Wikipedia

Curzon Line

For other uses, see Curzon.

The Curzon Line was a proposed demarcation line between the Second Polish Republic and the Soviet Union, two new states emerging after World War I. Based on a suggestion by Herbert James Paton, it was first proposed in 1919 by Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary, to the Supreme War Council as a diplomatic basis for a future border agreement.[1][2][3]

Curzon Line
Historical demarcation line of World War II
Lighter blue line: Curzon Line "B" as proposed in 1919.
Darker blue line: "Curzon" Line "A" as drawn by Lewis Namier in 1919.
Pink areas: Pre–World War II provinces of Germany transferred to Poland after the war.
Grey area: Pre–World War II Polish territory east of the Curzon Line annexed by the Soviet Union after the war.

The line became a major geopolitical factor during World War II, when the USSR invaded eastern Poland, resulting in the split of Poland's territory between the USSR and Nazi Germany roughly along the Curzon Line in accordance with final rounds of secret negotiations surrounding the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. After the German attack on the Soviet Union in 1941, Operation Barbarossa, the Allies did not agree that Poland's future eastern border should be changed from the pre-war status quo in 1939 until the Tehran Conference. Churchill's position changed after the Soviet victory at the Battle of Kursk.[4]

Following a private agreement at the Tehran Conference, confirmed at the 1945 Yalta Conference, the Allied leaders Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Stalin issued a statement affirming the use of the Curzon Line, with some five-to-eight-kilometre variations, as the eastern border between Poland and the Soviet Union.[5] When Churchill proposed to annex parts of Eastern Galicia, including the city of Lviv, to Poland's territory (following Line B), Stalin argued that the Soviet Union could not demand less territory for itself than the British Government had reconfirmed previously several times. The Allied arrangement involved compensation for this loss via the incorporation of formerly German areas (the so-called Recovered Territories) into Poland. As a result, the current border between Poland and the countries of Belarus and Ukraine is an approximation of the Curzon Line.

Early history

edit

At the end of World War I, the Second Polish Republic reclaimed its sovereignty following the disintegration of the occupying forces of three neighbouring empires. Imperial Russia was amid the Russian Civil War after the October Revolution, Austria-Hungary split and went into decline, and the German Reich bowed to pressure from the victorious forces of the Allies of World War I. The Allied victors agreed that an independent Polish state should be recreated from territories previously part of the Russian, the Austro-Hungarian and the German empires, after 123 years of upheavals and military partitions by them.[6]

The Supreme War Council tasked the Commission on Polish Affairs with recommending Poland's eastern border, based on spoken language majority, which became later known as the Curzon Line.[7] Their result was created December 8th 1919. The Allies forwarded it as an armistice line several times during the subsequent Polish-Soviet Wars,[7] most notably in a note from the British government to the Soviets signed by Lord Curzon of Kedleston, the British Foreign Secretary. Both parties disregarded the line when the military situation lay in their favour, and it did not play a role in establishing the Polish–Soviet border in 1921. Instead, the final Peace of Riga (or Treaty of Riga) provided Poland with almost 135,000 square kilometres (52,000 sq mi) of land that was, on average, about 250 kilometres (160 mi) east of the Curzon Line.

Characteristics

edit

The Northern half of the Curzon Line lay approximately along the border which was established between the Kingdom of Prussia and the Russian Empire in 1797, after the Third Partition of Poland, which was the last border recognised by the United Kingdom. Along most of its length, the line at least in principle was intended to follow a generally ethnic or ethnolinguistic boundary - areas West of the line generally contained an overall Polish majority while areas to its East less so- borderland areas were inhabited by Ukrainians, Belarusians, Poles, Jews and Lithuanians.[8][9][10][11][12] Its 1920 northern extension into Lithuania divided the area disputed between Poland and Lithuania. There were two versions of the southern portion of the line: "A" and "B". Version "B" allocated Lwów (Lviv) to Poland.

