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Perdiccas

For other uses, see Perdiccas (disambiguation).

Perdiccas (Greek: Περδίκκας, Perdikkas; c. 355 BC – 321/320 BC) was a Macedonian general, successor of Alexander the Great, and regent of Alexander's empire after his death. When Alexander was dying, he entrusted his signet ring to Perdiccas.[2] Initially the most pre-eminent of the successors,[3] Perdiccas effectively ruled Alexander's increasingly unstable empire[4] from Babylon for three years, until his assassination, as the kings he ruled for were incapable.[5]

Perdiccas
Περδίκκας
Silver tetradrachm of Philip III Arrhidaeus struck under Perdiccas in Babylon, circa 323-320 BC.[1]
Regent of Macedon
In office
323 BC – 321/320 BC
MonarchsAlexander IV and Philip III
Preceded byAlexander III (as King)
Succeeded byPeithon and Arrhidaeus
Personal details
Bornc. 355 BC
Died321/320 BC (aged 34–36)
Cause of deathKilled by his own soldiers
Spouse(s)Daughter of Atropates
Nicaea of Macedon
ParentOrontes (father)
OccupationGeneral
Regent
Military service
AllegianceMacedonia
Years of service335 – 321/320 BC
Battles/wars

Perdiccas was born to Macedonian nobility. A supporter, somatophylax and Hetairoi of Alexander, he took part in Alexander's campaign against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, distinguishing himself in Thebes and Gaugamela, and followed Alexander into India. When Alexander died in 323 BC, Perdiccas rose to become supreme commander of the imperial army, as well as regent for Alexander's vast empire, ruling on behalf of Alexander's intellectually disabled heir, King Philip III Arrhidaeus and his infant son, King Alexander IV of Macedon.

Perdiccas gained supreme power but also inherited the problems of Alexander's quickly conquered and unstable empire. To consolidate power and retain authority, Perdiccas crushed numerous revolts, like that of Ariarathes, and assassinated rivals, like Meleager. Perdiccas' position as regent was never fully secure, however, and his authority was repeatedly contested by other generals. His attempt to marry Cleopatra of Macedon, Alexander's sister, which would have given him claim to the Macedonian throne, angered critical generals—including Antipater, Craterus and Antigonus—who decided to revolt against the regent in the First War of the Diadochi. In response to this formidable coalition and a provocation from another general, Ptolemy, Perdiccas invaded Egypt, but his soldiers mutinied and killed him in 321/320 BC when the invasion foundered.

Family background and early life

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Map of ancient Macedon. Perdiccas was born in Orestis, located in the light blue region to the left of the dark blue region (Macedon itself) above.

According to Arrian, Perdiccas was the son of the Macedonian nobleman, Orontes,[6][7] a descendant of the independent princes of the Macedonian province of Orestis.[8][9] While his actual date of birth is unknown, he would seem to have been of a similar age to Alexander. He had a brother called Alcetas[10] and a sister, Atalantê, who married Attalus.[11] Perdiccas may have had, through some distant relation, blood of the Argead royal family.[12]

Little is known of Perdiccas' youth, but he was probably brought to the Macedonian court in Pella to serve as page like many other young nobles alongside Alexander.[8] When Pausanias assassinated King Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC, Alexander the Great's father, Perdiccas was among those who chased the assassin down and killed him.[12][13]

An anecdote reports that Perdiccas once went into the cave of a lioness who had recently gave birth, and stole two of its cubs.[14] Another tells a story of his fondness for exercise, along with his fellow Orestian and successor, Craterus.[15]

Career under Alexander

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Relief carving of a mounted horseman on the Alexander Sarcophagus of Sidon. Depicting the Battle of Issus, this figure is often identified as Perdiccas.[16][17]

As the commander of a battalion of the Macedonian phalanx (heavy infantry), Perdiccas fought in the Illyrian campaigns of Alexander and distinguished himself during the conquest of Thebes (335 BC), where he was severely wounded, leading a contingent which stormed the rear gate of the city.[18] Plutarch reports the following conversation between Perdiccas and Alexander prior to the Battle of Granicus, when Alexander was allotting out lands and properties to his followers:

So that at last [Alexander] had portioned out or engaged almost all the royal property; which giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he would leave himself, he replied, his hopes. "Your soldiers," replied Perdiccas, "will be your partners in those," and refused to accept of the estate he had assigned him. Some others of his friends did the like...[19]

Perdiccas led his battalion at the battles of Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela, where he again distinguished himself and was wounded. Perdiccas became somatophylax (bodyguard) of Alexander following this, and his influence probably grew steadily thereafter.[20] Perdiccas' battalion was used by Alexander to flank and win the Battle of the Persian Gate in 330 BC.[21]

When Philotas was in suspicion by Alexander, Perdiccas was among the close companions who joined Alexander in discussing what should be done.[22] When Alexander attempted to kill Cleitus the Black in 328 BC, Perdiccas was among those who held the king back.[20]

Subsequently, he held an important command in the Indian campaigns of Alexander. Perdiccas and Hephaestion, Alexander's closest companion, were generally compatible and seemed to have got along well, as both were selected to ford the Indus River (a task which required coordination) by Alexander and did so without issue.[23] Perdiccas was part of the cavalry under Alexander's control at the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC and crossed the river with him in said battle. Perdiccas later plundered around Sangala, and assaulted and sacked the Mallian towns.[24] Alexander was wounded in this campaign, having been shot in the chest with an arrow; some traditions say Perdiccas was the one who cut the arrow out with a sword and saved the king's life.[25][26]

 
17th century French illustration of the death of Alexander the Great. Perdiccas is pictured receiving Alexander's signet ring.

