends aus Albanien (in German). pp. 107–108. ISBN 3-85460-215-4.
  61. ^ Wilkes, John J. (1992). The Illyrians. Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing. p. 244. ISBN 0-631-19807-5.
  62. ^ Matzinger, Joachim (2018). "The lexicon of Albanian"; Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. pp. 1788–1800. Walter de Gruyter. p. 1790. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1.
  63. ^ Vasmer, Max (1971). Schriften zur slavischen Altertumskunde und Namenkunde. Herbert Bräuer. Berlin: [Osteuropa-Institut]. ISBN 3-447-00781-8. OCLC 187204.
  64. ^ a b Topalli, Kolec (2017). Fjalor Etimologjik i Gjuhës Shqipe (in Albanian). Durrës: Botimet Jozef. p. 1487. ISBN 978-9928-241-33-7.
  65. ^ Boardman & Sollberger 1982, pp. 869–870; Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 288; Wilkes 1992, p. 72; West 2007, p. 137; De Simone 2017, p. 1869
  66. ^ J. Boardman; E. Sollberger; I. E. S. Edwards; N. G. L. Hammond, John; E. (1982). The Cambridge Ancient History: The Prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and the Aegean world, tenth to eighth centuries B.C. III (part 1) (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 869–870. ISBN 0521224969.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  67. ^ West 2007, p. 137.
  68. ^ Birnbaum, Henrik; Puhvel, Jaan (1963). Ancient Indo-European Dialects, "The Position of Albanian". University of California Press. p. 108.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  69. ^ Orel 1998, p. 484.
  70. ^ Orel 1998, p. 499.
  71. ^ a b "Γλώσσαι/Β - Βικιθήκη". el.wikisource.org (in Greek). Retrieved 2021-06-02.
  72. ^ a b J. Pokorny. Indogermanisches-Etymologisches-Woerterbuch.
  73. ^ "Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary, brīsa". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2021-06-02.
  74. ^ Kolec, Topalli (2017). Fjalor etimologjik i gjuhës shqipe. Durrës: Botimet Jozef. p. 201.
  75. ^ a b "Γλώσσαι/Δ - Βικιθήκη". el.wikisource.org (in Greek). Retrieved 2021-06-20.
  76. ^ Witczak, K. T. (2006). "Two Phonological Curiosities of the Thracian Language". In: Linguistique Balkanique 45(3), p. 491.
  77. ^ a b c d e Katicic, Radoslav. Ancient Languages of the Balkans. Part 1. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter Mouton, 2012 [1976]. p. 174. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783111568874
  78. ^ Strabo. Geography, 7.43: "élos loúgeon kaloúmenon".
  79. ^ Ceka, Neritan (2005). Apollonia: History and Monuments. Migjeni. p. 19. ISBN 9789994367252. "In the third-second centuries BC, a number of Illyrians, including Abrus, Bato, and Epicardus, rose to the highest position in the city administration, that of prytanis. Other Illyrians such as Niken, son of Agron, Tritus, son of Plator, or Genthius, are found on graves belonging to ordinary families (fig.7)."
  80. ^ Katičić 1965
  81. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 72: "Thus it seems generally agreed that the name of the Illyrian queen Teuta of the third century BC derives from teutana, which means 'queen'."
  82. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 71: "The names Daza, Dasius and Dazomenus have been connected with Dasmenus in Pannonia and Dazos in southern Italy. The meaning of these plausible correspondences is hard to determine: neither the internal links between the three principal Illyrian onomastic provinces nor those between them and other areas indicate more than that the languages spoken by peoples in the Illyrian territories were somehow related if not altogether common."
  83. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 186: "The fourth of the Venetic-speaking peoples around the head of the Adriatic were the Liburni, who occupied the coast and islands between Istria and the river Titus (Krka) and had been known to the Greeks since at least the eighth century BC."
  84. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 73: "The common name Bato may derive from the same root as the Latin battuere meaning `to strike', or is just as likely to derive from the root *bha 'say' or 'tell', the Latin fari."
  85. ^ Williams 2004, p. 182: "1 Dasius: The Latin form of a Messapic name from southern Italy..."
  86. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 245: "Illyrian deities are named on monuments of the Roman era, some in equation with gods of the classical pantheon. ... Thus several deities occur only in Istria, including Eia, Malesocus, Boria and Iria. Anzotica was the Liburnian Venus and appears in the traditional image of the classical goddess. Other local deities were Latra, Sentona and the nymph Ica, worshipped in eastern Istria at a spring still known by praying in relief sculpture, Knez 1974 (ritual vessel), Baçe 1984 (temple architecture in Illyrian Albania)."
  87. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 247: "Sometimes the name of a local deity is recorded only in the Latin form, for example, Armatus at Delminium (Duvno) who was evidently a war god of the Delmatae, and the Latin Liber who appears with the attributes of Silvanus and Terminus..."
  88. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 200: "Continuity in a local tradition of engraved ornament is to be seen on other monuments of the Roman period, including altars dedicated by chiefs of the Japodes at the shrine of Bindus Neptunus at a spring near Bihac (see figure 30)."
  89. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 247: "The Illyrian town Rhizon (Risinium) on the Gulf of Kotor had its protective deity Medaurus..."
  90. ^ a b Wilkes 1995, pp. 246–247: "North of the Japodes, the altars to Vidasus and Thana dedicated at the hot springs of Topuško..."
  91. ^ Davison et al. 2006, p. 21; Pomeroy et al. 2008, p. 255.
  92. ^ Lewis & Boardman 1994, "The Illyrians c. 540-360 B.C.", p. 423: "Through contact with their Greek neighbors some Illyrian tribe became bilingual (Strabo VII.7.8 diglottoi): in particular the Bylliones and the Taulantian tribes close to Epidamnus."
  93. ^ Hornblower & Spawforth 2003, p. 426.
  94. ^ Bunson 1995, "ILLYRICUM (Dalmatia)", p. 202.
  95. ^ Hornblower & Spawforth 2003, p. 1106.
  96. ^ Ó hÓgáin 2003, p. 60.
  97. ^ a b Adzanela (Axhanela) Ardian, Illyrian Bosnia and Herzegovina-an overview of a cultural legacy, 2004, https://www.academia.edu/2490281/Illyrian_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina-an_Overview_of_a_Cultural_Legacy_Ancient_Illyrians_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina
  98. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wilkes 1995, p. 82.
  99. ^ a b c d e f g h i Wilkes 1995, p. 79.
  100. ^ a b c d e f g h Wilkes 1995, p. 84.
  101. ^ a b c d e Wilkes 1995, p. 75.
  102. ^ a b c d e f Wilkes 1995, p. 76.
  103. ^ Wilkes 1995, pp. 76, 82.
  104. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Wilkes 1995, p. 86.
  105. ^ Wilkes 1995, pp. 84, 86.
  106. ^ Wilkes 1995, p. 217: "Ceraunii whose name deriving from the Greek for 'thunderbolt' links them with high mountains..."

Bibliography

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Further reading

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