End of World War I

edit

The US President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points included the statement "An independent Polish state should be erected which should include the territories inhabited by indisputably Polish populations, which should be assured a free and secure access to the sea..." Article 87 of the Versailles Treaty stipulated that "The boundaries of Poland not laid down in the present Treaty will be subsequently determined by the Principal Allied and Associated Powers." In accordance with these declarations, the Supreme War Council tasked the Commission on Polish Affairs with proposing Poland's eastern boundaries in lands that were inhabited by a mixed population of Poles, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.[13][14] The Commission issued its recommendation on 22 April; its proposed Russo-Polish borders were close to those of the 19th-century Congress Poland.[14]

The Supreme Council continued to debate the issue for several months. On 8 December, the Council published a map and description of the line along with an announcement that it recognized "Poland's right to organize a regular administration of the territories of the former Russian Empire situated to the West of the line described below."[14] At the same time, the announcement stated the Council was not "...prejudging the provisions which must in the future define the eastern frontiers of Poland" and that "the rights that Poland may be able to establish over the territories situated to the East of the said line are expressly reserved."[14] The announcement had no immediate impact, although the Allies recommended its consideration in an August 1919 proposal to Poland, which was ignored.[14][15]

 
Polish ethnographic map from 1912, showing the proportions of Polish population according to pre-WW1 censuses
 
Polish ethnographic map showing the proportions of Polish population (incorporates data from pre-WW1 censuses and the 1916 census)

Polish-Soviet War of 1919-1921

edit
Main article: Polish-Soviet War

Polish forces pushed eastward, taking Kiev in May 1920. Following a strong Soviet counteroffensive, Prime Minister Władysław Grabski sought Allied assistance in July. Under pressure, he agreed to a Polish withdrawal to the 1919 version of the line and, in Galicia, an armistice near the current line of battle.[16] On 11 July 1920, Curzon signed a telegram sent to the Bolshevik government proposing that a ceasefire be established along the line, and his name was subsequently associated with it.[14]

Curzon's July 1920 proposal differed from the 19 December announcement in two significant ways.[17] The December note did not address the issue of Galicia, since it had been a part of the Austrian Empire rather than the Russian, nor did it address the Polish-Lithuanian dispute over the Vilnius Region, since those borders were demarcated at the time by the Foch Line.[17] The July 1920 note specifically addressed the Polish-Lithuanian dispute by mentioning a line running from Grodno to Vilnius (Wilno) and thence north to Daugavpils, Latvia (Dynaburg).[17] It also mentioned Galicia, where earlier discussions had resulted in the alternatives of Line A and Line B.[17] The note endorsed Line A, which included Lwów and its nearby oil fields within Russia.[18] This portion of the line did not correspond to the current line of battle in Galicia, as per Grabski's agreement, and its inclusion in the July note has lent itself to disputation.[16]

On 17 July, the Soviets responded to the note with a refusal. Georgy Chicherin, representing the Soviets, commented on the delayed interest of the British for a peace treaty between Russia and Poland. He agreed to start negotiations as long as the Polish side asked for it. The Soviet side at that time offered more favourable border solutions to Poland than the ones offered by the Curzon Line.[19] In August the Soviets were defeated by the Poles just outside Warsaw and forced to retreat. During the ensuing Polish offensive, the Polish government repudiated Grabski's agreement with regard to the line on the grounds that the Allies had not delivered support or protection.[20]

Peace of Riga

edit
Main article: Peace of Riga
 
Belarusian Caricature: "Down with the infamous Riga partition! Long live a free peasant indivisible Belarus!"

At the March 1921 Treaty of Riga the Soviets conceded[21] a frontier well to the east of the Curzon Line, where Poland had conquered a great part of the Vilna Governorate (1920/1922), including the town of Wilno (Vilnius), and East Galicia (1919), including the city of Lwów, as well as most of the region of Volhynia (1921). The treaty provided Poland with almost 135,000 square kilometres (52,000 sq mi) of land that was, on average, about 250 kilometres (160 mi) east of the Curzon Line.[22][23] The Polish-Soviet border was recognised by the League of Nations in 1923[citation needed] and confirmed by various Polish-Soviet agreements.[citation needed] Within the annexed regions, Poland founded several administrative districts, such as the Volhynian Voivodeship, the Polesie Voivodeship, and the Wilno Voivodeship.