In 324 BC, at the nuptials celebrated at Susa, Perdiccas married the daughter of the satrap of Media, a Persian named Atropates. When Hephaestion unexpectedly died the same year, Perdiccas was appointed his successor as commander of the Companion cavalry and chiliarch, effectively becoming Alexander's second-in-command. He was also entrusted with the responsibility of transferring Hephaestion's corpse to Babylon for burning and burial.[27] As Alexander lay dying in his bed, he gave his signet ring to Perdiccas.[28]

Succession and crisis

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Further information: Partition of Babylon

Following the death of Alexander the Great on the 11 June 323 BC in Babylon, his generals met to discuss their next steps.[29] Perdiccas was very influential at this point, as a close friend of Alexander, his second-in-command at the time of his death, and possessing the signet ring Alexander gave him.[30]

Debate for leadership

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The infantry, also wanting to listen to the discussion, broke into the room. Perdiccas, having placed the ring he received from Alexander on the throne, along with the royal robes and diadem,[31] proposed that a final decision wait until Alexander's wife Roxana, who was pregnant, had given birth; if the child was a boy, then Perdiccas proposed that the child be chosen as the new king.[32] Quintus Curtius Rufus provides Perdiccas' apparent speech to the assembly:

For my part, I return to you the ring handed to me by Alexander, the seal of which he would use on documents as symbol of his royal and imperial authority. The anger of the gods can devise no tragedy to equal this with which we have been afflicted; and yet, considering the greatness of Alexander's achievements, one could believe that such a great man was merely on loan from the gods to the world so that, when his duty to it was complete, they might swiftly reclaim him for their family. Accordingly, since nothing remains of him apart from the material which is excluded from immortality, let us perform the due ceremonies to his corpse and his name, bearing in mind that the city we are in, the people we are among and the qualities of the leader and king of whom we have been deprived. Comrades, we must discuss and consider how we can maintain the victory we have won among the people over whom we have won it. We need a leader; whether it should be one man or more is up to you. But you must realize this: a military unit without a chief is a body without a soul. This is the sixth month of Roxana's pregnancy. We pray that she has produced a male who, with the gods' approval, will assume the throne when he comes of age. Meanwhile, designate those you want as your leaders.[33]

This meant that Perdiccas would be the regent and effectively the ruler of Alexander's empire until the boy was old enough to rule on his own.[34] Though his later actions would show Perdiccas had ambitions to be king, during the assembly, when Aristonous proclaimed he should be made king and the suggestion was met with approval, Perdiccas hesitated to accept the position.[35] Ptolemy proposed a joint board of generals to rule the Empire, perhaps as a slight against Perdiccas as such a scheme would greatly decrease his current authority.[36] Other proposals were considered, but despite misgivings amongst the other generals, most accepted Perdiccas' proposal of waiting until the birth of Alexander IV of Macedon. The agreed upon arrangement was Perdiccas and Leonnatus as rulers in Asia, and Craterus and Antipater controlling Europe.[37][38]

 
Coin of Alexander IV of Macedon. Despite the faith put in Roxana's child as a future king, it was not actually known, until his birth, that Alexander IV would be a boy.

However, the infantry commander, Meleager, disagreed with Perdiccas' plans. Meleager argued in favour of Alexander's intellectually disabled half brother, Philip III Arrhidaeus, whom he considered first in succession. The infantry supported this proposal with Meleager's troops willing to fight in favour of Philip III, who they crowned. The infantry began to riot, and the generals united under Perdiccas' authority.[39] After a brief scuffle, Perdiccas ordered a tactical retreat and the generals fled Babylon, but Perdiccas remained for a time hoping to regain the allegiance of the infantry.[40][41] Meleager sent assassins to kill him. Despite only having page boys with him, Perdiccas met the assassins openly, and taunted and terrified them into fleeing.[42]

Siege of Babylon

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Perdiccas joined the generals outside of Babylon and put the city to siege, cutting off the supply lines.[43][44] Meleager's powerbase began to diminish, and he was eventually convinced by Eumenes of Cardia, Alexander's former secretary, to reconcile with the generals, perhaps in collusion with Perdiccas.[43] Perdiccas announced Philip III and the unborn child of Alexander's wife Roxana (the future Alexander IV of Macedon) would be recognized as joint kings to placate Meleager.[44] While the general Craterus was officially declared "Guardian of the Royal Family",[45] Perdiccas effectively held this position, as the joint kings were with him in Babylon. Antipater was confirmed as viceroy of Macedon and Greece. To formalize the reconciliation between the generals and infantry, Perdiccas announced a lustration (a religious purification ritual) and review of the army, convincing Meleager and the infantry to attend.[46]

As he controlled all the cavalry, when the infantry accepted and marched outside Babylon, Perdiccas held a clear military advantage. He then sent Philip III to order the capture the rebellious leaders of the infantry, except for Meleager. Perdiccas had these 300 men killed by trampling from his war elephants.[47] Soon afterward, having cowed the infantry, Perdiccas had Meleager executed as well.[48] Though successful in resecuring his power, the incident left the chiliarch and regent Perdiccas "suspected by all and full of suspicions".[49]

Regent of Alexander's empire

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Through the Partition of Babylon, a compromise was reached under which Perdiccas was to serve as "Regent of the Empire" (epimelētēs) for the disabled Philip III and infant Alexander IV, as well as supreme commander (Strategos) of the imperial army. Perdiccas soon showed himself intolerant of any rivals and, acting in the name of the two kings, sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. Perdiccas oversaw the distribution of satrapies to the other generals, sending away officers who threatened his authority.[50] Perdiccas probably attached Cleomenes of Naucratis to Ptolemy in Egypt to limit his power.[51] The men who remained at court with Perdiccas were probably those he could trust: his brother Alcetas, his brother-in-law Attalus, Seleucus, and Aristonous. Alexander the Great's second wife, Stateira, was murdered by Perdiccas, possibly at the urging of Roxana.[52] Perdiccas also procured Alexander's "Last Plans" through the help of Eumenes, read the plans out before the army, and rejected them.[53][54] This was done because not only were the plans extraordinarily expensive and grand, but because Perdiccas probably did not want to anger Antipater by replacing him with Craterus.[55] Alexander's wife Roxana gave birth (in the late summer or early fall of 323 BC) and Perdiccas took guardianship over Alexander IV.[56]

Rebellions and refusals

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Fictitious portrait of Perdiccas. 18th century engraving.

