Jump to content

Tornado records

Add links
Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A map of the tornado paths in the 1974 Super Outbreak

This article lists various tornado records. The most "extreme" tornado in recorded history was the Tri-State tornado, which spread through parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana on March 18, 1925. It is considered an F5 on the Fujita Scale, holds records for longest path length at 219 miles (352 km) and longest duration at about 3+1⁄2 hours, and held the fastest forward speed for a significant tornado at 73 mph (117 km/h) anywhere on Earth until 2021. In addition, it is the deadliest single tornado in United States history with 695 fatalities.[1] It was also the second costliest tornado in history at the time, and when costs are normalized for wealth and inflation, it still ranks third today[as of?].[2]

The deadliest tornado in world history was the Daulatpur–Saturia tornado in Bangladesh on April 26, 1989, which killed approximately 1,300 people.[3] In the history of Bangladesh, at least 19 tornadoes killed more than 100 people each, almost half of the total for the world. The most extensive tornado outbreak on record was the 2011 Super Outbreak, which resulted in 367 tornadoes and 324 tornadic fatalities,[4] whereas the 1974 Super Outbreak was the most intense tornado outbreak on tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis's outbreak intensity score with 578, as opposed to the 2011 outbreak's 378.[5]

Tornado outbreaks

Most tornadoes in a single 24-hour period

Outbreaks with 100+ tornadoes in a single 24-hour period
Outbreak Year Country Tornadoes in 24-hour span Outbreak total F2/EF2+ F4/EF4+ Deaths
2011 Super Outbreak 2011 US, CAN 223 (05:00 UTC April 27–28)
226 (05:40 UTC April 27–28) 		367[6] 86 15 324
1974 Super Outbreak 1974 US, CAN 148 (Duration of outbreak) 148[7] 96 30 319
Tornado outbreak of March 31 – April 1, 2023 2023 US 136 (19:00 UTC March 31–April 1) 146[8] 44 1 27
2020 Easter tornado outbreak 2020 US 132 (14:40 UTC April 12–13) 141[9] 35 3 32
December 2021 Midwest derecho and tornado outbreak 2021 US 120 (Duration of outbreak) 120[10] 33 0 0
Tornado outbreak of January 21–23, 1999 1999 US 116 (21:10 UTC January 21–22) 128[11] 23 1 9
1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak 1981 UK 104 (Duration of outbreak) 104[12] 2 0 0

The 2011 Super Outbreak was the largest tornado outbreak spawned by a single weather system in recorded history; it produced 367 tornadoes from April 25–28, with 223 of those in a single 24-hour period on April 27 from midnight to midnight CDT,[6][13] fifteen of which were violent EF4–EF5 tornadoes. 348 deaths occurred in that outbreak, of which 324 were tornado related. The outbreak largely contributed to the record for most tornadoes in the month of April with 773 tornadoes, almost triple the prior record (267 in April 1974). The overall record for a single month was 542 in May 2003, which was also broken.[14]

The infamous 1974 Super Outbreak of April 3–4, 1974, which spawned 148 confirmed tornadoes across eastern North America, held the record for the most prolific tornado outbreak in terms of overall tornadoes for many years, and still[as of?] holds the record for most violent, long-track tornadoes (7 F5 and 23 F4 tornadoes). More significant tornadoes occurred within 24 hours than any other day on record.[7][15] Due to a secular trend[clarification needed] in tornado reporting, the 2011 and 1974 tornado counts are not directly comparable.

Most violent tornadoes (F4/EF4 and F5/EF5) in an outbreak

Outbreaks with fifteen or more F4/EF4 and F5/EF5 tornadoes
Outbreak Year Country F4/EF4 F5/EF5 Total Deaths
1974 Super Outbreak 1974 US, CAN 23 7 30[7] 319
1965 Palm Sunday tornado outbreak 1965 US 18 0 18[16] 271
May–June 1917 tornado outbreak sequence 1917 US 14 1 15[17] 383
2011 Super Outbreak 2011 US, CAN 11 4 15[6] 324

Longest continuous outbreak and largest autumnal outbreak

Most tornado outbreaks in North America occur in the spring, but there is a secondary peak of tornado activity in the fall. It is historically less consistent from year to year but can include exceptionally large or intense outbreaks. In 1992, an estimated 95 tornadoes broke out in a record 41 hours of continuous tornado activity from November 21 to 23. This is also among the largest-known outbreaks in areal expanse. Many other very large outbreaks have occurred in autumn, especially in October and November, such as the 2002 Veterans Day weekend outbreak, in which 83 tornadoes occurred from November 9 to 11, and November 17, 2013, when 73 tornadoes were produced in 11 hours.[1]

Greatest number of tornadoes spawned from a hurricane

The greatest number of tornadoes spawned from a hurricane is 120 from Hurricane Ivan in September 2004, followed by Hurricane Beulah with 115 in September 1967, and 103 from Hurricane Frances in September 2004 (a couple weeks before Ivan).[18] Hurricanes prior to the 1990s, when tornado records were more sparse, perhaps produced more tornadoes than were officially documented.

Tornadoes annually and monthly

Most tornadoes for each calendar month

Highest confirmed number of tornadoes by month in United States
Month January February March April May June July August September October November December
Year 1999 2008 2022 2011 2003 1992 1993 2004 2004 2021 1992 2021
Total 216[19][20] 147[20] 234[20][21] 780[20] 542[20][a] 399[20][22] 242[20] 179[20] 297[20] 150[20] 161[20] 227[20][23]
Largest continuous tornado outbreak by month
Month Event Tornadoes
January Tornado outbreak of January 21–23, 1999 128
February 2008 Super Tuesday tornado outbreak 87
March Tornado outbreak of March 31 – April 1, 2023 146[b]
April 2011 Super Outbreak 367
May Tornado outbreak sequence of May 2019 402
June Tornado outbreak of June 14–18, 1992 170
July Severe weather sequence of July 13–16, 2024 90
August Hurricane Katrina tornado outbreak 57
September Hurricane Ivan tornado outbreak 120
October October 2010 North American storm complex 69
November Tornado outbreak of November 22–24, 2004

1981 United Kingdom tornado outbreak

104
December December 2021 Midwest derecho and tornado outbreak 120

Most tornadoes in a single year

On average, 1,200 tornadoes happen in a year in the United States. The most confirmed tornadoes in a single year was in 2004,[24] which had 1817 confirmed tornadoes. This was mostly boosted by a large tornado outbreak sequence in May 2004, where 509 tornadoes occurred. It also had help from a very active fall and winter tornado season.

Tornado casualties and damage

Deadliest single tornado in world history

For a more comprehensive list, see List of tornadoes causing 100 or more deaths.

Officially, the deadliest single tornado occurred on April 26, 1989 in Bangladesh, where a large tornado took at least 1,300 lives.[25] In 2021, this tornado's death toll was challenged in a database of Bangladeshi tornadoes maintained by Dr. Fahim Sufi with the Australian Government, claiming that the April 14, 1969, Dhaka tornado, which killed 922 people, was the deadliest in Bangladesh, with the Jamalpur tornado killing only 570.[26]

Deadliest single tornado in US history

The Tri-State tornado of March 18, 1925, killed 695 people in Missouri (11), Illinois (613), and Indiana (71). The outbreak it occurred with was also the deadliest known tornado outbreak, with a combined death toll of 747 across the Mississippi River Valley.[27][28]

Most intense tornado damage

Every building in the Double Creek Estates in Jarrell was destroyed when an F5 tornado stalled over the subdivision.