As a concern of possible expansion of Polish territory, Polish politicians traditionally could be subdivided into two opposite groups advocating contrary approaches: restoration of Poland based on its former western territories one side and, alternatively, restoration of Poland based on its previous holdings in the east on the other.

During the first quarter of the 20th century, a representative of the first political group was Roman Dmowski, an adherent of the pan-slavistic movement and author of several political books and publications[24] of some importance, who approached the issue pragmatically, but advocating for incorporation of available land based on a ethnographic principle combined with a theory of easy assimilation of Belarusians within a centralised Polish state- the task potentially to be shared with Russia concerning Belarusians beyond the border which he viewed it would be possible to incorporate and assimilate.

This resulted in a modification of the Dmowski Line in negotiations for the Treaty of Riga, in which the Polish delegation (consisting of a majority of parliamentary representatives, Dmowski’s Zjednoczenie Ludowo-Narodowe being the strongest party) unilaterally ceding claims to the Minsk area without basis on the line of actual control, and despite it having a higher Polish-identified population (in absolute and proportionally) than many of the areas still claimed within the border. The goal is thought to be jeopardising Józef Piłsudski’s ambitions for creating a Polish-Belarusian federation, as a remnant of his ‘federationist idea’ (opposed to Dmowski’s ‘incorporation its idea’) with a Belarusian capital in Minsk. It was predicted that a Belarusian entity without Minsk would be deemed politically illegitimate and untenable to the local population. An anti-communist, but believing in the inevitability of a White victory in the Russian Civil War he wished to concentrate on resisting a more dangerous enemy of the Polish nation than Russia, which in his view was Germany.

The most powerful representative of the opposed group was Józef Piłsudski, a former socialist who was born in the Vilna Governorate annexed during the 1795 Third Partition of Poland by the Russian Empire, whose political vision was essentially a far-reaching restoration of the borders of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, ideally in the form of a multinational federation. Because the Russian Empire had collapsed into a state of civil war following the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Soviet Army had been defeated and been weakened considerably at the end of World War I by Germany's army, resulting in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Piłsudski took the chance and used military force in an attempt to realise his political vision by concentrating on the east and involving himself in the Polish–Soviet War.

World War II

edit
Main articles: Invasion of Poland and Soviet invasion of Poland

The terms of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939 provided for the partition of Poland along the line of the San, Vistula and Narew rivers which did not go along the Curzon Line but reached far beyond it and awarded the Soviet Union with territories of Lublin and near Warsaw. In September, after the military defeat of Poland, the Soviet Union annexed all territories east of the Curzon Line plus Białystok and Eastern Galicia. The territories east of this line were incorporated into the Byelorussian SSR and Ukrainian SSR after falsified referendums[citation needed] and hundreds of thousands of Poles and a lesser number of Jews were deported eastwards into the Soviet Union. In July 1941 these territories were seized by Nazi Germany in the course of the invasion of the Soviet Union. During the German occupation most of the Jewish population was deported or killed by the Germans.

In 1944, the Soviet armed forces recaptured eastern Poland from the Germans. The Soviets unilaterally declared a new frontier between the Soviet Union and Poland (approximately the same as the Curzon Line). The Polish government-in-exile in London bitterly opposed this, insisting on the "Riga line". At the Tehran and Yalta conferences between Stalin and the western Allies, the allied leaders Roosevelt and Churchill asked Stalin to reconsider, particularly over Lwów, but he refused. During the negotiations at Yalta, Stalin posed the question "Do you want me to tell the Russian people that I am less Russian than Lord Curzon?"[25] The altered Curzon Line thus became the permanent eastern border of Poland and was recognised by the western Allies in July 1945. The border was later adjusted several times, the biggest revision being in 1951.