As his authority was unstable, Perdiccas negotiated marriage with Nicaea of Macedon, the daughter of Antipater, to ally himself with the viceroy (possibly as early as the Siege of Babylon), acknowledging Antipater's rule in Europe while improving his own position in Asia.[57]

Bactrian Greek revolt

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During the winter of 323 BC in the Upper Satrapies, however, specifically in Bactria, a rebellion had begun consisting of 23,000 Greek mercenaries who had heard of Alexander's death and now wanted to return home.[58][59] In response, Perdiccas tasked Peithon, another of Alexander's somatophylakes and satrap of Media, with quelling it, and sent orders for the eastern satraps to contribute troops as well.[57][60] Peithon may have intended to recruit the Greeks and betray Perdiccas. When the armies met, the Greeks surrendered and were then treacherously slaughtered wholesale by Peithon's army.[61] Perdiccas is said to have given the order for the massacre in order to ensure Peithon did not gain an army and to punish the rebels.[62]

Conquest of Cappadocia

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Despite success in the east, Perdiccas' authority as regent was then challenged in the west. Here, Perdiccas had appointed Leonnatus, another somatophylax, as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia on the western coast of Asia Minor.[61] At the Partition of Babylon, Perdiccas' supporter Eumenes was given the satrapies of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia, but both were unconquered.[63] Perdiccas thus used his authority as regent of the joint kings to order Leonnatus and Antigonus (satrap of Phrygia, Pamphylia and Lycia) to aid Eumenes in securing his satrapy.[61][64] Perdiccas probably gave Eumenes 5000 talents of gold for the reconquest of Cappadocia, allowing Eumenes to hire mercenaries.[65]

 
Map of Anatolia, also called Asia Minor, and its regions. Perdiccas moved into Cappadocia, then Cilicia, and then Pisidia in his successful restabilizing of the peninsula.

Antigonus refused Perdiccas' order.[66] Leonnatus accepted, mustering an army and marching to Cappadocia, arriving in the spring of 322 BC.[61] Leonnatus, however, received a letter from Macedon from Cleopatra, Alexander the Great's full sister, and Antipater, both asking him to come west – Cleopatra (probably influenced by her mother Olympias) offered herself as Leonnatus' bride (which would give Leonnatus claim to the Macedonian throne), while Antipater, who was besieged at Lamia as part of the Lamian War, asked Leonnatus for urgent assistance.[61] Leonnatus told Eumenes of his plan to head west, attempting to convince him to join him; Eumenes refused and departed to Perdiccas' court, informing him of Leonnatus' intentions.[61] For this information, Perdiccas elevated Eumenes to the ruling council of the Empire.[67][68] This incident may have been what made Perdiccas "regard Cleopatra as a means of gaining supreme power".[69]

Upon learning of this, in the early summer of 322 BC Perdiccas marched the imperial army towards Asia Minor to reassert his dominance as regent, install Eumenes in Cappadocia, and confront Antigonus. It also allowed him to "complete the conquest of Alexander's empire" as Alexander had ignored Cappadocia.[51][70] In a single campaigning season, Perdiccas defeated Ariarathes I and his large army (30,000 infantry, 15,000 cavalry) in two decisive pitched battles, capturing more than 5,000 soldiers and killing 4,000 others, allowing his supporter Eumenes to claim his satrapy.[71] This greatly contributed to Perdiccas' prestige; Perdiccas took Ariarathes captive, tortured and killed him, and apparently impaled most of his family.[72] Perdiccas ordered Leonnatus to appear before him to stand trial for disobedience, but Leonnatus died during the Lamian War before the order reached him. At some time during the first year of his reign, Perdiccas crowned Alexander IV, Roxana and Alexander's child, as king alongside Philip III.[73]

Conquest of Pisidia, Isauria, Larandia

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Coin of Ariarathes I, minted in Gaziura, dated 333–322 BC. Perdiccas defeat and execution of the 82 year old Ariarathes, among his other conquests in Asia Minor, brought him to the height of his power.[74]

Having settled Cappadocia, Perdiccas planned to send Eumenes to subdue the Satrapy of Armenia, which was being mismanaged by Neoptolemus.[75] He marched with Eumenes to Cilicia in the autumn of 322 BC and added the formidable Silver Shields to his army.[76] Perdiccas then gave Eumenes his orders,[77] and marched to Pisidia. The native Isaurians and Larandians living here had revolted, murdering Alexander's satrap.[78] Perdiccas campaigned against them next, easily conquering and destroying their cities in "short and brutal struggles", acquiring great amounts of plunder and prestige; "Victorious in the field ... Perdiccas now enjoyed his greatest success".[78][79][80]

Marriage and war

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To strengthen his control over the empire when his authority was weak, Perdiccas had agreed to marry Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater, the regent of Macedon. But now, in the winter of 322-321 BC, with his position greatly strengthened, Perdiccas was reconsidering the engagement.[81] Furthermore, Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, offered him the hand of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was residing at Sardis. Eumenes urged Perdiccas to marry Cleopatra,[82] while Perdiccas' brother Alcetas advised marriage to Nicaea.[83] Alcetas' faction believed that Perdiccas, in control of the royals, imperial army, and treasuries, could afford to wait for Antipater's death (he was very old) instead of incurring his wrath; Eumenes' faction argued Perdiccas ought to begin to formally rule and that the dual kingship of Philip III and Alexander IV was a sham.[84]