The original Fujita scale, developed by Ted Fujita, has never been used to assign a final rating over F5 intensity;[c] however, two tornadoes, the 1970 Lubbock tornado and 1974 Xenia tornado, were initially given F6 ratings by Fujita himself, but both were eventually downgraded to F5 ratings.[30][31] The 1976 Jordan tornado was described by Fujita as the most intense tornado damage he had surveyed up to that point.[32]

A more recent example of extreme damage was at the Double Creek Estates of Jarrell, Texas; the 1997 Jarrell tornado stalled over the area at peak F5 intensity, destroying every home in the subdivision, and killing 27. Extreme ground scouring and high-end F5 damage was surveyed.[33] The 2008 Parkersburg tornado was reported by mayor Bob Haylock to have been so intense that a majority of the fatalities out of Parkersburg were from people taking shelter in basements underground.[34] The 2011 Philadelphia, Mississippi tornado caused extreme ground scouring across its path; up to .5 m (1.6 ft) of soil was removed from the environment, presumably from intense subvortices.[35]

Most damaging tornado

The 1896 St. Louis–East St. Louis tornado on May 27, incurred the most damages adjusted for inflation, with an estimated $5.36 billion (2022 USD). In raw numbers, the Joplin tornado of May 22, 2011, is considered the costliest tornado in recent history, with damage totals at $3.71 billion (2022 USD). Until April 2011, the Bridge Creek–Moore tornado of May 3, 1999, was the most costly, which was later surpassed by the 2011 Tuscaloosa–Birmingham tornado, with a damage total of $3.18 billion (2022 USD).[36]

Lists of damage and fatality records

Largest and most powerful tornadoes

Highest winds observed in a tornado

Main article: List of tornadoes observed by mobile radars
Wind speed of 261 mph (420 km/h) or 116 m/s in tornadoes observed by radar, organized by the highest confirmed wind speed.
Official rating Date Location Minimum peak wind speed Maximum peak wind speed Highest confirmed peak wind speed
F5 May 3, 1999 Bridge Creek, Oklahoma 281 mph (452 km/h) 321 mph (517 km/h) 321 mph (517 km/h)[d]
In 2007, Joshua Wurman along with other researchers, published that a Doppler on Wheels recorded 135 m/s (300 mph; 490 km/h) approximately 32 metres (105 ft) above the radar level.[38][39] In 2021, Wurman along with other researchers, revised the data using improved techniques and published that the Doppler on Wheels actually recorded 321 miles per hour (517 km/h) in the tornado.[40][37]
EF3 May 31, 2013 El Reno, Oklahoma 291 mph (468 km/h) 336 mph (541 km/h) 313 mph (504 km/h)
A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds between 257–336 mph (414–541 km/h) at or less than 100 metres (330 ft) above the radar level in a suction vortex inside the tornado.[39] This was later revised by the Doppler on Wheels team to 291–336 mph (468–541 km/h).[37] In 2015, Howard Bluestein, along with other researchers, reported that the radar did capture at least a moment of winds of 313 miles per hour (504 km/h).[41]
EF4 May 21, 2024 Greenfield, Iowa 309 mph (497 km/h) 318 mph (512 km/h) ≥309 mph (497 km/h)[e]
A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 263–271 mph (423–436 km/h) approximately 30–50 m (98–164 ft) above the radar level. Following calculations to more accurately determine peak wind speeds, it was published that ground-relative winds of 309–318 mph (497–512 km/h) could be observed briefly to the immediate east of the main circulation.[37]
EF5 May 24, 2011 Hinton, Oklahoma 289 mph (465 km/h) 296 mph (476 km/h) 295.5 mph (475.6 km/h)
RaXPol recorded a wind gust of 124.8 m/s (279 mph; 449 km/h) about 200–230 feet (60–70 m) above the radar level.[42] However, this data was later revised to be 132.1 m/s (295 mph; 476 km/h) at 72 ft (22 m) above the radar level.[43][39]
F4 April 26, 1991 Ceres, Oklahoma 268 mph (431 km/h) 280 mph (450 km/h) 280 mph (450 km/h)
A University of Oklahoma chase team headed by Howard Bluestein utilized mobile doppler weather radar to analyze the tornado. The radar measured peak winds of 120–125 m/s (270–280 mph; 430–450 km/h) between 150–190 m (490–620 ft) above the surface.[39] At the time, this represented the strongest winds ever measured by radar, including the first measurements of F5 intensity winds.[44][45]
EF2 June 5, 2009 Goshen County, Wyoming — — 271 mph (436 km/h)
A Doppler on Wheels observed the entire lifecycle of an EF2 tornado in Goshen County, Wyoming. The radar also observed a peak wind speed of 271 mph (436 km/h) at 15–20 m (49–66 ft) above the ground level.[46]
F4 May 30, 1998 Spencer, South Dakota 234 mph (377 km/h) 266 mph (428 km/h) 264 mph (425 km/h)
A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 264 mph (425 km/h) "well below" 50 metres (160 ft) above the ground level, "perhaps as low as 5–10 metres (16–33 ft) above the radar level".[47][39] The Doppler on Wheels also recorded a confirmed five-second wind speed average of 112 m/s (250 mph; 400 km/h).[47]
EF3 May 28, 2013 Bennington, Kansas — — 264 mph (425 km/h)
A Doppler on Wheels recorded winds of 264 mph (425 km/h) approximately 153 ft (47 m) above the ground level.[48]
F4 May 3, 1999 Mulhall, Oklahoma 246 mph (396 km/h) 299 mph (481 km/h) 257 mph (414 km/h)
A Doppler on Wheels documented the largest-ever-observed core flow circulation with a distance of 1,600 m (5,200 ft) between peak velocities on either side of the tornado, and a roughly 7 km (4.3 mi) width of peak wind gusts exceeding 43 m/s (96 mph), making the Mulhall tornado the largest tornado ever measured quantitatively.[49] The DOW measured a complex multi-vortex structure,[50] with several vortices containing winds of up to 115 m/s (260 mph) rotating around the tornado. The 3D structure of the tornado has been analyzed in a 2005 article in the Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences by Wen-Chau Lee and Joshua Wurman.[51] In 2024, it was published that the radar did measure winds of approximately 257 mph (414 km/h) approximately 30 m (98 ft) above the radar level.[39]

During the F5 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado on May 3, 1999, in the southern Oklahoma City metro area, a Doppler on Wheels situated near the tornado measured winds of 301 ± 20 mph (484 ± 32 km/h) momentarily in a small area inside the funnel approximately 100 m (330 ft) above ground level.[52] The measured winds in this tornado have been updated to 321 miles per hour (517 km/h)[37]

On May 31, 2013, a tornado hit rural areas near El Reno, Oklahoma. The tornado was originally rated as an EF3 based on damage; however, after mobile radar data analysis was conducted, it was concluded to have been an EF5 due to a measured wind speed of greater than 296 mph (476 km/h), second only to the Bridge Creek–Moore tornado. Revised RaXPol analysis found winds of 302 ± 34 mph (486 ± 55 km/h) well above ground level and ≥291 mph (468 km/h) below 10 m (33 ft) with some subvortices moving at 175 mph (282 km/h).[53] These winds may possibly be as high or higher than the winds recorded on May 3, 1999. Despite the recorded windspeed, the El Reno tornado was later downgraded back to EF3 due to the fact that no EF5 damage was found, likely due to the lack of sufficient damage indicators in the largely-rural area west of Oklahoma City.[54][55]

During the Greenfield, Iowa EF4 on May 21, 2024, Doppler on Wheels recorded wind speeds of 263–271 mph (423–436 km/h) in a very small swath inside the funnel approximately 100–106 ft (30–32 m) above radar level as the tornado went through town. After doing some mathematical and physics-based calculations, the researchers determined those measured winds were equivalent to 309–318 mph (497–512 km/h). The calculated minimum wind threshold as stated beats both the 1999 Bridge Creek–Moore tornado and the 2013 El Reno, Oklahoma tornado for minimum possible maximum windspeed; however, the highest confirmed peak windspeeds are lower than the 1999 tornado.[56][57]

Winds were measured at 262–280 mph (422–451 km/h) using portable Doppler weather radar in the Red Rock, Oklahoma, tornado during the April 26, 1991, tornado outbreak in north-central Oklahoma. Though these winds are possibly indicative of F5 intensity, this particular tornado's path never encountered any significant structures and caused minimal damage, so it was rated F4.[58]