When the Soviet Union ceased to exist in 1991, the Curzon Line became Poland's eastern border with Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine.

Ethnicity east of the Curzon Line until 1939

edit
 
Mother tongue in Poland in 1931: red/green = Polish/other languages
 
Percent of Poles in Kresy due to 1931 census

 

 
Linguistic (mother tongue) and religious structure of Northern Kresy (today parts of Belarus and Lithuania) according to the Polish census of 1931

The ethnic composition of these areas proved difficult to measure, both during the interwar period and after World War II. A 1944 article in The Times estimated that in 1931 between 2.2 and 2.5 million Poles lived east of the Curzon Line.[26] According to historian Yohanan Cohen's estimate, in 1939 the population in the territories of interwar Poland east of the Curzon Line gained via the Treaty of Riga totalled 12 million, consisting of over 5 million Ukrainians, between 3.5 and 4 million Poles, 1.5 million Belarusians, and 1.3 million Jews.[27] During World War II, politicians gave varying estimates of the Polish population east of the Curzon Line that would be affected by population transfers. Winston Churchill mentioned "3 to 4 million Poles east of the Curzon Line".[28] Stanisław Mikołajczyk, then Prime Minister of the Polish government-in-exile, counted this population as 5 million.[29]

Ukrainians and Belarusians if counted together composed the majority of the population of interwar Eastern Poland.[30] The area also had a significant number of Jewish inhabitants. Poles constituted majorities in the main cities (followed by Jews) and in some rural areas, such as Vilnius region or Wilno Voivodeship.[30][31][32]

After the Soviet deportation of Poles and Jews in 1939–1941 (see Polish minority in Soviet Union), The Holocaust and the ethnic cleansing of the Polish population of Volhynia and East Galicia by Ukrainian Nationalists, the Polish population in the territories had decreased considerably. The cities of Wilno, Lwów, Grodno and some smaller towns still had significant Polish populations. After 1945, the Polish population of the area east of the new Soviet-Polish border was in general confronted with the alternative either to accept a different citizenship or to emigrate. According to more recent research, about 3 million Roman Catholic Poles lived east of the Curzon Line within interwar Poland's borders, of whom about 2.1 million[33] to 2.2 million[34] died, fled, emigrated or were expelled to the newly annexed German territories.[35][36] There still exists a big Polish minority in Lithuania and a big Polish minority in Belarus today. The cities of Vilnius, Grodno and some smaller towns still have significant Polish populations. Vilnius District Municipality and Sapotskin region have a Polish majority.

Ukrainian nationalists continued their partisan war and were imprisoned by the Soviets and sent to the Gulag. There they revolted, actively participating in several uprisings (Kengir uprising, Norilsk uprising, Vorkuta uprising).

Polish population east of the Curzon Line before World War II can be estimated by adding together figures for Former Eastern Poland and for pre-1939 Soviet Union:

1. Interwar Poland Polish mother tongue (of whom Roman Catholics) Source (census) Today part of:
South-Eastern Poland 2,243,011 (1,765,765)[37][38] 1931 Polish census[39]   Ukraine
North-Eastern Poland 1,663,888 (1,358,029)[40][41] 1931 Polish census   and  
2. Interwar USSR Ethnic Poles according to official census Source (census) Today part of:
Soviet Ukraine 476,435 1926 Soviet census   Ukraine
Soviet Belarus 97,498 1926 Soviet census   Belarus
Soviet Russia 197,827 1926 Soviet census   Russia
rest of the USSR 10,574 1926 Soviet census
3. Interwar Baltic states Ethnic Poles according to official census Source (census) Today part of:
Lithuania 65,599 [Note 1] 1923 Lithuanian census   Lithuania
Latvia 59,374 1930 Latvian census[42]   Latvia
Estonia 1,608 1934 Estonian census   Estonia
TOTAL (1., 2., 3.) 4 to 5 million ethnic Poles


Two tables below show the linguistic (mother tongue) and religious structure of interwar South-Eastern Poland (nowadays part of Western Ukraine) and interwar North-Eastern Poland (nowadays part of Western Belarus and southern Lithuania) by county, according to the 1931 census.