Rejecting Nicaea here would begin war with Antipater; as Perdiccas had yet to deal with Antigonus, he married Nicaea for the time being.[81] During this winter, Antipater, having subdued Athens in the Lamian War, deferred the decision regarding the Samian exiles to Perdiccas; they were allowed to return to Samos on Perdiccas' order.[85]

Bid for kingship

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Perdiccas decided, however, that he wished to win the Macedonian throne, and had designed a plan for this; marriage to Cleopatra, and the return of Alexander's body, son (Alexander IV), and brother (Philip III) to Macedonia with Olympias' approval which, combined, would have made him "invincible" and virtually guaranteed the kingship.[86][87] Given the intellectual disability of Philip III and the limited acceptance of the infant, Alexander IV, due to his mother being a Persian, the marriage in particular would have given Perdiccas a claim as Alexander's true successor as king, not merely as regent. Feeling "full of confidence and well able to handle all his rivals," Perdiccas set about planning his march on Macedon.[88]

At around the same time, Cynane, Alexander's half-sister and widow of Amyntas IV, arranged for her daughter, Eurydice II, to marry the king, Philip III.[89] Perdiccas, knowing this marriage would undermine his control over Philip III,[80] sent an army under his brother Alcetas to order Cynane to return to Macedon. Cynane refused, and Alcetas' army killed her.[90] Whether Perdiccas ordered this killing or not is debated, but it initiated a reversal of his ascendancy; "His officers grew increasingly suspicious of his aspirations, the common soldier was alienated by his acts of barbarity".[90][91] Perdiccas' army was furious at Cynane's murder and effectively mutinied. This widespread discontent compelled Perdiccas to spare Eurydice II and marry her to Philip III after all, eroding his control over the royal family. Though Perdiccas was able to regain overall control, this incident probably demonstrated to him that "the marriage to Cleopatra, despite the risks involved, was essential if the empire was to remain intact".[76] Eumenes, accordingly, was sent by Perdiccas to Cleopatra with gifts to discuss marriage once again, and plans were set in place for the marriage to go forward.[92]

Perdiccas had, in the meantime, ordered Antigonus to stand trial for insubordination (failing to help Eumenes in Cappadocia) and other charges.[81] Antigonus was an entrenched and powerful satrap in Asia Minor; his refusal of Perdiccas' order undermined the authority of his government and Perdiccas wanted to rectify this.[93] In response Antigonus, fearing confrontation with the regent, fled to Antipater's court in Macedon, bringing news of not only Perdiccas' murder of Cynane, but his kingly aspirations and intention to marry Cleopatra instead of Nicaea.[94][95] Craterus and Antipater, having subdued most of Greece in the Lamian War, were infuriated by Antigonus' news. They suspended their plans for more campaigns in Greece and prepared to march into Asia and depose Perdiccas.[96][97][90]

Civil war and invasion of Egypt

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Main article: First War of the Diadochi

Theft of the body of Alexander the Great

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19th-century depiction of Alexander's funeral procession, based on the description by Diodorus Siculus. Ptolemy's "theft" of Alexander's body, bringing it to Egypt instead of Macedon, is what sparked war between Ptolemy and Perdiccas.[98]

In late 321 and early 320 BC, as part of his kingly aspirations, Perdiccas intended to send Alexander's body back to Aegae in Macedonia, the traditional place of burial for the Macedonian Argead Royal Family.[99] The officer Arrhidaeus (not the king) was chosen to escort the body back to Macedonia, having constructed an elaborate funeral carriage.[99] Perdiccas had informed Arrhidaeus of his plans, but Arrhidaeus began conveying Alexander's body to Egypt instead of Macedon, and met no resistance as he did so.[100][101] Ptolemy, who had already come to an understanding with Antipater and Craterus, had probably colluded with Arrhidaeus and Archon, satrap of Babylon in order to have Alexander's body go to Egypt.[102] Perdiccas, enraged by this news, sent an army to recover the body, but Ptolemy defeated this force and successfully brought Alexander's remains back to Egypt, where they were housed in the city of Memphis.[99]

Since the Partition of Babylon, Ptolemy had conquered Cyrenaica without Perdiccas' approval,[103] and within a year of gaining his satrapy had unlawfully executed Cleomenes, the officer Perdiccas had attached to him.[98] Perdiccas, who already distrusted Ptolemy, regarded his diverting of Alexander's body as an unacceptable provocation, "an act of war", and after convening his officers decided to invade Egypt.[98][104]

Campaign against Ptolemy

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Perdiccas' strategy was for his supporters to hold Asia Minor against Antipater and Craterus while he brought the royal army, and kings (Philip III and Alexander IV), south to eliminate Ptolemy. Perdiccas gave Eumenes of Cardia supreme command (as autokrator) to hold the Hellespont, and ordered Alcetas and Neoptolemus to obey Eumenes.[105][106] Cleitus the White was ordered to aid Eumenes navally.[107] Perdiccas probably expected to be able to defeat Ptolemy and then turn to combat Antipater and Craterus.[108] Before Perdiccas left Pisidia, he attempted once more to entreat Cleopatra of Macedon to marry him, now needing the increased authority the marriage would bring, but she refused, not knowing who would win the war to come.[109][110][111] Perdiccas marched to Cilicia first, deposing the satrap Philotas due to his friendship with Craterus, replacing him with one Philoxenus.[98]