Wind speed of 300 mph (130 m/s) or above estimated in tornadoes, organized chronologically.
Accepted rating Date Location Low end peak wind estimate High end peak wind estimate Method Estimating researcher / organization Ref
T11 June 29, 1764 Woldegk, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Holy Roman Empire (now Germany) 300 mph (480 km/h) — Damage survey ESSL [59]
F5 March 18, 1925 Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana, United States — >300 mph (480 km/h) Damage survey NWS [60]
F4 July 20, 1931 Lublin, Poland [simple] 246 mph (396 km/h) 336 mph (541 km/h) Dynamic pressure Gumulski [61]
F5 May 15, 1968 Charles City, Iowa, United States 200 mph (320 km/h) 300 mph (480 km/h) Damage survey NWS [62]
— April 14, 1969 Dhaka, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) 644 km/h (400 mph) — Academic analysis Fahim Sufi [63]
F5 April 3, 1974 Xenia, Ohio, United States 250 mph (400 km/h) 305 mph (491 km/h) Academic analysis Fujita [64]
F5 March 13, 1990 Goessel, Kansas, United States 300 mph (480 km/h) 350 mph (560 km/h) Academic analysis Fujita, Grazulis [65][66]
F4 June 8, 1995 Pampa, Texas, United States 300 mph (480 km/h) >318 mph (512 km/h) Photogrammetry Grazulis [67]

While never observed, these tornadoes are believed to have had winds of 300 miles per hour (480 km/h) or above, which would make them among the strongest tornadoes in history. There is a questionable analysis of the 1917 Mattoon/Charleston tornado[f] published in the Geographical Review in 1917 that stated the tornado had strong "inflowing wind, which probably exceeded 400 mph (640 km/h)".[68] A 1968 Weather Bureau review of the 1968 Hansell-Charles City tornado found intense ground scouring, and initial estimates for wind speeds reached 528 mph (850 km/h); these figures were revised down to 200–300 mph (320–480 km/h).[62]

Longest damage path and duration

Radar collage of the supercell that spawned the record-breaking tornado family on December 10–11, 2021

The longest-known track for a single tornado is the Tri-State tornado, occurring on March 18, 1925, with a path length of 151 to 235 mi (243 to 378 km). For years there was debate whether the originally-recognized path length of 219 mi (352 km) over 3.5 hours was from one tornado or a series. Some very long track (VLT) tornadoes were later determined to be successive tornadoes spawned by the same supercell thunderstorm, which are known as a tornado family. The Tri-State tornado, however, appeared to have no gaps in the damage. A six-year reanalysis study by a team of severe convective storm meteorologists found insufficient evidence to make firm conclusions but does conclude that it is likely that the beginning and ending of the path was resultant of separate tornadoes comprising a tornado family. It also found that the tornado began 15 mi (24 km) to the west and ended 1 mi (1.6 km) farther east than previously known, bringing the total path to 235 mi (378 km).[citation needed] The 174 mi (280 km) segment from central Madison County, Missouri, to Pike County, Indiana, is likely one continuous tornado, and the 151 mi (243 km) segment from central Bollinger County, Missouri, to western Pike County, Indiana, is very likely a single continuous tornado. Another significant tornado was found about 65 mi (105 km) east-northeast of the end of aforementioned segment(s) of the Tri-State tornado family and is likely another member of the family. Its path length of 20 mi (32 km) over about 20 minutes makes the known tornado family path length total to 320 mi (510 km) over about 5+1⁄2 hours.[69] Grazulis in 2001 wrote that the first 60 mi (97 km) of the (originally recognized) track is probably the result of two or more tornadoes and that a path length of 157 mi (253 km) was seemingly continuous.[70]

The 2021 Western Kentucky tornado on December 10, 2021 is the longest confirmed track of a tornado.[71] This violent tornado tracked 165.7 mi (266.7 km) through the states of Tennessee and Kentucky during a very intense late-season outbreak. The tornado was spawned by a very long-tracked supercell that previously dropped another violent tornado in Arkansas and Tennessee, and initial media reports referred to the entire event as the "Quad-state Tornado", which would have had a path of 230 mi (370 km).[72]

On March 22, 1953, a tornado touched down near Leesville, Louisiana at 21:00 UTC; the tornado continued into far-northwest Mississippi, before dissipating north of Leland, killing two and injuring 22. The tornado was rated F2 on the Fujita scale. It traveled for 234.7 mi (377.7 km), making it possibly the longest tracked tornado in history, though it is likely that the path consisted of multiple different tornadoes as part of a tornado family.[73][74]

Longest path and duration tornado family

What at one time was thought to be the record holder for the longest tornado path is now thought to be the longest tornado family, with a track of at least 293 miles (472 km) on May 26, 1917, from the Missouri border across Illinois into Indiana. It caused severe damage and mass casualties in Charleston and Mattoon, Illinois.[1]

What was probably the longest track supercell thunderstorm tracked 790 miles (1,270 km) across 6 states in 17.5 hours on March 12, 2006, as part of the March 2006 tornado outbreak sequence. It began in Noble County, Oklahoma, and ended in Jackson County, Michigan, producing many tornadoes in Missouri and Illinois.[75]

Largest path width

Main article: List of tornadoes by width

Officially, the widest tornado on record is the El Reno, Oklahoma tornado of May 31, 2013, with a width of 2.6 miles (4.2 km) at its peak. This is the width found by the National Weather Service based on preliminary data from University of Oklahoma RaXPol mobile radar that also sampled winds of 296 mph (476 km/h), which was used to upgrade the tornado to EF5.[76] However, it was revealed that these winds did not impact any structures, and as a result the tornado was downgraded to EF3 based on damage.[77]

The F4 Hallam, Nebraska, tornado during the outbreak of May 22, 2004, was the previous official record holder for the widest tornado, surveyed at 2.5 miles (4.0 km) wide. A similar size tornado struck Edmonson, Texas on May 31, 1968, when a damage path width between 2 and 3 miles (3.2 and 4.8 km) was recorded from an F3 tornado.[78] Another tornado with a similar width struck Maxton and Red Springs during the March 28, 1984, Carolina Tornado Outbreak; this tornado had a width of 2.5 miles wide at one point. Rated as F4, the tornado resulted in 3 fatalities and 280 injuries.[79] The EF4 Jiangsu tornado on June 23, 2016, also had a peak width of 4.1 km wide (2.5 miles).[80][81]

On May 3, 1999, a Doppler On Wheels (DOW) mobile radar observed an F4 tornado as it crossed Mulhall during the 1999 Oklahoma Tornado Outbreak, which also produced the Bridge Creek–Moore tornado. The DOW documented the largest-ever-observed core flow circulation with a distance of 1,600 m (5,200 ft) between peak velocities on either side of the tornado, and a roughly 7 km (4.3 mi) width of peak wind gusts exceeding 43 m/s (96 mph), making the Mulhall tornado the largest tornado ever measured quantitatively.[49]

On April 21, 1946, a tornado struck the area in and around Timber Lake, South Dakota. The U.S. Weather Bureau published a paper in 1946 stating the width of this tornado was 4 miles (6.4 km), which would make this the widest tornado ever documented in history. However, this is outside the period of reliable documentation accepted by the National Weather Service, which is 1950–present.[82]

On May 19, 2024, a large multiple-vortex tornado tracked 15 mi (24 km) over rural areas near Custer City, Oklahoma. While the tornado is believed to only have been about 1 mile wide, the maximum width of its tornadic windfield and accompanying damage was nearly 3 mi (4.8 km), making it one of the largest recorded damage paths of any tornado.[83]

Smallest and shortest-lived damaging tornado

The smallest and shortest-lived tornado on record to produce surveyable damage was an EF1 tornado on the western side of Broken Bow, Nebraska on July 16, 2024. Spawned from an outflow-driven supercell, a very brief tornado, seen by a chaser and a surveillance camera, was recorded on the ground for only two seconds, having a listed maximum width of only 1 yard (0.91 m) and a listed path length of 0.01 miles (16 m). Despite this, it was powerful enough to lift and throw a 800 lb (360 kg) trailer into a nearby parked car.[84]

Highest forward speed

The highest accepted forward speed of an intense tornado on record was 73 mph (117 km/h) from the 1925 Tri-State tornado, occurring between the Illinois cities of Gorham and Murphysboro.[85] Other weak tornadoes have approached or exceeded this speed, but this is the fastest forward movement observed in a major tornado.[1] The 1977 Birmingham tornado had an average forward speed of 60 mph (97 km/h),[86] as did the 2021 Western Kentucky tornado.[87]

The highest accepted average forward speed of a significant tornado occurred just west of Galt, Iowa, on December 15, 2021, with a forward speed of 88.65 mph (142.67 km/h).[88] This tornado occurred during the December 2021 Midwest derecho and tornado outbreak.

