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Élysée Accords

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Not to be confused with Élysée Treaty.
Élysée Accords
Bảo Đại and the French High Commissioner in Indochina Léon Pignon exchanged letters at City Hall in Saigon on 14 June 1949, leading to the Élysée Accords taking effect.[1][2]
Signed8 March 1949
LocationParis, France
Effective14 June 1949
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The Élysée Accords was an international treaty recognizing independence and unity of Vietnam as an associated country within the French Union.[3][4][5] The Accords included one main letter and two extra letters signed at the Élysée Palace by Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại[a] and French President Vincent Auriol on 8 March 1949.[6][1] Vincent Auriol also signed as French Union's President. It de jure abolished the 1884 Patenôtre Accords and French colonialism in Vietnam (1883–1949).[7][8][9][10][1][11] It was signed after a period of negotiations between France and the anti-communist faction of Bảo Đại when France lost hope of peace with the communist faction of Hồ Chí Minh, in accordance with the principle of independence stated in Hạ Long Bay Preliminary Treaty on 5 June 1948 to replace the preliminary treaty the communists signed earlier.[12][4][13][14] It led to the establishment of the State of Vietnam, predecessor of the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam); opposing communist government.[15][16][1] With it, France abolished Tonkin and Annam protectorates and Cochinchina colony. It took effect when Bảo Đại and the French High Commissioner in Indochina exchanged letters at City Hall in Saigon on 14 June 1949.[2] It received ratification by the French National Assembly on 29 January 1950, and was signed by French President Vincent Auriol on 2 February.[4]

This agreement was signed in the context of the First Indochina War between France and the Viet Minh (a Vietnamese front de facto ruled by the Communist Party), and the Cold War between the U.S. and U.S.S.R., based on French progressive declaration 24 March 1945 on Indochina[17] and France ruled by the left since 16 December 1946 after the November 1946 French legislative election.[18][19] That March 24 Declaration was issued to deal with the Japanese overthrow of the French here on March 9 and based on what had been achieved at the Brazzaville Conference in early 1944 in gratitude for colonial soldiers' service to Free France led by de Gaulle during World War II, whereby political entities in French Indochina would be granted a large degree of freedom and democracy.[20] Initially, the right-wing-controlled France refused to grant independence to Vietnam and made it difficult for Vietnam to regain Cochinchina by establishing an autonomous republic there. However, in 1947, the French leftist government of Prime Minister Paul Ramadier claimed to support Vietnam's independence and unity,[21] they contacted Bảo Đại, former Nguyễn dynasty emperor supported by native anti-communists. French High Commissioner in Indochina d'Argenlieu was opposed by the Vietnamese and the French left-wing for his hardline attitude, he was recalled to France by the government and replaced by a civil official, Émile Bollaert, in March the same year. Anti-communists were nationalists supporting Vietnam's independence and unity but opposed class struggle and proletarian dictatorship.[22][23][24]

The French Union was created as an international organization in October 1946 to replace the old French colonial empire, in the context of decolonization. However, Algeria was not included because legally it was an internal part of France.[25][26] After World War II, both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. as two new superpowers opposed colonialism.[27] The goal of the capitalist U.S. after World War II was to prevent communist international of the U.S.S.R., and end both colonialism and communism. The U.S. still supported national self-determination, but the independence of colonial peoples did not mean communist states.[4] The United States did not want communists to dominate Asia under the guise of national liberation.[4][28] The U.S. started to support Bảo Đại on 17 January 1949 because Chinese communists had a large advantage in their civil war.[4] The French communists fully supported their comrades in Vietnam and opposed the French National Assembly's ratification of the treaty, but failed.[4] The accords as a legal corridor for complete independence for Vietnam stated that the country had a wide autonomy and could conduct its own foreign affairs, control its finances and have an army; although, the agreement fell short of granting complete independence right away.[4][1][29] Despite the communists' accusations, the French goal was to gradually grant self-government to a multi-component and non-communist Vietnam in an orderly manner as long as French national interests were guaranteed through the French Union, but the process was accelerated due to France's disadvantage in the war.[30][31][4][32]

Vietnam (State of Vietnam) gained the full independence from France to become a completely sovereign state within the French Union on 4 June 1954, partly due to French war disadvantages.[33][34][35][b] One month later, the French accepted their complete defeat, and the State of Vietnam lost north of 17th parallel to the communists with an agreement in Geneva that it opposed and did not sign.[39][40] Its successor, the Republic of Vietnam, withdrew from the French Union on 9 December 1955.[41]

The agreement was important for the U.S. moving from neutrality to supporting the French in the war,[4][29] starting with the U.S. being the first country other than France to recognize Vietnam's independence on 3 February 1950.[24] Vietnam had been gradually granted autonomy after the accords. The First Indochina War became part of the Cold War and began to take on civil war elements. The United States helped France and pro-French state of Vietnam fight communism while also supporting the independence of new Vietnam.[42][4][43] Within the framework of the French Union, two other countries of Indochina, Laos and Cambodia, were also granted independent status as associated states.[44] The three countries formed a common confederation until 30 December 1954.[45] This treaty made Vietnam a semi-constitutional monarchy headed by Bảo Đại with no constitution and no parliament, and whether it became a republic or not was subject to a referendum. The monarchy would be overthrown to become the First Republic with a fraudulent referendum of Prime Minister Ngô Đình Diệm on 26 October 1955, and a parliament and constitution would be created exactly one year later after Constitutional Assembly elections, in the context of the Vietnam War against communism.[46][47][48][49][c][d]

Content

[edit]
Vietnamese Chief of State Bảo Đại (left) and French President Vincent Auriol (right) at the signing ceremony

According to the Accords; Vietnam was an independent member country within the French Union, and was freely associated in equality and friendship with France.[54][1] This agreement recognizing Vietnam's independence included three letters:[1][4]

1) Letter from the President of the French Republic (France) and President of the French Union, Vincent Auriol, sent to Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại, talking about issues of unification, diplomacy, internal affairs, justice, culture, military, economy, and finance of Vietnam within the French Union. This was main letter.

2) Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại's letter sent to the President of France and the President of the French Union, confirming receipt and agreement on the content of the above letter.

3) Letter from the President of France to Vietnamese Emperor Bảo Đại supplementing, at Bảo Đại's request, points related to the issues of unification of Vietnam and diplomatic issues, especially the exchange of ambassadors.