He prepared a fleet there while sending Docimus to Babylon to supplant the satrap Archon for collusion with Ptolemy.[98] Perdiccas also prepared another fleet, led by Sosigenes of Rhodes and Aristonous, to conquer Cyprus and the Cypriot kings who had allied themselves to Ptolemy.[107] As he was heading south, Perdiccas, having heard that Alcetas and Neoptolemus were refusing to work under Eumenes, ordered them once again to subordinate themselves to him.[112] Finally, a third fleet led by Attalus, his brother-in-law, carried Perdiccas' sister Atalantê and shadowed Perdiccas' army on their southward march.[107] Docimus conquered Babylon and killed Archon in battle, while Perdiccas reached Damascus and deposed Laomedon, satrap of Syria for Ptolemaic sympathies.[107] Soon after arriving in Egypt, Perdiccas may have heard of Eumenes' victory over Neoptolemus, who had defected to Antipater and Craterus.[113][114] With this boost in morale, and when further reinforcements joined him, Perdiccas marched towards the Nile.

Fording of the Nile and the Camel's Rampart

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The Nile river. A famously difficult river to cross throughout history, Perdiccas' attempt ultimately failed due to mis-execution and determined Ptolemaic resistance.[115]

Ptolemy had been fortifying his satrapy for two years, believing war with Perdiccas was highly likely, and this greatly contributed to Perdiccas' difficulties and ultimate defeat.[116] Perdiccas reached the most easterly tributary of the Nile near Pelusium, and discovered that the opposite side was garrisoned. He had his troops construct a dam, probably intending to lower the water levels to ease a crossing, but the force of the river broke it apart.[113][117] It is possible that Perdiccas' invasion occurred while the Nile was flooding.[118] In any case, the destruction of the dam led some officers in Perdiccas' camp to defect; Perdiccas, in response, successfully inspired his army with gifts and titles to continue the war effort.[119]

Perdiccas then decamped, not informing his soldiers where he intended to march. He travelled swiftly upstream to find a suitable point to cross, soon coming across a ford which led to the cities of Tanis and Avaris on the other side of the Nile. However, a fort defended by a Ptolemaic force known as the 'Camel's Rampart' (Kamelon Teichos) inhibited his advance. Perdiccas then ordered his army to attack, leading a "daring" assault on the fortress at dawn.[120] Perdiccas' deployed his war elephants first, then the hypaspists and Silver Shields, leading the cavalry in the rear in case Ptolemy arrived.[121] When a large army under Ptolemy then arrived to reinforce the fort, denying Perdiccas an easy victory, Perdiccas, undaunted, renewed the assault. His infantry attempted to escalade the walls while his elephants destroyed Ptolemaic defenses.[122] The fighting continued inconclusively for a considerable amount of time, with heavy losses for both sides, before Perdiccas finally broke off the siege and marched back to his camp.[123][120]

That same night, Perdiccas broke camp again and marched to another ford, this one near Memphis. Here, Perdiccas placed his elephants upstream of this new crossing, so as to block the currents that would otherwise sweep away his men, and his cavalry downstream, to catch any unlucky enough to be swept away regardless of the elephants' makeshift dam.

For a time this "clever" strategy worked, enabling a sizeable contingent of Perdiccas's army, led by Perdiccas himself, to cross the river and reach an island at its center.[120] Many drowned in the attempt, however, and soon the elephants began to sink in the mud of the riverbed, and the currents rose quickly. This proved to be a disaster for Perdiccas, as he had to abandon the crossing, leaving many of his infantry stranded on the island. Perdiccas had no choice but to return with his men. Most of this contingent drowned trying to make it back to the eastern bank, many being eaten by crocodiles. Perdiccas' losses totaled 2,000, including prominent officers.[124][125]

Assassination

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Following what was so far a disastrous campaign, a mutiny broke out amongst Perdiccas' soldiers, who were disheartened by his failure to make progress in Egypt.[126] Angry at his incompetence and probably colluding with Ptolemy,[127] Perdiccas was murdered by his officers (Peithon, Antigenes, and Seleucus), probably in the summer of 320 BC, roughly three years after he had assumed the regency.[128][129] His officers and the rest of his army defected to Ptolemy.

News of Eumenes' victory at the Battle of the Hellespont in 320 BC where Craterus and Neoptolemus were killed, which would have instantly restored Perdiccas' authority, arrived in Egypt one day after his assassination.[130][131] Anson notes that "if the news of Eumenes' victory over Craterus had arrived sooner, the entire history of the post-Alexander era might have been dramatically altered; Perdiccas might have emerged supreme, the successor of Alexander and the ruler of the vast Macedonian empire, with the inauguration of a new royal family".[132] What became of Alexander's signet ring that Perdiccas carried, and even whether he brought it into Egypt, is not known.[133]

Legacy

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Character

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The ancient accounts are largely negative toward Perdiccas, claiming that, though "outstanding on the battlefield", he was arrogant, high-handed, and imperious.[134] Diodorus Siculus calls him phonikos (φονικος), a "man of slaughter".[135] This may be due to the "surpassing rivalry" and enmity Perdiccas had with Ptolemy, whose now lost account served as the basis for the surviving sources (chiefly Arrian) we have for Perdiccas' career.[123][136][137][138][139] The other characteristic regularly ascribed to Perdiccas by ancient sources is boldness.[140]

Although Perdiccas was evidently a capable leader and effective soldier, a "military man", he is seen to have lacked the qualities his position as regent required.[141][142] His rule was authoritarian and abrasive, winning him little love from the rank and file, and his punishments were often brutal.[141][8] Anson believes that Perdiccas "was not a man to be crossed" and that "most acceded to his demands in his presence rather than incur his wrath".[141] Conversely, Romm writes that "When a leader has failed, the very qualities that made him a leader suddenly appear as flaws. Perdiccas' arrogance and bloody-mindedness were no more pronounced than Alexander's ... but Alexander, unlike the hapless Perdiccas, knew little of failure".[143]