South-East Poland:

Linguistic and religious structure of South-East Poland in 1931[43][44][45][46][47]
County Pop. Polish % Yiddish & Hebrew % Ukrainian & Ruthenian % Other language

[Note 2]

% Roman Catholic % Jewish % Uniate & Orthodox % Other religion

[Note 3]

%
Dubno 226709 33987 15.0% 17430 7.7% 158173 69.8% 17119 7.6% 27638 12.2% 18227 8.0% 173512 76.5% 7332 3.2%
Horokhiv 122045 21100 17.3% 9993 8.2% 84224 69.0% 6728 5.5% 17675 14.5% 10112 8.3% 87333 71.6% 6925 5.7%
Kostopil 159602 34951 21.9% 10481 6.6% 105346 66.0% 8824 5.5% 34450 21.6% 10786 6.8% 103912 65.1% 10454 6.6%
Kovel 255095 36720 14.4% 26476 10.4% 185240 72.6% 6659 2.6% 35191 13.8% 26719 10.5% 187717 73.6% 5468 2.1%
Kremenets 243032 25758 10.6% 18679 7.7% 196000 80.6% 2595 1.1% 25082 10.3% 18751 7.7% 195233 80.3% 3966 1.6%
Liuboml 85507 12150 14.2% 6818 8.0% 65906 77.1% 633 0.7% 10998 12.9% 6861 8.0% 65685 76.8% 1963 2.3%
Lutsk 290805 56446 19.4% 34142 11.7% 172038 59.2% 28179 9.7% 55802 19.2% 34354 11.8% 177377 61.0% 23272 8.0%
Rivne 252787 36990 14.6% 37484 14.8% 160484 63.5% 17829 7.1% 36444 14.4% 37713 14.9% 166970 66.1% 11660 4.6%
Sarny 181284 30426 16.8% 16019 8.8% 129637 71.5% 5202 2.9% 28192 15.6% 16088 8.9% 132691 73.2% 4313 2.4%
Volodymyr 150374 40286 26.8% 17236 11.5% 88174 58.6% 4678 3.1% 38483 25.6% 17331 11.5% 89641 59.6% 4919 3.3%
Zdolbuniv 118334 17826 15.1% 10787 9.1% 81650 69.0% 8071 6.8% 17901 15.1% 10850 9.2% 86948 73.5% 2635 2.2%
Borshchiv 103277 46153 44.7% 4302 4.2% 52612 50.9% 210 0.2% 28432 27.5% 9353 9.1% 65344 63.3% 148 0.1%
Brody 91248 32843 36.0% 7640 8.4% 50490 55.3% 275 0.3% 22521 24.7% 10360 11.4% 58009 63.6% 358 0.4%
Berezhany 103824 48168 46.4% 3716 3.6% 51757 49.9% 183 0.2% 41962 40.4% 7151 6.9% 54611 52.6% 100 0.1%
Buchach 139062 60523 43.5% 8059 5.8% 70336 50.6% 144 0.1% 51311 36.9% 10568 7.6% 77023 55.4% 160 0.1%
Chortkiv 84008 36486 43.4% 6474 7.7% 40866 48.6% 182 0.2% 33080 39.4% 7845 9.3% 42828 51.0% 255 0.3%
Kamianka-Buzka 82111 41693 50.8% 4737 5.8% 35178 42.8% 503 0.6% 29828 36.3% 6700 8.2% 45113 54.9% 470 0.6%
Kopychyntsi 88614 38158 43.1% 5164 5.8% 45196 51.0% 96 0.1% 31202 35.2% 7291 8.2% 50007 56.4% 114 0.1%
Pidhaitsi 95663 46710 48.8% 3464 3.6% 45031 47.1% 458 0.5% 38003 39.7% 4786 5.0% 52634 55.0% 240 0.3%
Peremyshliany 89908 52269 58.1% 4445 4.9% 32777 36.5% 417 0.5% 38475 42.8% 6860 7.6% 44002 48.9% 571 0.6%
Radekhiv 69313 25427 36.7% 3277 4.7% 39970 57.7% 639 0.9% 17945 25.9% 6934 10.0% 42928 61.9% 1506 2.2%
Skalat 89215 60091 67.4% 3654 4.1% 25369 28.4% 101 0.1% 45631 51.1% 8486 9.5% 34798 39.0% 300 0.3%
Ternopil 142220 93874 66.0% 5836 4.1% 42374 29.8% 136 0.1% 63286 44.5% 17684 12.4% 60979 42.9% 271 0.2%
Terebovlia 84321 50178 59.5% 3173 3.8% 30868 36.6% 102 0.1% 38979 46.2% 4845 5.7% 40452 48.0% 45 0.1%
Zalishchyky 72021 27549 38.3% 3261 4.5% 41147 57.1% 64 0.1% 17917 24.9% 5965 8.3% 48069 66.7% 70 0.1%
Zbarazh 65579 32740 49.9% 3142 4.8% 29609 45.2% 88 0.1% 24855 37.9% 3997 6.1% 36468 55.6% 259 0.4%