This independence agreement was based on the terms of the 1948 preliminary agreement, in which Vietnam pledged to guarantee the constitution and respect democratic principles.[4][13][1] The agreement gave Vietnam a high self-determination with French colonial regime here abolished[3][4] and this Vietnam can be compared with independent countries that used to be ruled by the British within the Commonwealth of Nations, established in 1949;[55] though fell short in many aspects. In fact, the countries such as Canada, Australia, and New Zealand that were parts of the British Empire also only gained full independence from the United Kingdom in 1982, 1986, and 1987 respectively. France not only abolished two French protectorates in Vietnam and abolished Cochinchina colony, France also abolished their three concessions in those two protectorates (Hanoi, Haiphong, and Da Nang).[1] Vietnam was empowered to control its own finances and the path was paved for the creation of the Vietnamese National Army, predecessor of the Republic of Vietnam Military Forces, on 8 December 1950.[56] The French Government was prepared, at the request of the Government of Vietnam, to act as an intermediary for the opening of Vietnamese consulates in countries where Vietnam considered it would have special interests. Vietnamese consuls carried out their activities: in countries where Vietnam had a diplomatic mission, under the direction and responsibility of the head of this mission. The French Associated States including Vietnam were allowed to establish diplomatic relations with a limited number of foreign capitals, mainly Washington, London, Rome, and Bangkok.[57][1] Vietnam had the right to establish and manage its own national budget.[1] Vietnam was granted the right to appoint diplomats to the Republic of China, Thailand, and the Holy See, however Vietnamese diplomacy still depended on France.[58][5] In general, the French arrangement afforded three Indochinese countries a limited degree of internal and external sovereignty (for example, they were allowed to enter into diplomatic relations with a small number of countries), but for the most part reserved for France effective control over foreign relations, as well as military, judicial, administrative, and economic activities. They were three associated states and the concept of "associated state" was originally used to refer to arrangements under which Western powers afforded a (sometimes very limited) degree of self-government to some of their colonial possessions after the end of World War II, based on the 1941 Atlantic Charter between the United Kingdom and United States that France later also supported.[59][60][61] Even before World War II, the United States partly abandoned colonialism by granting self-government to the Philippines in 1935 with a roadmap to independence, completed in 1946.[62] The fact that Vietnam was allowed by France to establish its own diplomacy helped its independence be recognized by the United States on February 3, 1950.[4]

Vietnam was not yet fully independent and the Bảo Đại's government continued to demand more autonomy from France. Vietnam had the right to own its armed forces to take charge of maintaining order, internal security, and national defense.[1] The role of the Vietnamese army in the First Indochina War was particularly obscure. However, the French Army in Vietnam (French Far East Expeditionary Corps) was no longer as a colonial and invading army, but as the French Union army, helping to fight communism and protect Vietnam, an ally of France and a member country within the French Union. Vietnam's defense budget would be borne by the Vietnamese government. The Vietnamese army would be composed of Vietnamese under the command of Vietnamese officers; French instructors and technical advisers would be placed at the disposal of Vietnam. The Vietnamese cadres would be trained by Vietnamese military schools and, possibly, by French schools where they would be accepted without any discrimination. During wartime, the Vietnamese army would fight as part of the French Union army, with one of the general staff members being Vietnamese.[1]

French cultural interests in Vietnam were guaranteed by this treaty but on the basis of equality and cooperation between France and the three Indochinese countries. Vietnam was recognized as the owner of the real estate and land of the Pasteur Institute in Hanoi, Northern Vietnam.[1] French schools in Vietnam applied the programs currently in force in France; a class on Vietnamese history and civilization was required to be taught there. Vietnamese students were free to apply to study in French schools in Vietnam. These schools were required to open a Vietnamese language class for Vietnamese students.[1]

Vietnam would establish a customs union with the other Indochinese countries. There would be no customs barriers between these countries. No taxes would be collected at their common borders, common tariffs would apply to import and export activities within the Union. The Indochinese piastre would be in the French franc zone. However, the exchange rate between the piastre and the French franc would not be fixed and may change according to economic conditions. However, this exchange rate could only be changed after consultation among the Indochinese member countries. Vietnam would have a common monetary union with the Indochinese countries. The only currency in circulation within the territory of this monetary union would be the piastre issued by the Indochinese Institute of Issue. The Institute of Issue could issue different types of currency for Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.[1] The Government of Vietnam could increase taxes and fees, and could introduce new taxes and fees. Vietnam gained the right to enjoy all budget revenues within the country.[1]

Regarding domestic sovereignty, France granted full authority to Vietnam. The French and Vietnamese were equal citizens within the French Union.[1] Each Government retained ownership of its archives. Vietnam enjoyed full and comprehensive jurisdiction in civil, commercial, and criminal courts throughout the country.[1]

The agreement left many gaps that required the two countries to continue negotiating to reach additional agreements. The autonomy and rights of ethnic minorities must be respected while the supreme interests of Vietnam were still guaranteed.[63] The French Government undertook to present and support Vietnamese candidates whenever they fully satisfied the general conditions laid down by the Charter of the United Nations for admission to this organization. Despite still depending on France, the establishment of Vietnamese diplomacy that was no longer represented by France was a turning point because diplomacy is something that every sovereign state needs. Vietnam had the right to freely appoint its representatives to the Supreme Council of the French Union.[1] Vietnam was qualified to negotiate and sign agreements with countries other than France relating to its own specific interests.[1]

French capitalists could freely invest in Vietnam when the national interests of Vietnam were guaranteed. Vietnamese citizens in France and other places of the French Union, French citizens and citizens of other places of the French Union residing in Vietnam enjoyed the same freedom of residence as natives within the framework of the Law and territorial regulations. They enjoyed freedom of movement, freedom of trade and in general all democratic freedoms in this field. Assets and enterprises owned by Vietnamese citizens in other places of the French Union enjoyed the same regime as assets and enterprises owned by French Union citizens in Vietnam, mainly in terms of tax and labor laws.[1]

In the treaty, France firmly maintained control over the military and diplomacy, although Vietnam had a high degree of autonomy in both. France recognized Vietnam's sovereignty in Cochinchina, but its complete return to Vietnam had to go through legal procedures. Also according to this agreement recognising Vietnam's independence, no French citizen and no resident of the French Union were allowed to be a member of the Vietnamese government without the prior permission or consent of the Representative of the French Union and vice versa, no Vietnamese citizen could work in the French government or in the government of the French Union without the prior permission or consent of the Vietnamese government...[4][1] Bảo Đại, apparently convinced that France was now sufficiently desperate in Indochina including Vietnam that it would have to honor this treaty giving Vietnam independence, he declared that:[4]

...An era of reconstruction and renovation will open in Vietnam. The country will be given democratic institutions that will be called on primarily to approve the present agreement... Profound economic and social reforms will be instituted to raise the general standard of living and to promote social justice, which is the condition and guarantee of order... [I look for] the union of all Vietnamese regardless of their political and religious tendencies, and the generous support of France on which I can count.