Political legacy and motives

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Perdiccas' death and the transferring of the regency to Antipater has been seen as marking the end "for the empire as Alexander had envisioned it", as Perdiccas was not only quite close to Alexander but, like Alexander, had chosen to centre the empire at Babylon.[144] Waterfield believes that since Perdiccas represented direct succession from Alexander himself, his assassination was a "momentous step".[115]

Perdiccas' motives are debated, though he is typically held to have acted from ambition. Some, such as Romm, believe he may have acted out of a desire to protect Alexander IV and maintain the unity of Alexander's empire.[87] Anson disbelieves this, citing Perdiccas' duplicitous communications with the Aetolian League against Antipater.[97] Whether for ambition or loyalty, it is agreed that Perdiccas sought to "hold Alexander's legacy intact".[145][126] Tarn writes that "Perdiccas ... was a brave and good soldier; he was probably loyal to Alexander's house, and meant to keep the empire together; but he saw that someone must exercise power, and he meant it to be himself".[146] The regime that succeeded Perdiccas following the Partition of Triparadisus lasted only a few years, shorter than Perdiccas' regency.[147]

Heckel's view is that "Perdiccas' career is an unfortunate tale of lofty ideals combined with excessive ambition and political myopia", but also that Perdiccas' attempts at keeping Alexander's empire united are "to be admired" and "suggests that he understood Alexander's policies".[97][148] In sum, that he was "a great but flawed man, a victim of his own success and the envy of others".[149]