Greatest pressure drop

A pressure deficit of 100 millibars (2.95 inHg) was observed when a violent tornado near Manchester, South Dakota on June 24, 2003, passed directly over an in-situ probe deployed by storm chasing researcher Tim Samaras.[89] In less than a minute, the pressure dropped to 850 millibars (25.10 inHg), which are the greatest pressure decline and the lowest pressure ever recorded at the Earth's surface when adjusted to sea level.[90][91]

On April 21, 2007, a 194-millibar (5.73 inHg) pressure deficit was reported when a tornado struck a storm chasing vehicle in Tulia, Texas.[92] The tornado caused EF2 damage as it passed through Tulia. The reported pressure drop far exceeds that which would be expected based on theoretical calculations.[93]

There is a questionable and unofficial citizen's barometer measurement of a 192-millibar (5.67 inHg) drop around Minneapolis in 1904.[94]

Early tornadoes

Earliest-known tornado in Europe

  • The earliest recorded tornado in Europe struck Freising (Germany) in 788.[95][96]
  • The earliest-known Irish tornado appeared on April 30, 1054, in Rostella, near Kilbeggan. The earliest-known British tornado hit central London on October 23, 1091, and was especially destructive.[97]

Earliest-known tornado in the Americas

  • An apparent tornado is recorded to have struck Tlatelolco (present day Mexico City), on August 21, 1521, two days before the Aztec capital's fall to Cortés. Many other tornadoes are documented historically within the Basin of Mexico.[98]

First confirmed tornado and first tornado fatality in present-day United States

Earliest-known tornado in Asia

  • An apparent tornado caused severe damage in Heian-kyō in modern-day Kyoto on 1 June 1180,[g] which was recorded by Japanese author Kamo no Chōmei, who personally experienced the tornado.[102][103]
  • The earliest recorded tornado in continental Asia struck near the city of Calcutta in present-day West Bengal, India, in 1838. It was described as moving remarkably slow across its 16-mile (26 km) path southeast over the span of 2 to 3 hours. It was recorded to cause significant damage to the area, including 3.5-pound (1.6 kg) hail being observed at the Dum Dum weather observatory.[104]

First published scientific studies of a tornado

A few scientists in Europe,[105] the US, and elsewhere documented the occurrence of tornadoes in the late 18th and early-mid 19th centuries to try to discern patterns of distribution and sometimes with inferences about formative processes and dynamics.

For intensive studies of tornadoes, these are the earliest known publications:

  • 1765: German scientist Gottlob Burchard Genzmer published a detailed survey of the damage path of an extremely violent tornado which occurred near Woldegk, Germany, on 29 June 1764. It covers the entire 33 km (18.6 mi) long track and also includes eyewitness reports as well as an analysis of the debris and hail fallout areas. Genzmer calls the event an "Orcan" and only compares it to waterspouts or dust devils. Based on the damage survey, modern day meteorologists from the ESSL gave an roughly estimated rating of F5.[106][107]
  • 1839–41: A detailed survey of the damage path of the significant tornado that struck New Brunswick, New Jersey, on 19 June 1835, was published. This tornado is also considered the deadliest tornado in New Jersey history. The path was surveyed by many scientists on account of its location between New York City and Philadelphia, including early tornado theorists James Pollard Espy and William Charles Redfield. Scientists disagreed whether there was whirling, convergent, or rotational motion. A conclusion that remains accurate today is that the most intense damage tends to be on the right side of a tornado (with respect to direction of forward movement), which was found to be generally easterly.[108][109]
  • 1840: The earliest known intensive study of a tornadic event published in Europe, by French scientist Athanase Peltier.[110]
  • 1865: The first in India and earliest known scientific survey of a tornado that analyzed structure and dynamics was published in 1865 by Indian scientist Chunder Sikur Chatterjee. The path damage survey of a tornado that occurred at Pundooah (now Pandua), Hugli district, West Bengal, India, was documented on maps and revealed multiple vortices, the tornadocyclone, and direction of rotation,[111] predating work by John Park Finley, Alfred Wegener, Johannes Letzmann, and Ted Fujita.

Exceptional tornado droughts

Longest span without a tornado rated F5/EF5 in the United States

Spans without an official F5/EF5 of more than 3.5 years
Length in Years Length in Days Start of drought[112] End of drought[112]
3.921 1,431 May 5, 1960 April 3, 1964
4.995 1,824 April 4, 1977 April 2, 1982
4.786 1,747 May 31, 1985 March 13, 1990
4.090 1,493 June 16, 1992 July 18, 1996
8.003 2,923 May 3, 1999 May 4, 2007
11.524+ 4,209+ May 20, 2013 Present

Before the Greensburg EF5 tornado on May 4, 2007, it had been eight years and one day since the United States had a confirmed F5/EF5 tornado. Prior to Greensburg, the last confirmed F5/EF5 had hit the southern Oklahoma City metro area and surrounding communities on May 3, 1999. This stretch was later surpassed by an ongoing drought which began on May 20, 2013; it is now the longest interval without an F5/EF5 tornado since official records began in 1950.

Years without tornado rated violent (F4/EF4+) in United States

2018 was the only year since official records began in 1950 that no tornado in the United States was rated in the violent class (F4/EF4+).[113]

Exceptional survivors

Longest distance carried by a tornado

Matt Suter of Fordland, Missouri holds the record for the longest-known distance traveled by anyone picked up by a tornado who survived the ordeal. On March 12, 2006, he was carried 1,307 feet (398 m), 13 feet (4.0 m) shy of one-quarter mile (400 m), according to National Weather Service measurements.[114][115]

While not officially reported as the longest distance, both the National Weather Service and tornado expert Thomas P. Grazulis document that the 1976 Brownwood, Texas, F5 tornado picked up and threw two teenagers 1,000 yards (910 m), with both surviving.[116][117][118]

Exceptional coincidences

Arabi, Louisiana

On March 22, 2022, an EF3 tornado struck Arabi, Louisiana, a census-designated place in the New Orleans metropolitan area. On December 14 of that year, another tornado, rated EF2, affected many of the same areas, with the two tornado tracks overlapping in parts of Terrytown and Arabi.[119]

Barnsley, Kentucky

The unincorporated community of Barnsley, Kentucky was hit twice by intense tornadoes less than three years apart from each other.

The violent 2021 Western Kentucky tornado hit the community, destroying numerous homes, and in 2024, the city was struck again by an EF3 tornado that impacted many of the same areas. Certain areas in Barnsley were affected by both tornadoes.[120]

Chaffee, Kelso and Illmo, Missouri

On April 30, 1940, two separate tornadoes, less than two hours apart, struck the communities of Chaffee, Kelso and Illmo, Missouri.[1] Thomas P. Grazulis rated both tornadoes F2 on the Fujita scale and both tornadoes killed one person near Kelso.[1]

Chicago, Illinois

Chicago is the largest city in the state of Illinois and the third most populated in the United States, and had only seen six tornadoes between 1954 and 2023.[121] However, on July 14 and 15, 2024, back-to-back outbreaks of weak (EF0 and EF1) tornadoes produced six within the city limits in a span of under 48 hours. The July 15 event, prompted by a derecho, spawned 32 tornadoes in the National Weather Service Chicago, Illinois area of responsibility, tying the one-year record of 32 in a single day. The forecast area typically only sees 15 tornadoes per year.[122]

Codell, Kansas

The small town of Codell, Kansas, was hit by a tornado on the same date (May 20) three consecutive years: 1916, 1917, and 1918.[123][124] The United States has about 100,000 thunderstorms per year; less than 1% produce a tornado. The odds of this coincidence occurring again are extremely small.