Although Vietnam gained independence under this agreement, the French believed that Vietnam could only gradually gain autonomy in governance when its state apparatus became increasingly stronger. General Marcel Carpentier, Commander in Chief when France applied for U.S. aid, was quoted in The New York Times on March 9, 1950, as follows:[4]

I will never agree to equipment being given directly to the Vietnamese. If this should be done I would resign within twenty-four hours. The Vietnamese have no generals, no colonels, no military organization that could effectively utilize the equipment. It would be wasted, and in China, the United States has had enough of that.

Background and effects

[edit]
See also: History of Vietnam, War in Vietnam (1945-1946), First Indochina War, Vietnam War, Democratic Republic of Vietnam, State of Vietnam, and Republic of Vietnam
National flag of the State of Vietnam (1949–55) and the Republic of Vietnam (1955–75)[e][66][67]
Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyễn Văn Tâm welcomes delegates to The 3rd session of the World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Committee for the Western Pacific, held in Saigon from 25 September to 1 October 1952[68]
U.S. Ambassador to Vietnam Donald R. Heath (right) with State of Vietnam Prime Minister Nguyễn Văn Tâm (center) and U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense William Chapman Foster (left), 1952.

The communists were not the only ones who rebelled against the monarchy in the August Revolution and both communists and non-communists cooperated together in opposing French colonialism in Vietnam before 1945 despite the simmering conflict. The government (Democratic Republic of Vietnam) de facto ruled by the communist Viet Minh was not recognized by any country during the period 1945–50 while France was supported by the Allies about returning to Indochina, leading to a military conflict on 23 September 1945 with Franco-British victory at the end. The northern part of Vietnam (north of the 16th parallel) was initially occupied by the army of the Republic of China led by General Lu Han, but later France received China's consent to advance to the North, which pushed the Viet Minh's government to make peace with the French colonialists and legalize their return.[69][70][71] Beginning in August 1945, the Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamese nationalist groups and Trotskyist activists.[72][73][74][75] The communists were at a disadvantage both domestically and internationally, and the nationalist forces also had their own armed forces and military zones, but the Viet Minh were determined to maintain their power and bribed the occupying army of the Republic of China with gold not to help pro-Chinese nationalist parties in the North that were a threat to the Viet Minh. On 11 November, as an effort to alleviate the fears of a Communist takeover, the Communist Party announced its dissolution. However, it remained de facto in existence and in control of the Việt Minh. The United States refused to recognize Hồ Chí Minh's government due to the discovery of his communist roots.[76] There were compromises. However cooperation between the communists and both non-communists (including nationalists and Trotskyist activists) and the French then gradually broke down, partly due to the communists' toughness.[77][78] In 1946, the Franco-Chinese and Ho–Sainteny Agreements facilitated a coexistence between the Viet Minh's governement and French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists.[79][80] The complete withdrawal of Chinese troops in June 1945 provided an opportunity for the Viet Minh to counter the pro-Chinese nationalist parties in the North. That summer, the Viet Minh colluded with French forces to eliminate nationalists, targeted for their ardent anti-colonialism.[81][72]: 205–207 [82]: 175–177 [83]: 699–700  Nationalists expressed dissatisfaction with the government held by the Viet Minh although a coalition government led by Hồ between the Viet Minh, neutralists, and nationalist groups was formed in March 1946 due to Chinese pressure.[84][85] The regime's parliamentary elections in January 1946 were denounced as fraudulent by opposition groups.[85] After the war between France and the Viet Minh broke out in Hanoi on 19 December 1946. Guerrilla warfare ensued, with the French controlling most of the country except far-flung areas. By January the following year, most provincial capitals had fallen to the French, while Hue fell in February after a six-week siege.[86] Bảo Đại, the former emperor of Vietnam and a advisor to the Viet Minh government as well as former member of the National Assembly of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, was already well-respected among Vietnamese society and non-communist factions. During the Chinese occupation of North Vietnam, he was supported by the Việt Cách and Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng for replacing Hồ Chí Minh to become the new leader of Vietnam. He went to China in March 1946 to do a governement work but Bảo Đại said he was later abandoned by communists, communists said he ran away. After the outbreak of the war between France and the communists, anti-communists gradually thought of the former emperor as an alternative to Hồ Chí Minh. On February 17, 1947, Bảo Đại's supporters established in Nanjing the National United Front (MTQGTNTQ) "in order to achieve the highest ideal... to gain national independence and unity, consolidate the democratic republican government, and implement a genuine democratic regime." It gathered the Việt Cách (Nguyễn Hải Thần), the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng (Nguyễn Tường Tam), the Vietnam Democratic Socialist Party (Nguyen Hoan Bich), the Vietnam National Youth League (Tran Con, aka Van Tuyen), and the People's Union (Lưu Đức Trung, aka Luu Ba Dat). The Front sent Thần, Tam, Bich, and Con to Hong Kong to meet with Bảo Đại (Nguyen Phuc Vinh Thuy[87]). More than a month later, at a press conference in Hong Kong on March 29, Bảo Đại declared that the Hồ Chí Minh's government was not capable of representing Vietnam; and, Bảo Đại opposed the Viet Minh. At this press conference, the document of the Vietnam National United Front [Front d'Union Nationale du Viet-Nam], the new name of the expanded MTQGTNTQ, was disseminated - it invited more organizations from the south and central regions such as the Vietnam National Independence Party (Nguyễn Văn Sâm), Cao Đài (Pham Cong Tac), and the Catholic Federation (Trần Văn Lý-Ngô Đình Diệm). The goal of the expanded Front was "to unify all revolutionary organizations, political parties, religious and social groups to fight for independence and territorial unity, to consolidate the republican and democratic regime, to cooperate comprehensively with all countries in the world on the basis of justice and freedom to restore world order." Regarding Vietnam, the Front affirmed that the resistance war of more than a year had not been the work of any party, but of the entire people. The Hồ Chí Minh's government was no longer trusted by the people and had lost its position in the world in the struggle for independence. Therefore, the Front supported former emperor Bảo Đại to establish a truly democratic government.[88][89][90][4][91] In May 1947, the Front sent a delegation to Hong Kong to meet with Bảo Đại to persuade him to form a Central Government and negotiate with France for Vietnam's independence.[92] On September 9, 1947, Bảo Đại held a conference of Vietnamese parties in Hong Kong to negotiate about the current situation in Vietnam. The New Day newspaper, issue 45, published on September 30, 1947, quoted Mr. Pierre Norgeu, correspondent of AFP news agency, as saying that the delegates attending the Hong Kong Conference belonged to many different political factions, including “right wing, left wing and central wing”: “The right wing is mostly representatives of the North, including old-time bureaucrats; they represent the traditional spirit and the peasants of the North… The central wing, temporarily called the “constitutional monarchy” faction, is mostly intellectuals… As for the left wing, it includes the gentlemen in the "National United Front". On 10 September 1947, Émile Bollaert, respecting a government directive contrary to his original plan, delivered a speech in Ha Dong, focusing on the Vietnamese words "độc lập" and "tự chủ". It was an appeal to "all the spiritual and social families" of Vietnam, who could govern themselves and achieve their own unity, if the people of Cochinchina agreed. Since this speech did not explicitly propose independence, it had no chance of convincing Hồ Chí Minh. But it oriented French policy towards the restoration of Emperor Bảo Đại. This speech angered French conservatives: Minister Georges Bidault, General Valluy and General Salan (commander of the Army of North Indochina from 29 October 1945) publicly expressed their disagreement.[93] France contacted Bảo Đại in Hong Kong and even provided him with financial support.[94] On December 7, 1947, at a meeting on a French warship in Hạ Long Bay, Bảo Đại and France negotiated and signed the Hạ Long Bay Preliminary Treaty. The treaty expressed the consensus of both sides on the establishment of the State of Vietnam on the basis of the principle of independence and unity of Vietnam within the French Union. However, the exact meaning of the word "independence", the specific powers of the new government as well as the role of this government in the ongoing Vietnam - France war were not clearly defined.[95][4] Criticized by politicians in the Front, Bảo Đại ended negotiations with France and traveled to Europe for four months. The French sent diplomats to follow Bao Dai to persuade him to continue negotiations and form a Government. In January 1948, French High Commissioner in Indochina E. Bollaert met with Bảo Đại in Geneva, Switzerland to persuade him to return to Vietnam to continue negotiations and form a Government. Bảo Đại declared that if the Hạ Long Bay Treaty was not supplemented, he would not return to Vietnam. He then went to Cannes, Paris and then returned to Hong Kong.[96] In late 1947, Nguyễn Văn Xuân became the new leader of Cochinchina and later renamed the "Provisional Government of the Autonomous Republic of Cochinchina" as the "Provisional Government of Southern Vietnam", suggesting that his aim was to reunite the whole country. On April 24, 1948, He and Trần Văn Hữu (another official of Cochinchina) went to Hong Kong to meet Bảo Đại to ask for the establishment of a Provisional Government for Vietnam. On May 15, Bảo Đại sent a message to him, approving the establishment of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam led by him "to resolve the Vietnam issue with France and international public opinion". On February 12, 1949, a joint Franco-Vietnamese commission was established and worked until February 28.[97] Léon Pignon, political adviser to the French Commander in Indochina, and later High Commissioner, wrote before in January 1947, that:[4]