References

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  1. ^ Head of Heracles left, wearing lion skin headdress / [BASILEWS FILIPPOU]. Zeus Aëtophoros seated right; wheel and monogram in left field, monogram below throne.
  2. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 198; Diod., 17.117.3, 18.2.4. There is some scholarly debate about whether this really occurred or is "Perdiccan propaganda". Most scholars accept it on its face to explain how Perdiccas became so influential after Alexander's death, but others reject its veracity due to how the histories of the time came down to us;
    AtkinsonYardley 2009    , p. 145 points out Ptolemy's enmity for Perdiccas (Ptolemy's lost account greatly influenced later surviving sources, namely Arrian) might explain the muddled tradition, as well as Curtius' tendency to see Roman patterns, or perhaps place them, in Greek history; Badian 2012, passim in "The Ring and the Book", believes it is impossible to know the truth of the matter, in that evidence for and against are roughly equal. Regardless, Perdiccas' dominance over the other Successors immediately after Alexander's death is undisputed.
  3. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 153. "Perdiccas deserves to be considered the first of the Diadochoi. To him Alexander had given his signet ring and, with it, all the uncompleted projects, all the unresolved and festering problems of an empire too quickly subdued and ruled, primarily, by force... In order to continue Alexander’s work Perdiccas would have to be another Alexander, and this he was not... Confounded in every undertaking by the jealousy of his colleagues and maligned after his death in the memoirs of an enemy, Perdiccas is remembered as a man of far-reaching ambition, ruined by his own incompetence and abrasive personality".
  4. ^ Besides Macedon and Greece, which were held by Antipater.
  5. ^ Anson 2014, p. 59; Diod., 18.36.7.
  6. ^ Austin, M.M. (1981). The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29666-3.
  7. ^ Arrian, 3.11.9.
  8. ^ a b c Heckel 2016, p. 154.
  9. ^ Arrian, 6.28.4.
  10. ^ Arrian, Successors, 1.21
  11. ^ Diod., 18.37.2.
  12. ^ a b Heckel 2006, p. 197.
  13. ^ Diod., 16.94.4.
  14. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 170, citing Aelian's Varia Historia, 12.39. Heckel believes this is an allegory for Perdiccas' regency over Philip III and Alexander IV.
  15. ^ "Athenaeus: Deipnosophists - 12.55.c". www.attalus.org.
  16. ^ "Perdiccas - Livius". www.livius.org.
  17. ^ The attribution is speculative, as the historian Heckel Waldemar notes that "no Macedonian except Alexander can be identified with certainty". (2006). "Mazaeus, Callisthenes and the Alexander Sarcophagus". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 55 (4): 393. ISSN 0018-2311.
  18. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 156.
  19. ^ This comes from Plutarch's Life of Alexander, 15.4
  20. ^ a b Heckel 2016, p. 158.
  21. ^ Arrian, 2.18.
  22. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 157–158.
  23. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 159. This contrasts Hephaestion's known quarrels with other prominent generals of Alexander, such as Craterus and Eumenes of Cardia.
  24. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 159.
  25. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 160.
  26. ^ Arrian, 7.11.
  27. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 161.
  28. ^ Anson 2014, p. 15; Heckel 2016, p. 162, who believes that this is something "Ptolemy the historian took pains to suppress".
    What exactly Alexander intended with this gesture is unclear. Most scholars believe Alexander wanted Perdiccas to handle the empire's administration until his son came of age, while others, citing the Liber de Morte (which says Alexander wanted his wife, Roxana, to marry Perdiccas) believe it is possible, though highly unlikely, that Alexander wanted Perdiccas to succeed him as king altogether.
  29. ^ Anson 2014, pp. 11–15.
  30. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 162.
  31. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 20.
  32. ^ Anson 2014, p. 14.
  33. ^ Citing Curtius Rufus' History of Alexander the Great of Macedonia, 10.6.5-9, as per Livius.org (url:https://www.livius.org/sources/content/curtius-rufus/the-election-of-arrhidaeus/)
  34. ^ Anson 2014, p. 15. "It is also very possible that Perdiccas desired to be king in his own right".
  35. ^ Anson 2014, p. 15; Waterfield 2011, p. 22. Reasons why are debated. The Argead kingship had been held by that family for centuries, and Perdiccas may have felt that it would be easy for his political opponents to label him as a usurper due to the presence of living, if inept, heirs;
    Bosworth 2005    , p. 43 brings up the possibility that Aristonous' statement might be negative propaganda, to show that the bodyguard had little affection for the Argead kings, while; Romm 2011, p. 61 considers the entire incident ahistorical, a "Roman fantasy" imported into Greek history by Curtius, who was Roman.
  36. ^ Romm 2011, p. 61 takes this view, noting that any attempt to decentralize authority away from the kings was an attempt to limit Perdiccas' power.
  37. ^ Romm 2011, p. 62.
  38. ^ Just., 13.4.14.
  39. ^ Anson 2014, p. 19.
  40. ^ Roisman 2012, p. 73.
  41. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 165.
  42. ^ Anson 2014, p. 19, citing Quintus Curtius Rufus 10.8.1-3; Roisman 2012.
  43. ^ a b Heckel 2016, p. 166.
  44. ^ a b Waterfield 2011, p. 24.
  45. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 199.
  46. ^ Heckel 2006, p. 199. Meleager believed Perdiccas now trusted him, as he promised him a coregency. Perdiccas had told him the men he planned to kill were those who protested Meleager's new ascendant position.
  47. ^ Diod., 18.4.7 reports only 30 killed.
  48. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 25; Green 1990, p. 8.
  49. ^ Phot., 92.2. A different translation has been used for readability. Given Photius is transcribing the writings of Arrian, who is known to have followed Ptolemy I Soter, this view may be that of the generals who Perdiccas now held pre-eminence over.
  50. ^ Heckel 2016.
  51. ^ a b Anson 2014, p. 47.
  52. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 168. Stateira and the other Achaemenid princesses were threats to Perdiccas' regime if they birthed a child by Alexander; Roxana's instigation was probably for her own safety and position in Perdiccas' court.
  53. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 170.
  54. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 11. Alexander apparently wanted to conquer all of northern Africa, Carthage, Spain, Sicily, and then Italy, and to accomplish this planned to found numerous cities and a war fleet of a thousand ships. Some scholars believe Perdiccas invented these plans to consolidate his authority as regent. As; Austin 1994, p. 55 notes, there is a lot of debate around whether they are legitimate or not.
  55. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 169. Craterus had been tasked with returning 10,000 Macedonian veterans to Macedon and to replace Antipater as viceroy of Europe by Alexander.
  56. ^ Bosworth 2005, pp. 9, 61.
  57. ^ a b Heckel 2016, p. 171.
  58. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 171; Diod., 18.7.2.
  59. ^ Bosworth 2005, pp. 61–62.
  60. ^ Anson 2014, p. 37.
  61. ^ a b c d e f Heckel 2016, p. 172.
  62. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 171-172. Another hypothesis is that the slaughter of the Greeks may have occurred through the actions of Peithon and then, later, was blamed on Perdiccas.
  63. ^ Anson 2015, p. 78; Heckel 2006, p. 121.
  64. ^ Plut. Eum., 3.2.
  65. ^ Anson 2015, p. 80.
  66. ^ Plut. Eum., 3.5.
  67. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 172; Waterfield 2011, p. 38.
  68. ^ Anson 2015, p. 84.
  69. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 173.
  70. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 172-173. Alexander had installed a satrap there, but the man disappears from history and Ariarathes is known to have been in revolt, independent, throughout Alexander's "reign" over Cappadocia.
  71. ^ Anson 2014, p. 47; Diod., 18.16.2.
  72. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 173, who notes the cruel nature of this treatment. Perdiccas likely wanted no more trouble in Cappadocia, but evidently Ariarathes I's family line survived; see: Ariarathes II.
  73. ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 62. When it occurred is not known exactly; Bosworth places it at the end of Perdiccas' Cappadocian conquest.
  74. ^ Anson 2014, p. 51.
  75. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 173. Neoptolemus may have been sent in the first place by Perdiccas to defeat the remnants of Ariarathes' supporters, who had fled east after their destruction by Perdiccas.
  76. ^ a b Anson 2014, p. 49.
  77. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 88, 89.
  78. ^ a b Heckel 2016, p. 174.
  79. ^ Anson 2014, p. 51. Perdiccas may have appointed his brother Alcetas to command of Pisidia following his conquest of it.
  80. ^ a b Green 1990, p. 12.
  81. ^ a b c Heckel 2016, p. 175.
  82. ^ Anson 2015, p. 94.
  83. ^ Diod., 18.23.3.
  84. ^ Anson 2014, p. 54.
  85. ^ Anson 2014, p. 53.
  86. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 174; Anson 2015, p. 86.
  87. ^ a b Anson 2014, p. 56.
  88. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 46.
  89. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 176. Trying to marry Perdiccas would have been pointless since Cleopatra was a much better royal marriage option for him than Eurydice.
  90. ^ a b c Heckel 2016, p. 177.
  91. ^ Anson 2014, p. 55.
  92. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 101, 104.
  93. ^ Anson 2014, p. 52.
  94. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 175, 177.
  95. ^ Anson 2015, p. 103. Perdiccas' marriage to Cleopatra would give him a claim to the Macedonian throne.
  96. ^ Anson 2015, p. 103.
  97. ^ a b c Anson 2014, p. 57.
  98. ^ a b c d e Heckel 2016, p. 179.
  99. ^ a b c Heckel 2016, p. 178.
  100. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 178. Alexander himself apparently wanted to be buried in the Siwah Oasis originally.
  101. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 105–106.
  102. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 178, 179.
  103. ^ Green 1990, p. 13.
  104. ^ Waterfield 2011, p. 49.
  105. ^ Anson 2015, pp. 106-107. He probably received the command due to his loyalty to Perdiccas, skill in battle, and victories in Cappadocia and Armenia. Eumenes' satrapy was also expanded to include Antigonus' old provinces.
  106. ^ Bosworth 2005, p. 84.
  107. ^ a b c d Heckel 2016, p. 180.
  108. ^ Anson 2014, p. 63.
  109. ^ Anson 2015, p. 111.
  110. ^ Just., 13.6.7, observes that Perdiccas "courted two wives at once, but obtained neither".
  111. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 178. Another possibility is that Cleopatra agreed, but there was no time for the marriage to be formalized before Perdiccas left for Egypt.
  112. ^ Anson 2014, p. 64.
  113. ^ a b Heckel 2016, p. 181.
  114. ^ Anson 2014, p. 66. See citation at the end of Assassination for further discussion.
  115. ^ a b Waterfield 2011, p. 64.
  116. ^ Anson 2014, pp. 60, 165; Diod., 18.33.3.
  117. ^ Romm 2011, p. 164.
  118. ^ Anson 2014, pp. 63, 69.
  119. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 182; Diod., 18.33.5.
  120. ^ a b c Heckel 2016, p. 182.
  121. ^ Diod., 18.34.1.
  122. ^ Diod., 18.34.2.
  123. ^ a b Diod., 18.34.5.
  124. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 182–183, citing; Diod., 18.36.1.
  125. ^ Green 1990, p. 14.
  126. ^ a b Heckel 2016, p. 183.
  127. ^ Anson 2014, p. 69.
  128. ^ Anson 2014, p. 59.
  129. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 182; Nep., 18.5.1.
  130. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 183. There is considerable scholarly confusion about the reports Perdiccas received about Eumenes' activity in Asia Minor from Egypt, but the claim that the news arrived too late - a day too late, is widely accepted.
  131. ^ Diod., 18.37.1.
  132. ^ Anson 2014, p. 68.
  133. ^ Romm 2011, p. 199.
  134. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 183–184, citing Arrian Succ. Fragment 27.
  135. ^ Romm 2011, p. 212; Anson 2015, p. 116; Diod., 18.33.3. Another translation is "man of blood".
  136. ^ Romm 2011, p. 212. Romm, Errington, and Heckel believe this to be the case, Roisman does not. The examples brought up by those who believe this anti-Perdiccan Ptolemaic bias include: Arrian's lack of mention of Perdiccas receiving Alexander's ring and his promotion to chiliarch, and Arrian's description of Perdiccas' role in the Battle of Thebes as one of carelessness, among others. As Arrian notes in his histories that he followed the writings of Ptolemy, these have been argued to be calculated omissions to diminish Perdiccas' prestige by Ptolemy. Roisman, conversely, believes this bias is overblown and Ptolemy's omissions are far too subtle to have been intentional or malicious.
  137. ^ Errington, R. M. (1969-01-01). "Bias in Ptolemy's History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 19 (2): 233–242. doi:10.1017/S0009838800024642. JSTOR 637545. S2CID 170128227.
  138. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 155–156.
  139. ^ Roisman, Joseph (1984-01-01). "Ptolemy and His Rivals in His History of Alexander". The Classical Quarterly. 34 (2): 373–385. doi:10.1017/S0009838800031001. JSTOR 638295. S2CID 163042651.
  140. ^ For one example, see the following. "Aelian: Various Histories. Book XII, 39". penelope.uchicago.edu.
  141. ^ a b c Anson 2014, p. 65.
  142. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 154–156, 159.
  143. ^ Romm 2011, p. 212.
  144. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 183. Alexander wanted to structure his empire in Asia, hence the administrative capital in Babylon. Antipater, once having gained the kings, returned them to Macedon, and thereafter Alexander's cross continental empire was split, and was never again held by a single Macedonian ruler.
  145. ^ Anson 2014, p. 80.
  146. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 153, citing Tarn CAH VI, 462.
  147. ^ Anson 2014, p. 83.
  148. ^ Heckel 2016, p. 169.
  149. ^ Heckel 2016, pp. 161, 183.