Dolores, Uruguay

The small town of Dolores, Uruguay, has been hit multiple times by intense tornadoes.

On November 25, 1985, the city was hit by an intense tornado rated as an F3.[125] On December 8, 2012, 27 years later, another intense tornado occurred in the outskirts of the city. On April 15, 2016, an EF3 tornado destroyed large portions of the city.[126][127]

La Plata, Maryland

See also: 2002 La Plata tornado and Tornado outbreak of April 27–28, 2002

La Plata is a town in Charles County, Maryland, located well outside the climatologically favored area for tornadoes, let alone violent ones. Despite that, it has been struck several times.

On November 9, 1926, it was struck by a high-end F3 to F4 tornado that killed 13 school children, 4 townspeople, and injured some 65 others.[128][129]

67 years later on July 27, 1994, it was struck again by two nonfatal twisters that came only 11 minutes apart.[128] The first of them was rated F2, which is already uncommon for that greater area.

On April 28, 2002, La Plata was struck by another violent and extremely fast-moving F4 tornado that initially received a preliminary rating of F5, making it, for a brief period, the easternmost F5 tornado in the United States. Not only that, but shortly before the F4 passed through downtown La Plata, eyewitness accounts indicated that a second F2 tornado formed a quarter of a mile south of the primary one. Between 7:02 and 7:07 p.m., both tornadoes crossed through the heart of La Plata, devastating the town.[130]

The most recent tornado to have struck the town was an EF1 on February 25th, 2017.

Moore, Oklahoma

See also: List of tornadoes in Cleveland County, Oklahoma

The southern Oklahoma City suburb of Moore, Oklahoma, was hit by violent tornadoes (which have ratings of at least F/EF4) in 1999, 2003, 2010, and 2013. The 1999 and 2013 events were rated F5 and EF5, respectively.

In total, about 23 tornadoes have struck within the immediate vicinity of Moore since 1890, the most recent of which was an EF2 tornado on March 25, 2015.[131]

Shreveport, Louisiana

A lesser-known hotspot for tornadic activity is Shreveport and its neighbouring town, Bossier City, Louisiana.

Downtown Shreveport has been hit multiple times by powerful tornadoes, including once in February 1912 (rated F3),[132] April 1964 (rated F3),[133] April 1978 (rated F2),[134] December 1978 (rated F4),[135] April 2000 (rated F1),[136] April 2009 (rated EF2),[137] October 2009 (rated EF2),[138] and April 2018 (rated EF1).[139]

Tanner/Harvest, Alabama

Tanner, a small town in northern Alabama, was hit by an F5 tornado on April 3, 1974 and was struck again 45 minutes later by a second F5 (however, the rating is disputed and it may have been high-end F4), demolishing what remained of the town.

Thirty-seven years later, on April 27, 2011 (the largest and deadliest outbreak since 1974), Tanner was hit yet again by the EF5 2011 Hackleburg–Phil Campbell tornado, which produced high-end EF4 damage in the southern portion of town.

The suburban community of Harvest, Alabama, just to the northeast, also sustained major impacts from all three Tanner tornadoes, and was also hit by destructive tornadoes in 1995 and 2012.

Tinker Air Force Base, OK

See also: 1948 Tinker Air Force Base tornadoes

On March 20, 1948, an unpredicted line of storms hit the area, producing an F-3 tornado that hit areas of south Oklahoma City, hitting Tinker Air Force Base at the end of its life, damaging many aircraft. This caused a 3-day investigation at the base on why it was so poorly forecasted.

On March 25, meteorologists noted that conditions were very similar to March 20 and issued a forecast for thunderstorms. As the day wore on and conditions became more favorable (with a developing squall line detected on radar), meteorologists Ernest J. Fawbush and Robert C. Miller issued the first ever official tornado forecast. That night, another F-3 tornado struck the base, though was less damaging thanks to the advance warning. This was the first successful tornado forecast in history, even though much of it was due to chance.[140]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ While the 2024 tornado season has had more May tornado reports with 571, that total is considered preliminary until finalized figures are released.
  2. ^ The total outbreak had 146 tornadoes, of which 115 occurred on March 31.
  3. ^ The Fujita scale historically only ever assigned final ratings from F0 through F5, however, did account for ratings up to F12. Ratings above F6 were never seriously considered.[29]
  4. ^ The exact statement, released in June 2024, from the University of Illinois’ Doppler on Wheels team regarding this wind speed is:
    “Wurman et al. 2007 originally reported 302 mph in the Bridgecreek, Oklahoma, 3 May 1999 tornado. This was subsequently revised upwards in Wurman et al. 2021, to 321 mph, using improved techniques.”[37]
  5. ^ In the 2024 university of Illinois publication, no exact windspeed was specified, only a range between 309 and 318. Therefore, the highest windspeed that can be confirmed is the minimum of the range.
  6. ^ The paper states that the storm was a single tornado; later analysis suggests it was most likely a tornado family that traveled 287 miles across Missouri and Illinois.
  7. ^ Gregorian calendar date. 25 May in the Julian calendar, and the 29th day of the fourth month, Jishō 4 in the old Japanese calendar.