Our objective is clear: to transpose to the field of Vietnamese domestic politics the quarrel we have with the Viet Minh, and to involve ourselves as little as possible in the campaigns and reprisals which ought to be the work of the native adversaries of that party.

After Hồ Chí Minh's government refused to surrender to the French in May 1947 while Duy Tân (another former emperor of Vietnam) whom the French wanted to cooperate with died in a plane crash in late 1945, the French decided to cooperate with Bảo Đại who was living in Hong Kong and his nationalist faction.[98][99][100] Come October, the French launched Operation Léa with the objective of swiftly putting an end to the resistance movement by taking out the Vietnamese main battle units and the Việt Minh leadership at their base in Bắc Kạn. Léa was followed by Operation Ceinture in November, with similar aims. As a result of the French offensive, the Việt Minh would end up losing valuable resources and suffering heavy losses, 7,200–9,500 KIA. Nevertheless, both operations failed to capture Hồ Chí Minh and his key lieutenants as intended, and the main Vietnamese battle units managed to survive.[101][102] In 1948, France started looking for means of opposing the Việt Minh politically, with an alternative government led by former emperor Bảo Đại and Prime Minister Nguyễn Văn Xuân (former president of Cochinchina) to lead an autonomous government within the French Union of nations. This new state ruled over Tonkin (Northern Vietnam) and Annam (Central Vietnam), excluding the colony of Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam), and had limited autonomy. This initial accord with the French was decried by non-Communist nationalists and Bảo Đại withdrew from the agreement. It would not be until March 1949 that the French would concede on the issue of unification and a final agreement would be reached.[103][104] Two years prior, the French had refused Hồ's proposal of a similar status within the French Union, albeit with some restrictions on French power and the latter's eventual withdrawal from Vietnam.[105] However, they were willing to deal with Bảo Đại as he represented a non-radical option who could rally behind him the non-Communist nationalist movement.[106] The French hoped that the Bảo Đại Solution would help them reduce military and economic pressure in this war.[107] The Bảo Đại Solution of France and nationalists leading to independence of Vietnam succeeded in uniting all anti-communists of Vietnam in fighting the communists of Hồ Chí Minh and cooperating with the French to build an independent, unified, and democratic state, including the Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng from the start. Vũ Hồng Khanh of this party surrendered to the French army on January 6, 1950 after his remaining troops had clashed with both the communists and the French near China, previously he and his comrades had exiled themselves to China to avoid persecution by the Vietnamese communists and were forced to return to Vietnam due to the communist victory in China. He later became the Minister of Sports and Youth of the newly independent Vietnam in 1952. Lê Văn Viễn's Bình Xuyên force left the Viet Minh to follow pro-French provisional government in 1948 although the majority of the Vietnamese people still supported the communists because they believed that Bảo Đại's state was a puppet government and the communists were the true national liberators. However, leaning towards the Soviet Union in early 1950, the Viet Minh openly declared its Marxist–Leninist nature and implemented land reform based on class struggle in 1953.[108][109][110][4][111][112] With most of the nationalist partisans defeated,[113][114] and negotiations broken down, tensions between the Viet Minh and French authorities erupted into full-scale war in December 1946 after sporadic clashes,[115] a conflict which became entwined with the Cold War. Surviving nationalist partisans and politico-religious groups rallied behind the exiled Bảo Đại to reopen negotiations with France in opposition to communist domination.[116] While the State of Vietnam, under Bảo Đại as Chief of State, aligned with the anticommunist Western Bloc, the French exploited it to extend their neo-colonial presence and to bolster their standing within NATO.[117] By aligning with Marxist-Leninist principles, Vietnamese communists suppressed dissent and monopolized power through radical campaigns such as land reform, class struggle, ideological rectification, the eradication of judicial independence, and the suppression of the Nhân Văn–Giai Phẩm movement.[118][119][120]