Bibliography

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Ancient sources

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Modern sources

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  • Anson, Edward M. (2014). Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444339628.
  • Anson, Edward M. (2015). Eumenes of Cardia: a Greek among Macedonians. Vol. 383 (2nd ed.). Brill. ISBN 978-9004297159.
  • Atkinson, J. E.; Yardley, J. C. (2009). Curtius Rufus: Histories of Alexander the Great, Book 10 (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199557622.
  • Austin, M. M. (1994). The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: a Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29666-8.
  • Badian, Ernst (2012). Collected Papers on Alexander the Great. Routledge. ISBN 9780203125267.
  • Bosworth, A.B. (2005). The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare, and Propaganda under the Successors. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198153061.
  • Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium. University of California Press. pp. 3–15. ISBN 0-520-05611-6.
  • Heckel, Waldemar (2006). Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 9781405112109.
  • Heckel, Waldemar (2016). Alexander's Marshals A Study of the Makedonian Aristocracy and the Politics of Military Leadership. Routledge, Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781138934696.
  • Roisman, Joseph (2012). Alexander's Veterans and the Early Wars of the Successors. University of Texas Press, Austin. ISBN 9780292735965.
  • Romm, James (2011). Ghost on the Throne. Alfred A. Knoff: Random House. ISBN 9780307701503.
  • Waterfield, Robin (2011). Dividing the Spoils. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195395235.
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article " Perdiccas".
Political offices
Preceded byas King Regent of Macedon
323–321/320 BC 		Succeeded by
Peithon and Arrhidaeus
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