Zboriv 81413 39624 48.7% 2522 3.1% 39174 48.1% 93 0.1% 26239 32.2% 5056 6.2% 49925 61.3% 193 0.2%
Zolochiv 118609 56628 47.7% 6066 5.1% 55381 46.7% 534 0.5% 36937 31.1% 10236 8.6% 70663 59.6% 773 0.7%
Dolyna 118373 21158 17.9% 9031 7.6% 83880 70.9% 4304 3.6% 15630 13.2% 10471 8.8% 89811 75.9% 2461 2.1%
Horodenka 92894 27751 29.9% 5031 5.4% 59957 64.5% 155 0.2% 15519 16.7% 7480 8.1% 69789 75.1% 106 0.1%
Kalush 102252 18637 18.2% 5109 5.0% 77506 75.8% 1000 1.0% 14418 14.1% 6249 6.1% 80750 79.0% 835 0.8%
Kolomyia 176000 52006 29.5% 11191 6.4% 110533 62.8% 2270 1.3% 31925 18.1% 20887 11.9% 121376 69.0% 1812 1.0%
Kosiv 93952 6718 7.2% 6730 7.2% 79838 85.0% 666 0.7% 4976 5.3% 7826 8.3% 80903 86.1% 247 0.3%
Nadvírna 140702 16907 12.0% 11020 7.8% 112128 79.7% 647 0.5% 15214 10.8% 11663 8.3% 113116 80.4% 709 0.5%
Rohatyn 127252 36152 28.4% 6111 4.8% 84875 66.7% 114 0.1% 27108 21.3% 9466 7.4% 90456 71.1% 222 0.2%
Stanyslaviv 198359 49032 24.7% 26996 13.6% 120214 60.6% 2117 1.1% 42519 21.4% 29525 14.9% 123959 62.5% 2356 1.2%
Stryi 152631 25186 16.5% 15413 10.1% 106183 69.6% 5849 3.8% 23404 15.3% 17115 11.2% 108159 70.9% 3953 2.6%
Sniatyn 78025 17206 22.1% 4341 5.6% 56007 71.8% 471 0.6% 8659 11.1% 7073 9.1% 61797 79.2% 496 0.6%
Tlumach 116028 44958 38.7% 3677 3.2% 66659 57.5% 734 0.6% 31478 27.1% 6702 5.8% 76650 66.1% 1198 1.0%
Zhydachiv 83817 16464 19.6% 4728 5.6% 61098 72.9% 1527 1.8% 15094 18.0% 5289 6.3% 63144 75.3% 290 0.3%
Bibrka 97124 30762 31.7% 5533 5.7% 60444 62.2% 385 0.4% 22820 23.5% 7972 8.2% 66113 68.1% 219 0.2%
Dobromyl 93970 35945 38.3% 4997 5.3% 52463 55.8% 565 0.6% 25941 27.6% 7522 8.0% 59664 63.5% 843 0.9%
Drohobych 194456 91935 47.3% 20484 10.5% 79214 40.7% 2823 1.5% 52172 26.8% 28888 14.9% 110850 57.0% 2546 1.3%
Horodok 85007 33228 39.1% 2975 3.5% 47812 56.2% 992 1.2% 22408 26.4% 4982 5.9% 56713 66.7% 904 1.1%
Yavoriv 86762 26938 31.0% 3044 3.5% 55868 64.4% 912 1.1% 18394 21.2% 5161 5.9% 62828 72.4% 379 0.4%
Lviv City 312231 198212 63.5% 75316 24.1% 35137 11.3% 3566 1.1% 157490 50.4% 99595 31.9% 50824 16.3% 4322 1.4%
Lviv County 142800 80712 56.5% 1569 1.1% 58395 40.9% 2124 1.5% 67430 47.2% 5087 3.6% 67592 47.3% 2691 1.9%
Mostyska 89460 49989 55.9% 2164 2.4% 37196 41.6% 111 0.1% 34619 38.7% 5428 6.1% 49230 55.0% 183 0.2%
Rava-Ruska 122072 27376 22.4% 10991 9.0% 82133 67.3% 1572 1.3% 22489 18.4% 13381 11.0% 84808 69.5% 1394 1.1%
Rudky 79170 38417 48.5% 4247 5.4% 36254 45.8% 252 0.3% 27674 35.0% 5396 6.8% 45756 57.8% 344 0.4%
Sambir 133814 56818 42.5% 7794 5.8% 68222 51.0% 980 0.7% 43583 32.6% 11258 8.4% 78527 58.7% 446 0.3%
Sokal 109111 42851 39.3% 5917 5.4% 59984 55.0% 359 0.3% 25425 23.3% 13372 12.3% 69963 64.1% 351 0.3%
Turka 114457 26083 22.8% 7552 6.6% 80483 70.3% 339 0.3% 6301 5.5% 10627 9.3% 97339 85.0% 190 0.2%
Zhovkva 95507 35816 37.5% 3344 3.5% 56060 58.7% 287 0.3% 20279 21.2% 7848 8.2% 66823 70.0% 557 0.6%
South-East Poland 6922206 2243011 32.4% 549782 7.9% 3983550 57.6% 145863 2.1% 1707428 24.7% 708172 10.2% 4387812 63.4% 118794 1.7%