Although France agreed to abolish their Cochinchina colony when the treaty was signed, reunification still required legal procedures. Bảo Đại delayed his return to Vietnam until a Cochinchinese Assembly had been elected (albeit in a farce of an election), and did not proceed to Saigon until the French Assembly had approved Cochinchina's joining the rest of Vietnam. On 14 March 1949, the French National Assembly voted a law permitting the creation of a Territorial Assembly of Cochinchina, which at the time was a French colony and an autonomous republic. This new Cochinchinese parliament was elected on 10 April 1949, with the Vietnamese representatives then becoming a majority. On 23 April, the Territorial Assembly approved the merger of Cochinchina with Vietnam. The decision was in turn approved by the French National Assembly on 20 May, and the merger was effective on 4 June. This abolished the Treaty of Saigon (1874) and French Cochinchina (1862–1949).[121] Cambodia and the de Gaulle's Rally of the French People protested against Cochinchina's accession to Vietnam but failed.[122] On July 1, 1949, the State of Vietnam Government was established to replace the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam that was established on 23 May 1948. Bảo Đại became the leader of this Vietnamese governement. This event was officially announced the following day. The capital of newly independent Vietnam was located in Saigon. Hanoi, former capital of French Indochina and Tonkin protectorate, was the capital of its autonomous Northern Vietnam (Bắc Việt).[123] This government was a semi-constitutional and provisional monarchy as Vietnam still had no constitution or parliament due to wartime, whether it would become a republic or not depended on a referendum and Bảo Đại's power was shared with the Government and the National Advisory Council.[124]

Although there were two parallel governments in Vietnam with the territories of the two sides not clearly demarcated from 1949 to 1954, the State of Vietnam (predecessor of the Republic of Vietnam) was considered to be the legal representative of Vietnam under international law but not communists.[3] This agreement did not bring full autonomy to Vietnam right away, but legally Vietnam achieved independence and was no longer a French colony, it also paved the way for gradual self-determination and reunification of the country. Through this agreement, France agreed to transfer sovereignty and administrative rights to Vietnam.[3] The agreement was denounced by the Vietnamese communists led by Hồ Chí Minh as illegal and a cover for France continue its colonialism in Vietnam under the help and control of American imperialism.[125][126] On the contrary, the United States already knew that Hồ Chí Minh's faction was communist although they initially did not say they were communist. The Americans knew that even if Hồ's faction accepted Bảo Đại's government, they still sought to communize the country. The United States believed that Hồ Chí Minh's faction would not be able to maintain its independence from the Soviet Communist International due to the influence of the Chinese Communist faction. The United States welcomed the agreement and pressed France to strictly implement it and gradually transfer power to Bảo Đại's anti-communist faction in a substantive manner.[127] The Bảo Đại Solution depended on U.S. support. Bảo Đại's regime was criticized for its corruption.[4] Also, the Vietnamese government itself was not satisfied with the agreement because Vietnam did not have full independence immediately and felt that the communists were taking advantage of this. During the 1950 negotiations in Pau, France, Vietnamese Prime Minister Trần Văn Hữu was recalled to Indochina due to a series of French military reversals in Northern Vietnam when communists had Chinese help. He seized the opportunity to appeal to the United States "as the leading democratic country", and hoped that the United States would put pressure on France to make Vietnam achieve freedom and democracy. He wanted his Vietnam to have the right to decide its own affairs.[4] However, France successively handed over to the government of Prime Minister Trần Văn Hữu the following agencies: the Secret Service (June 11, 1950), Saigon Post Office and the postal and telecommunications system (January 10, 1951), the Treasury and the financial system (October 1, 1951).[128] In 1951, the Vietnamese Service of the Voice of America (VOA) was established. Also on February 16 of that year, Vietnam approved a US$16 million aid package (equivalent to US$117 million in 2014) from the United States for the three independent Indochinese countries including Vietnam.[129] According to Georges Gautier's report dated 10 August 1951, as of 1 August 1951, the total number of U.S. Embassy staff in Indochinese countries including independent Vietnam was 251, including 115 diplomatic staff and their families in Hanoi, Saigon, Phnom Penh and Vientiane, 51 from the economic mission and 85 from the military. In addition, there were 166 American missionaries, 13 private individuals from two oil companies, an import-export company, 2 C.A.T. civilian pilots, and 3 reporters. The U.S. information agency U.S.I.S. increased its activities: opening exhibition rooms, publishing multilingual newsletters, and screening the film "One Year of the Korean War". The pastors of Evangelique and Adventiste du 7è jour had words that were unfavorable to France, especially among ethnic minorities. They opened a school system. In March 1951, they gathered about 150 Montagnards in Đà Lạt. However, on the whole, the impact was insignificant. The staff of the U.S. military and economic missions came into contact with the indigenous people. In June 1951, Bishop Lê Hữu Từ sent Bullitt a petition asking for American help. They also contacted the Đại Việt Party in Hanoi.[130]