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
  2. ^ Brooks, Harold E.; Doswell, Charles A III (September 2000). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Archived from the original on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2007-02-28.
  3. ^ Paul, Bhuiyan (2004). "The April 2004 Tornado in North-Central Bangladesh: A Case for Introducing Tornado Forecasting and Warning Systems" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-08-23. Retrieved 2006-08-17.
  4. ^ Hoxit, Lee R; Chappell, Charles F (October 1975). "Tornado Outbreak of April 3–4, 1974; Synoptic Analysis" (PDF). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2009-09-13. Retrieved 2007-03-02.
  5. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2023). Significant Tornadoes 1974–2022. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project. ISBN 978-1-879362-01-7.
  6. ^ a b c "Storm Events Database: April 25–28, 2011". National Centers for Environmental Information. 2011. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
  7. ^ a b c "Storm Events Database: April 3–4, 1974". National Centers for Environmental Information. 1974. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
  8. ^ "March 31 - April 1, 2023 Tornadoes & Severe Storms". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on 2 April 2024. Retrieved 29 March 2024.
  9. ^ "Storm Events Database: April 12–13, 2020". National Centers for Environmental Information. 2011. Archived from the original on January 8, 2022. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
  10. ^ "NWS Damage Assessment Toolkit". National Centers for Environmental Information. 2021. Archived from the original on April 23, 2020. Retrieved January 8, 2022.
  11. ^ "Storm Events Database: January 21-22, 1999". National Centers for Environmental Information. 1999. Archived from the original on January 8, 2023. Retrieved January 8, 2023.
  12. ^ "European Severe Weather Database". www.eswd.eu. Archived from the original on 2020-05-12. Retrieved 2022-01-08.
  13. ^ "Tornado: Largest Tornado Outbreak". World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive. Arizona State University. Archived from the original on 2013-09-26. Retrieved 2013-09-10.
  14. ^ "April 2011 tornado information". NOAA. Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2011-05-03.
  15. ^ Schneider, Russell; H.E. Brooks; J.T. Schaefer (October 2004). "Tornado Outbreak Day Sequences: historic events and climatology (1875–2003)". 22nd Conf Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-06-09. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  16. ^ "April 11th 1965 Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak". Storm Prediction Center. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
  17. ^ "The Mattoon-Charleston Tornado Disaster of May 26, 1917". Storm Prediction Center. Archived from the original on 18 April 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.
  18. ^ Edwards, Roger (2012). "Tropical Cyclone Tornadoes: A Review of Knowledge in Research and Prediction" (PDF). e-Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology. 7 (6): 3. doi:10.55599/ejssm.v7i6.42. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2013-05-10. Retrieved 2013-05-22.
  19. ^ Keli Tarp (December 27, 1999). "1999 tornado summary Archived 2013-02-19 at the Wayback Machine". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved June 13, 2013.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Center, Storm Prediction. "NOAA's NWS Storm Prediction Center Forecast Tools". www.spc.noaa.gov. Archived from the original on 2022-11-29. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  21. ^ "2022 generated most March tornadoes on record in U.S. Archived 2023-04-02 at the Wayback Machine" Washington Post. Retrieved 1 December 2022.
  22. ^ "Tornado History Project: 1992". 2020-01-30. Archived from the original on 2020-01-30. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  23. ^ "December U.S. Tornado Record Smashed by Two Outbreaks in Five Days; New State Record For Iowa". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-01.
  24. ^ "U.S. Annual Tornado Maps (1952-2011)". SPC. Archived from the original on 2023-01-09. Retrieved 2023-01-09.
  25. ^ Grazulis, Tom (2000). "Tornadoes in Bangladesh". Worldwide Tornadoes. The Tornado Project. Archived from the original on 2012-09-19.
  26. ^ Fahim Sufi; Edris Alam; Musleh Alsulami (22 May 2022). Ishizaka, Alessio (ed.). "A New Decision Support System for Analyzing Factors of Tornado Related Deaths in Bangladesh". Sustainability. 14 (10). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 6303. doi:10.3390/su14106303. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023. Retrieved 12 August 2023.
  27. ^ "NOAA/NWS 1925 Tri-State Tornado Web Site—Startling Statistics". National Weather Service. Archived from the original on March 20, 2016. Retrieved June 17, 2019.
  28. ^ "Tri-State Tornado Facts". factsjustforkids.com. Archived from the original on June 17, 2019. Retrieved June 17, 2019.
  29. ^ Fujita, T. Theodore (February 1971) "Proposed characterization of tornadoes and hurricanes by area and intensity" Archived 2023-05-12 at the Wayback Machine. SMRP (Satellite and Mesometeorology Research Project) Research Paper 91 (Department of the Geophysical Sciences, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA) 42 pages.
  30. ^ Roger Edwards (SPC); Matthew S. Elliott (SPC); Patrick T. Marsh (SPC; Douglas A. Speheger (NWS). "Errors, Oddities and Artifacts in U.S. Tornado Data, 1995–2021" (PDF). Storm Prediction Center Publications: 1–10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 January 2023. Retrieved 11 January 2023.
  31. ^ Fujita, T. Theodore (1974). "Jumbo Tornado Outbreak of 3 April 1974" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2020. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  32. ^ Gallus Jr., William A. (7 November 2012). Revisiting the 1976 Jordan Iowa F5 tornado: A case of subtle forcing with extreme sensitivity of WRF simulations to initial conditions. 26th Conference on Severe Local Storms. American Meteorological Society.
  33. ^ "Twenty Years On: A Look Back at the Jarrell Tornado Catastrophe". Weather Underground. 26 May 2017. Archived from the original on 17 November 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
  34. ^ "Iowa town measures the loss after deadly tornado". Foster's Daily Democrat. 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
  35. ^ Kevin R. Knupp; et al. (July 2014). "Meteorological Overview of the Devastating 27 April 2011 Tornado Outbreak". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 95 (7). American Meteorological Society: 1041–1062. Bibcode:2014BAMS...95.1041K. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-11-00229.1. S2CID 22335326.
  36. ^ Brooks, Harold E.; Charles A. Doswell III (February 2001). "Normalized Damage from Major Tornadoes in the United States: 1890–1999". Weather and Forecasting. 16 (1). American Meteorological Society: 168–176. Bibcode:2001WtFor..16..168B. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2001)016<0168:NDFMTI>2.0.CO;2.
  37. ^ a b c d e "Flexible Array of Radars and Mesonets (FARM) statement concerning preliminary peak wind speed determinations based on Doppler On Wheels (DOW) data obtained in the Greenfield, Iowa tornado of 21 May 2024" (PDF). Champaign–Urbana metropolitan area: University of Illinois. 23 June 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
  38. ^ Wurman, Joshua; Alexander, Curtis; Robinson, Paul; Richardson, Yvette (2007). "Low-Level Winds in Tornadoes and Potential Catastrophic Tornado Impacts in Urban Areas". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 88 (1): 31–46. Bibcode:2007BAMS...88...31W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-88-1-31.
  39. ^ a b c d e f Lyza, Anthony W.; Flournoy, Matthew D.; Alford, A. Addison (19 March 2024). "Comparison of Tornado Damage Characteristics to Low-Altitude WSR-88D Radar Observations and Implications for Tornado Intensity Estimation". Monthly Weather Review. -1 (aop). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and University of Oklahoma via the American Meteorological Society. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-23-0242.1. Archived from the original on 28 April 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
  40. ^ Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen; Pereira, Brian; Robinson, Paul; Frambach, Andrew; Gilliland, Alycia; White, Trevor; Aikins, Josh; Trapp, Robert J.; Nesbitt, Stephen; Hanshaw, Maiana N.; Lutz, Jon (August 2021). "The Flexible Array of Radars and Mesonets (FARM)". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 102 (8): E1499–E1525. Bibcode:2021BAMS..102E1499W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0285.1. Archived from the original on 30 April 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
  41. ^ Bluestein, Howard B.; Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Houser, Jana B. (2015-06-01). "A Multiscale Overview of the El Reno, Oklahoma, Tornadic Supercell of 31 May 2013". Weather and Forecasting. 30 (3): 525–552. Bibcode:2015WtFor..30..525B. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00152.1. ISSN 1520-0434. Archived from the original on 2024-06-12. Retrieved 2024-06-24.
  42. ^ Houser, Jana Lesak; Bluestein, Howard B.; Snyder, Jeffrey C. (2016-11-01). "A Finescale Radar Examination of the Tornadic Debris Signature and Weak-Echo Reflectivity Band Associated with a Large, Violent Tornado". Monthly Weather Review. 144 (11): 4101–4130. Bibcode:2016MWRv..144.4101H. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-15-0408.1. ISSN 1520-0493.