Although the agreement was signed and Vietnam became independent, the transfer needed time to carry out step by step, and Vietnam gradually gained independence in an orderly manner.[3] For example, on October 14, 1950, under the chairmanship of the Governor of Central Vietnam Phan Văn Giáo, the management of the Spratly and Paracel Islands in the South China Sea was officially handed over by France to Vietnam.[3] Following its putative independence from France under the Elysee Agreements of 1949, the Vietnamese legal system remained much the same as it had been under the French, except that on 16 September 1954 the courts and legal system were completely taken over by the Vietnamese.[131] The powers transferred by France to Vietnam on the first of the year were set forth in 27 agreements signed by French and Vietnamese representatives at Saigon on December 29, 1949. These conventions dealt with aspects of military, economic, judicial, financial, and cultural affairs, as well as with public works, public health, information, and personnel matters. Internal administration was transferred by the French to Vietnam on December 30, 1949, except for certain powers reserved to the French High Commissioner and certain interstate matters to be settled by an interstate conference.[132][133] The war, which was unfavorable to France, forced neo-colonialists to accelerate the transfer of power. On 3 July 1953, the French government issued a declaration of its intention to complete the independence and sovereignty of the three Indochinese Associated States (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam).[134] Bảo Đại and his prime minister left for France in the summer to negotiate on the basis of the July 3 declaration. During their absence, a rebellion was led by religious and political groups, in which two of Ngô Đình Diệm's brothers (who were then living in hiding in the United States), Ngô Đình Nhu and Archbishop Ngô Đình Thục, actively participated. On September 6, with the support of Bảy Viễn, leader of the Bình Xuyên, they held a congress in which they demanded independence without any conditions and convened a constituent assembly. In the face of this challenge to his authority, Bảo Đại authorized the convening of another congress, which was intended to gather all anti-Viet Minh forces and appoint delegates to negotiate with the French. At this congress—which opened on October 14 under the chairmanship of Trần Trọng Kim, the former pro-Japanese prime minister in 1945—the participants refused to provide a list of delegates to Bảo Đại and again demanded complete independence from the French Union. Prince Bửu Lộc, Bảo Đại's representative at the conference, managed to draft a text that merely rejected the present formnof the French Union; however, the French were able to observe both Bảo Đại's weakness and the emergence of a strong pro-American opposition in Vietnam. Faced with the ingratitude of their Vietnamese allies, French officials became even more suspicious of the purpose of continuing the conflict, as the Panmunjeom armistice, which ended the Korean War in July, seemed to make the fight against communism in Asia less relevant.[135][136] In March 1954, the Vietnamese government began negotiations demanding that France grant complete independence to Vietnam. France agreed to grant complete independence to Vietnam on April 28, 1954. Vietnam would gain full independence from France on 4 June 1954, this means that the State of Vietnam (Vietnam) had the right to be independent of all treaties signed by France. This is the reason why legally the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam), the successor of the State of Vietnam, did not violate the Geneva Accords of July 1954 signed by France and communists when South Vietnam did not hold a general election with the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) to reunify Vietnam in July 1956. Also, communist North Vietnam that could not guarantee free elections violated the Geneva Accords by failing to withdraw all Viet Minh troops from South Vietnam, stifling the movement of North Vietnamese refugees, and conducting a military buildup that more than doubled the number of armed divisions in the North Vietnamese army while the South Vietnamese army was reduced by 20,000 men.[137][138][39] Before that, in 1950, Bảo Đại complained that France's support for him as Head of State of Vietnam was merely a solution to save their colonialism. But also in a conference from June to November in Pau (France) that year, his Vietnam and France discussed transferring the functions of immigration management, foreign relations, foreign trade, customs and finance to Vietnam. Finance was the most controversial issue, including the control of profits from foreign exchange operations. As a result, all of the above functions were transferred by France to Vietnam. France even complained that Bảo Đại was especially focused on demanding independence instead of attracting the support of the people.[139][4] Some French commentators viewed Pau as an unmitigated disaster and the assurance of an early French demise in Indochinese associated countries including Vietnam. As one writer put it:[4]

By accepting the eventual restriction of trade within the French Union, by losing all effective authority over the issuance of money, by renouncing control over foreign trade, by permitting a system of controlled prices for exports and imports, we have given the Associated States all the power they need if they wish to assure the ruin of our enterprises and compel their withdrawal without in any way molesting our compatriots.

After the Convention signed in Pau on November 29, 1950 within the framework of the French Union, the privilege of issuing currency was transferred from the Bank of Indochina to the Issuing Institute of the Indochinese Countries (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam), or the Institut d'Émission des États du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viet-nam, that was established in December 1951 and began operating on 1 January 1952. In 1953, the Vietnam branch of the Institut d'Émission des États du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viet-nam issued notes dual denominated in piastre and đồng. This means that in addition to using a common currency with Laos and Cambodia, Vietnam also started to have its own currency.[140][141] With independence of Vietnam, the country's first civilian airline was established on June 8, 1951. It had a capital of 18 million piastres (equivalent to 306 million French francs at the time). The Vietnamese government contributed 50%; the rest was jointly contributed by Air France (33.5%), Indochina Air Transport (SITA) (11%), Messageries maritimes (4.5%), Union aéronautique des transports (0.5%), and Aigle Azur Indochine (0.5%).[142][4]

Vietnam started to have its own armed forces, Vietnamese National Army (predecessor of the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces), when France and Vietnam signed an international treaty on 8 December 1950. The treaty was based on the Franco-Vietnamese Summit in Đà Lạt on November 5, the conference estimated that within five years, the Vietnamese armed forces would consist of 115,000 men, with military equipment and weapons provided by the United States. In the first phase, France would lend officers to Vietnam, and the costs would be covered by U.S. aid and the Vietnamese budget.[56][143] The First Indochina War increasingly became a civil war as the Vietnamese state and military apparatus became increasingly autonomous and powerful. The Vietnamese army was strongly supported by France and the United States. The Vietnamese National Army, grew rapidly in numbers, including light infantry battalions. By the winter of 1953, the Vietnamese army had 200,000 regular troops (including 50,000 reservists) and 78,000 local troops. By December 1954, after the Navarre Plan was implemented and Vietnam got divided, the number of troops in the Vietnamese National Army in South Vietnam reached 230,000, including 165,000 regular troops and 65,000 local troops.[144] The total number of officers trained by the two schools during the period 1951 – 1954 was 5,623. After graduation, the officers were given the rank of Second Lieutenant.[56] Overall throughout the war, the Vietnamese army was particularly weak with a lackluster and ineffective role. In early 1952, Colonel Nguyễn Văn Hinh, Chief of Military Affairs of State Chief Bảo Đại, was awarded the rank of Major General of the Vietnamese army and appointed to the Chief of General Staff of the General Staff in the Vietnamese army. The General Staff of the Vietnamese army was established on 1 May 1952, another step in the growth of this army.[145] In late 1951, the French Air Force established the Vietnamese 312th Special Mission Squadron at Tan Son Nhat Airfield equipped with Morane 500 Criquet liaison aircraft.[146]: 10  In March 1952, a training school was set up at Nha Trang Air Base, and the following year two army co-operation squadrons began missions flying the Morane 500 Criquet. The Vietnamese Navy began operations on April 10, 1953...[147] Jean de Lattre de Tassigny, French High Commissioner and commander of French troops in Indochina (1950–52), declared that the war France was waging in Vietnam was anti-communist and that France no longer had colonial ambitions here:[4]

We have no more interest here... We have abandoned all our colonial positions completely. There is little rubber or coal or rice we can any longer obtain. And what does it amount to compared to the blood of our sons we are losing and the three hundred and fifty million francs we spend a day in Indochina? The work we are doing is for the salvation of the Vietnamese people. And the propaganda you Americans make that we are still colonialists is doing us tremendous harm, all of us-the Vietnamese, yourselves, and us.