  43. ^ Snyder, Jeffrey C.; Bluestein, Howard B. (2014-08-01). "Some Considerations for the Use of High-Resolution Mobile Radar Data in Tornado Intensity Determination". Weather and Forecasting. 29 (4): 799–827. Bibcode:2014WtFor..29..799S. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00026.1. ISSN 1520-0434.
  44. ^ Howard Bluestein; James Ladue; Herbert Stein; Douglas Speheger; Wesley Unruh (August 1, 1993). "Doppler Radar Wind Spectra of Supercell Tornadoes". Monthly Weather Review. 121 (8): 2, 200–2, 222. Bibcode:1993MWRv..121.2200B. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<2200:DRWSOS>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
  45. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001a). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-8061-3538-0.
  46. ^ Kosiba, Karen; Wurman, Joshua; Richardson, Yvette; Markowski, Paul; Robinson, Paul; Marquis, James (1 April 2013). "Genesis of the Goshen County, Wyoming, Tornado on 5 June 2009 during VORTEX2". Monthly Weather Review. 141 (4). American Meteorological Society: 1157–1181. Bibcode:2013MWRv..141.1157K. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-12-00056.1. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
  47. ^ a b Wurman, Joshua; Alexander, Curtis R. (1 January 2005). "The 30 May 1998 Spencer, South Dakota, Storm. Part II: Comparison of Observed Damage and Radar-Derived Winds in the Tornadoes". Monthly Weather Review. 133 (1): 97–119. Bibcode:2005MWRv..133...97W. doi:10.1175/MWR-2856.1. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
  48. ^ Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen; Robinson, Paul; Marshall, Tim (2014-01-01). "The Role of Multiple-Vortex Tornado Structure in Causing Storm Researcher Fatalities". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 95 (1): 31–45. Bibcode:2014BAMS...95...31W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-13-00221.1.
  49. ^ a b Wurman, Joshua; C. Alexander; P. Robinson; Y. Richardson (January 2007). "Low-Level Winds in Tornadoes and Potential Catastrophic Tornado Impacts in Urban Areas". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 88 (1). American Meteorological Society: 31–46. Bibcode:2007BAMS...88...31W. doi:10.1175/BAMS-88-1-31.
  50. ^ Wurman, Joshua (June 2002). "The Multiple-Vortex Structure of a Tornado". Weather Forecast. 17 (3): 473–505. Bibcode:2002WtFor..17..473W. doi:10.1175/1520-0434(2002)017<0473:TMVSOA>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1520-0434.
  51. ^ Lee, Wen-Chau; J. Wurman (July 2005). "Diagnosed Three-Dimensional Axisymmetric Structure of the Mulhall Tornado on 3 May 1999". J. Atmos. Sci. 62 (7): 2373–93. Bibcode:2005JAtS...62.2373L. doi:10.1175/JAS3489.1. Archived from the original on 18 August 2022. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
  52. ^ Wurman, Joshua (2007). "Doppler On Wheels". Center for Severe Weather Research. Archived from the original on 2011-07-19.
  53. ^ Snyder, Jeff; Bluestein, H. B. (2014). "Some Considerations for the Use of High-Resolution Mobile Radar Data in Tornado Intensity Determination". Weather Forecast. 29 (4): 799–827. Bibcode:2014WtFor..29..799S. doi:10.1175/WAF-D-14-00026.1. S2CID 122669043. Archived from the original on 2020-09-06. Retrieved 2019-06-27.
  54. ^ Samenow, Jason (June 4, 2013). "Deadly El Reno, Okla. tornado was widest ever measured on Earth, had nearly 300 mph winds". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on May 9, 2015. Retrieved September 17, 2017.
  55. ^ Wright, Celine (June 4, 2013). "Discovery Channel to air special for fallen 'Storm Chasers'". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 25, 2013. Retrieved June 5, 2013.
  56. ^ Wurman, Joshua; Kosiba, Karen (22 June 2024). "As the 2024 #BEST field season ends, a glimpse into the data collection during the Greenfield, IA tornado. Peak wind speeds as high as 309-318 mph were calculated in a narrow region 100-160 feet ARL. These are among the highest wind speeds ever determined using DOW data" (Post on 𝕏). 𝕏 (Formerly Twitter). University of Illinois: Doppler on Wheels. Archived from the original on 22 May 2024. Retrieved 22 June 2024.
  57. ^ "Flexible Array of Radars and Mesonets (FARM) statement concerning preliminary peak wind speed determinations based on Doppler On Wheels (DOW) data obtained in the Greenfield, Iowa tornado of 21 May 2024" (PDF). Illinois edu. 23 June 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 June 2024. Retrieved 23 June 2024.
  58. ^ Bluestein, Howard B.; J.G. Ladue; H. Stein; D. Speheger; W.P. Unruh (August 1993). "Doppler Radar Wind Spectra of Supercell Tornadoes". Monthly Weather Review. 121 (8). American Meteorological Society: 2200–22. Bibcode:1993MWRv..121.2200B. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1993)121<2200:DRWSOS>2.0.CO;2.
  59. ^ "June 29, 1764 German F5/T11 Tornado". European Severe Storms Laboratory. 5 December 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  60. ^ "NOAA/NWS 1925 Tri-State Tornado Web Site--Startling Statistics". National Weather Service Paducah, Kentucky. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2024.
  61. ^ Taszarek, Mateusz; Gromadzki, Jakub (2017). "Deadly Tornadoes in Poland from 1820 to 2015". Monthly Weather Review. 145 (4): 1221–1243. Bibcode:2017MWRv..145.1221T. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-16-0146.1.
  62. ^ a b US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "Photos of the May 15, 1968 Northeast Iowa Tornadoes". www.weather.gov. Retrieved 2024-08-01.
  63. ^ Fahim Sufi; Edris Alam; Musleh Alsulami (22 May 2022). Ishizaka, Alessio (ed.). "A New Decision Support System for Analyzing Factors of Tornado Related Deaths in Bangladesh". Sustainability. 14 (10). Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute: 6303. doi:10.3390/su14106303. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2024.
  64. ^ Fujita, T. Theodore (October 1975). "·New evidence from April 3-4, 1974 tornadoes". Archived from the original on 2024-06-28. Retrieved 2024-06-24.
  65. ^ "The Fort Scott Tribune - Google News Archive Search". news.google.com. Archived from the original on 2023-02-17. Retrieved 2023-02-16.
  66. ^ Thomas P. Grazulis (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680-1991. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
  67. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). F5-F6 Tornadoes. Tornado Project, St. Johnsbury, VT. p. 8.
  68. ^ J. P. Carey (August 1917). "The Central Illinois Tornado of May 26, 1917". Geographical Review. 4 (2): 122–130. Bibcode:1917GeoRv...4..122C. doi:10.2307/207291. JSTOR 207291.
  69. ^ Johns, Robert H.; D. W. Burgess; C. A. Doswell III; M. S. Gilmore; J. A. Hart; S. F. Piltz (2013). "The 1925 Tri-State Tornado Damage Path and Associated Storm System". e-Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology. 8 (2). Archived from the original on 2013-06-15. Retrieved 2014-04-02.
  70. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
  71. ^ "The Violent Tornado Outbreak of December 10-11, 2021". National Weather Service Paducah, Kentucky.
  72. ^ Prociv, Kathy; Acevedo, Nicole (11 December 2021). "'Quad-State Tornado' crossed four states in four hours, a rare December tornado". NBC News.
  73. ^ "Tornado Archive Data Explorer – Tornado Archive". Archived from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  74. ^ Stewart, Steve W. (2019-12-18). "NWS determines deadly tornado was a 400 yard-wide EF-3, 2nd longest in LA history". KJAS.COM. Archived from the original on 2024-02-21. Retrieved 2024-02-21.
  75. ^ Martinelli, Jason T. (August 2007). "A detailed analysis of an extremely long-tracked supercell". Preprints of the 33rd Conference on Radar Meteorology. Cairns, Australia: American Meteorological Society and Australian Bureau of Meteorology Research Centre. Archived from the original on 2007-09-26. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  76. ^ "The May 31-June 1, 2013 Tornado and Flash Flooding Event". National Weather Service in Norman, Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 8 July 2013.
  77. ^ "Event Details". National Climatic Data Center. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  78. ^ "May 1968 Storm Data". National Climatic Data Center. Archived from the original on May 3, 2011.
  79. ^ US Department of Commerce, NOAA. "Carolinas Tornado Outbreak: March 28, 1984". www.weather.gov. Archived from the original on 2023-05-04. Retrieved 2023-05-04.
  80. ^ "Figure 1. Location and pathway of the Funing tornado, 23 June 2016. (A)". Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
  81. ^ "The Deadliest Tornado (EF4) in the Past 40 Years in China" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-04-22. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  82. ^ "Severe Local Storms for April 1946". Monthly Weather Review. 74 (4): 73. 1 April 1946. Bibcode:1946MWRv...74...73.. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1946)074<0073:SLSFA>2.0.CO;2.
  83. ^ "The May 19, 2024 Severe Weather Event". National Weather Service Norman, Oklahoma. 21 May 2024.
  84. ^ "NWS DAMAGE SURVEY FOR JULY 16, 2024 CUSTER COUNTY WIND AND TORNADO EVENT". National Weather Service North Platte, Nebraska. 18 July 2024.
  85. ^ "NOAA/NWS 1925 Tri-State Tornado Web Site--Startling Statistics". National Weather Service Paducah, Kentucky. Archived from the original on 20 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2024.