He also claimed:

This war, whether you like it or not, is the war of Vietnam for Vietnam. And France will carry it on for you only if you carry it on with her... Certain people pretend that Vietnam cannot be independent because it is part of the French Union. Not true! In our universe, and especially in our world of today, there can be no nations absolutely independent. There are only fruitful interdependencies and harmful dependencies... Young men of Vietnam, to whom I feel as close as I do to the youth of my native land, the moment has come for you to defend your country.

By the Élysée Accords, Vietnam was unified. However it became a federal state where the North, Center, and South all enjoyed legal status and autonomy. Generally Emperor Bảo Đại as Head of State did not have absolute power because he had to share power with the Government and the National Advisory Council while the future of the monarchy remained uncertain, but in the Domain of the Crown that was established on 15 April 1950 according to this agreement and supported by Bảo Đại's mother, his power was absolute and French intervention here was also greater, here ethnic minorities were in the majority and enjoyed autonomy. Bảo Đại also supported this administrative entity and claimed that he accepted the proposal as he believed that he could help in the ethnic minority tribes in their development and enjoy the serene environment of the territories.[63][148] With this agreement, Vietnam became relatively autonomous in education, administration and judiciary. In elected bodies and representative councils, Vietnamese people accounted for about 70%. By June 1952, there were only 1,400 French civil servants left in Indochina compared to 7,000 in 1949. Most of the administrative, economic, and judicial apparatuses and all key positions at the central and local levels were held and decided by Vietnamese people.[149] The French outlined the path of constitutional democracy for an independent Vietnam.[13][1] Vietnamese head of state Bảo Đại was criticized by the French for his lack of political enthusiasm to attract the masses while the Vietnamese government failed to unite the anti-communist faction. However, Vietnamese Prime Minister Nguyễn Văn Tâm strived to bring democratic legitimacy to his Vietnamese state – which had no constitution – by holding its first and small-scale free elections during wartime in January 1953.[150][151]

Whilst intending to prevent further nationalist sentiment, the Élysée Accords had the opposite effect – showing Vietnamese nationalists that the French were unwilling to compromise their colonial interests in Indochina. Ngô Đình Diệm was a conservative strongly opposing communism and was the supporter of the Bảo Đại Solution, but he also rejected an offer of Prime Minister in the new Vietnam, saying "the national aspirations of the Vietnamese people will be satisfied only when our nation obtains the same status India and Pakistan enjoy".[58] Diệm felt uncomfortable with the French influence. He was pro-American because he believed that the U.S. as No.1 superpower could help Vietnam modernize and industrialize as well as help Vietnam's freedom and full independence, even though he considered Western liberal democracy to be not good for the Vietnamese at the time. He and his brothers were part of a political group that opposed both the communists and Bảo Đại, especially communists. Their Cần Lao Party was established and his brothers played important roles in helping him build international and internal networks and support in different ways.[152] The Americans' assessments of Diệm were varied but Diệm did gain favor with some high-ranking officials, such as Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas, Roman Catholic cardinal Francis Spellman, Representative Mike Mansfield of Montana, and Representative John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts along with numerous journalists, academics, and the former director of the Office of Strategic Services William J. Donovan.[153] Although he did not succeed in winning official support from the U.S., his personal interactions with American political leaders promised the prospect of gaining more support in the future. Mansfield remembered after the luncheon with Diệm held on 8 May 1953, he felt that "if anyone could hold South Vietnam, it was somebody like Ngô Đình Diệm".[154] After becoming Prime Minister of the State of Vietnam on 16 June 1954 and later Vietnamese division, Diệm abolished the federal system and the Domain of the Crown as well as suppressed factions having their own forces within the Vietnamese National Army (Cao Đài, Hòa Hảo, and Bình Xuyên), and he would see the last vestiges of the French colonial empire in Vietnam gradually disappear with the final transfers based on full independence treaty for Vietnam on June 4.[39][155][156][37][157] He and the United States would also eliminate French involvement in Vietnam with making South Vietnam withdraw from the French Union on 9 December 1955 and forcing the French troops to withdraw from South Vietnam on 28 April 1956.[158] After overthrowing Bảo Đại to establish the Republic of Vietnam in place of the State of Vietnam in October 1955, Diệm's state in South Vietnam would see the beginning of a Vietnamese civil war and a Cold War proxy conflict (Vietnam War) to protect capitalism and be against the invasion of communism from North North.[159][160]