  86. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P.; Grazulis, Doris, eds. (1998). "Other Disastrous Birmingham Area Tornadoes". St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011. Retrieved 5 July 2024.
  87. ^ Marshall, Timothy (January 2022). "Damage Survey of the Mayfield, KY Tornado: 10 December 2021". 30th Conference of Severe Local Storms. Archived from the original on 13 February 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
  88. ^ "Storm Event Database 2021-12-15 18:19 CST-6". National Centers for Environmental Information. Archived from the original on 2023-01-08. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
  89. ^ Lee, Julian J.; T. P. Samaras; C. R. Young (October 2004). "Pressure Measurements at the ground in an F-4 tornado". 22nd Conf Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-06-09. Retrieved 2007-06-23.
  90. ^ "World: Lowest Sea Level Air Pressure (excluding tornadoes)". World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive. Arizona State University. Archived from the original on 2007-11-12.
  91. ^ Cerveny, Randall S.; J. Lawrimore; R. Edwards; C. Landsea (2007). "Extreme Weather Records: Compilation, Adjudication, and Publication". Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 88 (6): 853–60. Bibcode:2007BAMS...88..853C. doi:10.1175/BAMS-88-6-853.
  92. ^ Blair, Scott F.; D.R. Deroche; A.E. Pietrycha (2008). "In Situ Observations of the 21 April 2007 Tulia, Texas Tornado". Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology. 3 (3): 1–27. doi:10.55599/ejssm.v3i3.16.
  93. ^ Lee, Wen-Chau; Wurman, Joshua (July 2005). "Diagnosed Three-Dimensional Axisymmetric Structure of the Mulhall Tornado on 3 May 1999". Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 62 (7): 2373–2393. Bibcode:2005JAtS...62.2373L. doi:10.1175/JAS3489.1.
  94. ^ Samaras, Tim M. (October 2004). "A historical perspective of In-Situ observations within Tornado Cores". Preprints of the 22nd Conference on Severe Local Storms. Hyannis, MA: American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 2011-01-15. Retrieved 2007-06-03.
  95. ^ Dr. R. Hennig, Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse. Berlin 1904; Originalquellen: Aventinus (Turmair), Johannes (gest. 1534): Annales Boiorum. Mit Nachtrag. Leipzig 1710; Annales Fuldenses, Chronik des Klosters Fulda. Bei Marquard Freher: Germanicarum rerum scriptores ua Frankfurt aM 1600–1611)
  96. ^ "Tornadoliste Deutschland". Archived from the original on 2018-12-11.
  97. ^ "TORRO – British & European Tornado Extremes". www.torro.org.uk. Archived from the original on 2015-08-02. Retrieved 2019-05-08.
  98. ^ Fuentes, Oscar Velasco (November 2010). "The Earliest Documented Tornado in the Americas: Tlatelolco, August 1521". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 91 (11): 1515–23. Bibcode:2010BAMS...91.1515F. doi:10.1175/2010BAMS2874.1.
  99. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3258-2.
  100. ^ Erck, Amy (December 26, 2005). "Answers archive: Tornado history, climatology". USA Today Weather. USA Today. Archived from the original on 20 April 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
  101. ^ Baker, Tim. "Tornado History". tornadochaser.net. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012. Retrieved 9 July 2012.
  102. ^ "方丈記第二段" [Hōjōki Section Two] (in Japanese). Yamanashi Prefectural University. Archived from the original on 2023-05-28. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
  103. ^ Ōba, Hirokazu (2005). "災害に対する日本人のメンタリティ" [The Mentality of the Japanese towards Disasters]. 危険と管理 (in Japanese). 36. Japan Risk Management Society: 58–69. doi:10.32300/jarms.0.36_58. Archived from the original on 2024-06-28. Retrieved 2024-06-28.
  104. ^ "Cal1888". Archived from the original on 2021-04-18. Retrieved 2021-05-19.
  105. ^ Antonescu, Bogdan; D. M. Schultz; F. Lomas; T. Kühne (2016). "Tornadoes in Europe: synthesis of the observational datasets". Mon. Wea. Rev. 144 (8): 2445–2480. Bibcode:2016MWRv..144.2445A. doi:10.1175/MWR-D-15-0298.1.
  106. ^ "'Umständliche und zuverläßige Beschreibung des Orcans, welcher den 29ten Jun. 1764 einen Strich von etlichen Meilen im Stargardischen Kreise des Herzogthums Mecklenburg gewaltig verwüstet hat' - Digitalisat | MDZ". www.digitale-sammlungen.de. Archived from the original on 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
  107. ^ "European Severe Weather Database". eswd.eu. Archived from the original on 2020-08-15. Retrieved 2022-12-12.
  108. ^ Beck, Lewis C. (July 1839). "Note on the New Brunswick Tornado, or Water Spout of 1835". American Journal of Science and Arts. 36: 115–118.
  109. ^ Redfield, W. C. (June 1841). "Whirling Action of the New Brunswick Tornado". American Railroad Journal. 12: 345–352.
  110. ^ Peltier, Athanase (1840). Météorologie: Observations et recherches expérimentales sur les causes qui concourent à la formation des trombes (in French). Paris: H. Cousin. OCLC 457395666.
  111. ^ De, S.; A. K. Sahai (2019). "Was the earliest documented account of tornado dynamics published by an Indian scientist in an Indian journal?". Weather. 75 (4): 120–123. doi:10.1002/wea.3485. S2CID 149888981.
  112. ^ a b "F5 and EF5 Tornadoes of the United States". Storm Prediction Center. Archived from the original on 12 September 2023. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
  113. ^ Livingston, Ian (December 26, 2018). "2018 will be the first year with no violent tornadoes in the United States". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 12, 2019. Retrieved February 11, 2019.
  114. ^ "Mo. Teen Survives Tornado, Confronts Media Storm". USA Today. Associated Press. March 22, 2006. Archived from the original on March 16, 2008. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
  115. ^ Forbes, Greg (March 20, 2006). "HE SURVIVED A RIDE IN A TORNADO!". The Weather Channel. Archived from the original on October 23, 2012.
  116. ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service; National Climatic Data Center (April 1976). Potter, Thomas D. (ed.). "Storm Data and Unusual Weather Phenomena". Storm Data. 18 (4). United States Department of Commerce: 14.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  117. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991. St. Johnsbury, VT: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 578. ISBN 978-1-879362-03-1.
  118. ^ National Climatic Data Center; National Centers for Environmental Information. "Texas Event Report: F5 Tornado (Brown County)". Storm Event Database. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Archived from the original on 22 September 2023. Retrieved 22 September 2023.
  119. ^ Lucie, Devon (December 14, 2022). "Comparison: Arabi tornado took eerily similar path to storm earlier this year". WDSU. Archived from the original on December 15, 2022. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
  120. ^ "Kentucky families struggling after being hit for a second time by a tornado in the same locations". Associated Press. 28 May 2024. Archived from the original on 11 June 2024. Retrieved 26 June 2024.
  121. ^ "Rare tornado impacted Chicago's Near West Side and Loop Monday, NWS confirms". WMAQ-TV. 16 July 2024.
  122. ^ Wetli, Patty (3 September 2024). "Summer 2024 in Chicago Was One for the Weather Record Books — Not for Heat but for Tornadoes". WTTW. Retrieved 7 September 2024.
  123. ^ "Tornado Climatology". A Severe Weather Primer: Questions and Answers about Tornadoes. Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2007-03-09.
  124. ^ Fun Tornado Facts Archived 2015-04-02 at the Wayback Machine – Interesting and Fun Tornado Facts
  125. ^ "A 35 años del tornado que destruyó buena parte de Dolores". Archived from the original on 2023-11-07. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  126. ^ "Deadly tornado rips through Uruguay town". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2023-11-07. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  127. ^ "Tornado de Dolores tuvo velocidad de 251 a 330 km/Hora | Portal Universidad de la República". Archived from the original on 2021-12-06. Retrieved 2023-11-07.
  128. ^ a b "The Washington Post, tornadoes in La Plata". The Washington Post.
  129. ^ "1926 Tornado La Plata". 28 April 2022. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 28 April 2024.
  130. ^ "La Plata MD F4 Tornado - 20 Years Later". Archived from the original on 2023-12-19. Retrieved 2024-04-28.
  131. ^ "Moore, Oklahoma Tornadoes (1890–Present)". National Weather Service Norman Oklahoma. 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-03-07. Retrieved 2019-03-06.
  132. ^ "This Day in Weather History: February 20th". National Weather Service Aberdeen, South Dakota. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  133. ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
  134. ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
  135. ^ Edwards, Roger; J. Schaefer. "Downtown Tornadoes". Storm Prediction Center. Archived from the original on 2006-02-15. Retrieved 2006-03-28.
  136. ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
  137. ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
  138. ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
  139. ^ "Storm Events Database". National Centers for Environmental Information.
  140. ^ "Tinker Airmen first to predict tornadoes". Tinker Air Force Base. 2007-06-22. Retrieved 2024-09-06.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tornado_records&oldid=1257361255"