France hoped that granting independence to Vietnam would attract American aid.[24] However, while on 22 July 1949 the United States State Department declared that the Élysée Accords was developments that realized the aspirations of the Vietnamese people, it did not immediately recognize the new state. The U.S. initially did not recognize Vietnam because they wanted to see a non-communist Vietnam with complete independence. U.S. support for Vietnam and France grew steadily after the accords; and because of the loss of China (partly due to the U.S. drastically cutting aid to Chiang Kai-shek's government[161][162]) to the communists led by Mao Zedong and later the recognition of the communist Democratic Republic of Vietnam by the Soviet Union on 30 January 1950, the United States eventually recognized new Vietnamese state of Bảo Đại on February 3 (one day after the French President ratified the agreement) and granted $15 million in military aid, France asked for aid from the U.S. before that on 16 February 1950. At that time the French Union was in a much strong position compared to a deprived guerrilla organization like the communist Viet Minh[163] despite the French loss of military initiative after their successes of 1947.[4] In fact, the United States also supported the British colonialists to fight Malayan communists led by Chin Peng in another colonial war in Malaya (1948-60).[164] At that time the communist bloc was a unified bloc led by the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union was in a global geopolitical conflict with the United States, the leader of the capitalist bloc which included France.[4][29] The success of the communists in China and the outbreak of the Korean War when communist North Korea invaded the South strengthened American anti-communism and the United States gradually increased its attention to the Indochina issue.[4] The United States provided direct economic aid to Vietnam after the two countries signed a treaty in Saigon on 7 September 1951 while military aid had to go through France until February 1955. In December 1950, the U.S., France and Vietnam officially signed the Agreement. This was the first agreement between the U.S. and newly independent Vietnam. Also in December 1950, the U.S., France and Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos signed the Indochina Mutual Defense Agreement. The United States pledged military aid to protect three independent countries in Indochina, including Vietnam.[4][165] After Vietnam gained independence from France, diplomatic relations between Vietnam and the United States were established on February 17, 1950, when the Consulate General at Saigon was raised to Legation status with Edmund A. Gullion as Chargé d'Affaires ad interim. The United States Legation in Saigon was raised to Embassy status on June 24, 1952, when the first American Ambassador to Vietnam received confirmation of his appointment from the United States Senate. This followed a joint announcement by the Governments of the United States and Vietnam to this effect on June 6, 1952. Donald Heath was appointed as the first U.S. ambassador to take up his post in Vietnam.[4][166] The United States, on the one hand, helped France in the war, but on the other hand, it always put pressure on France to gradually give the Vietnamese autonomy, especially in the context of the global Cold War against the communist bloc led by the Soviet Union. France and the U.K. had lost their superpower status and were devastated after the war while relying on the Marshall Plan. After World War II, the United States used its power to contribute greatly to the gradual liquidation of the French colonial empire and the British Empire in particular and colonialism in general. France felt uncomfortable with the decolonial pressure of the United States. They prevented the Vietnamese army from being trained to use new American equipment and prevented the Vietnamese from using American liaison officers, but France eventually relented.[167][168][169] On June 30, 1950, the first U.S. supplies for Indochina were delivered.[170] In September 1950, the U.S. further enforced the Truman Doctrine by creating a Military Assistance and Advisory Group (MAAG) to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy, and train Vietnamese soldiers.[171]: 18  By 1953, aid increased dramatically to $350 million to replace old military equipment owned by the French.[167] By 1954, the U.S. had spent $1 billion in support of the French military effort, shouldering 78% of the cost of the war.[4][172]: 35  American help could not save France and pro-French Vietnam in the war because the Vietnamese communists were much helped by communist China also from 1950.[173][174][175] The French were at a disadvantage and bogged down heavily on the battlefield, especially after the battle of Dien Bien Phu on 7 May 1954. A division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel would take place in July 1954 that both the State of Vietnam and the communist Viet Minh would be unhappy about but powerless due to foreign influence.[176] Before that, China was the first country recognizing communist government in Vietnam on 18 January 1950.[177] Four days after the U.S., the United Kingdom was the next country recognizing Vietnamese independence of Bảo Đại on 7 February 1950.[4][178] In early 1950, 35 countries recognized independence of Vietnam, among them were United States, South Korea, Thailand, Iran, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia, Greece, Spain, and South American countries.[179][180] Vietnam joined many international organizations outside the French Union.[11] With Vietnam's independence, the country was among the parties that signed the peace treaty with Japan in San Francisco (California, U.S.) in September 1951, it also claimed sovereignty over the Paracel and Spratly Islands in the South China Sea at the 1951 San Francisco Conference without any objection from any of the participating countries.[3][42] In 1951, Vietnam was admitted to the International Telecommunication Union as an independent member country and its telephone code was chosen as 84. One year later, Vietnam participated in the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki (Finland) and its football association representing an independent country joined FIFA.[181][4][182][183] Also in 1952, despite the Soviet Union's veto of participation, Vietnam became an observer country of the United Nations.[184]

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Notes

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  1. ^ Bảo Đại abdicated on 25 August 1945 under pressure from the communists, but he later used the title of "Emperor" again with the support of the anti-communist faction to represent them in negotiations with France and sign this treaty with the French President and French Union's President. However, after he became the leader of the new state, he was usually called by another term (Quốc trưởng).[4][1]
  2. ^ The full independence treaty 4 June 1954 between Vietnam and France included two smaller treaties, recognizing Vietnam as a completely sovereign country within the French Union. It was signed in the Hôtel Matignon between two Prime Ministers (Bửu Lộc and Joseph Laniel), 14 days before the fall of Laniel's government in France and nearly one month after French defeat in Điện Biên Phủ, and it was never ratified by the two heads of state so it was never legally completed according to Article 31 of the 1946 French Republic Constitution;[36] but according to its Article 4, it came into effect on the day of signing.[37][38]
  3. ^ The First Republic with a unicameral parliament. It would be replaced by the Second Republic of Vietnam when a new constitution was promulgated on 1 April 1967, and then bicameral parliamentary and presidential elections would take place, leading to Nguyễn Văn Thiệu becoming President and Nguyễn Cao Kỳ becoming Vice President a few months later.[50]
  4. ^ Opposing the communist totalitarian regime of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam under the name of liberal democracy, in fact the State of Vietnam (1949-1955) was not a liberal democracy because it had no constitution and no parliament, while the Republic of Vietnam under President Ngô Đình Diệm and later under military rule (1955-1967) was also dictatorships. The Second Republic of Vietnam (1967-1975) is considered to have reached the level of liberal democracy although it was flawed due to the war situation.[51][52][53]
  5. ^ Later a symbol of anti-communist Overseas Vietnamese as part of Vietnamese democracy movement.[64][65]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z "Hiệp định Pháp-Việt ngày 8 tháng 3 năm 1949 (Hiệp định Élysée)". 16 June 2014.
  2. ^ a b "Explorer les collections". m.quaibranly.fr. Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "Sự tiếp nối chủ quyền Việt Nam đối với hai quần đảo Hoàng Sa và Trường Sa" [The continuation of Vietnam's sovereignty over the Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagos]. 21 December 2015. Archived from the original on 19 April 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al "The Pentagon Papers, Chapter 2, "U.S. Involvement in the Franco-Viet Minh War, 1950–1954", U.S. Policy and the Bao Dai Regime". Archived from the original on 6 August 2011. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
  5. ^ a b Duiker, William (1 July 1994). U.S. Containment Policy and the Conflict in Indochina. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-6581-7.
  6. ^ "Hiệp định élysée – Bách khoa Toàn thư Việt Nam". bktt.vn.
  7. ^ Billot, 411–415
  8. ^ The Struggle for Indochina, 1940 - 1955
  9. ^ Billot, 418–21; Devillers, 482–4
  10. ^ Le Monde illustré – Le Vietnam à cessé d'être protectorat français cérémonie à l'hôtel de ville de Saïgon avec l'empereur Bao Daï et le commissaire de la République M. Pignon (Vietnam ceased to be a French protectorate, ceremony at Saigon City Hall with Emperor Bao Dai and the Commissioner of the Republic, Mr Pignon.) Published: 1950. Quote: "Au cours d'une cérémonie qui s'est déroulée à l'hôtel de ville de Saigon, S.M. l'empereur Bao Daï et le haut commisaire de la République M. Pignon, ont signé la coxcation pour l'application des accords du 8 mars 1949, qui transfère au Vietnam, indépendant au sein de l'Union française, les pouvoies drenus par la France et remet au souverain le contrôle de l'administracion.". (in French).
  11. ^ a b CHXHCN Việt Nam có bị ràng buộc bởi công thư 1958?, thanhnien, 20.06.2014
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