North-East Poland:

Linguistic and religious structure of North-East Poland in 1931[48][49][50][51][52]
County Pop. Polish % Yiddish & Hebrew % Belarusian, Poleshuk & Russian % Other language [Note 4] % Roman Catholic % Jewish % Orthodox & Uniate % Other religion

[Note 5]

%
Baranavichy 161038 74916 46.5% 15034 9.3% 70627 43.9% 461 0.3% 45126 28.0% 16074 10.0% 99118 61.5% 720 0.4%
Lida 183485 145609 79.4% 14546 7.9% 20538 11.2% 2792 1.5% 144627 78.8% 14913 8.1% 23025 12.5% 920 0.5%
Nyasvizh 114464 27933 24.4% 8754 7.6% 77094 67.4% 683 0.6% 22378 19.6% 8880 7.8% 82245 71.9% 961 0.8%
Novogrudok 149536 35084 23.5% 10326 6.9% 103783 69.4% 343 0.2% 28796 19.3% 10462 7.0% 109162 73.0% 1116 0.7%
Slonim 126510 52313 41.4% 10058 8.0% 63445 50.2% 694 0.5% 23817 18.8% 12344 9.8% 89724 70.9% 625 0.5%
Stowbtsy 99389 51820 52.1% 6341 6.4% 40875 41.1% 353 0.4% 37856 38.1% 6975 7.0% 54076 54.4% 482 0.5%
Shchuchyn 107203 89462 83.5% 6705 6.3% 10658 9.9% 378 0.4% 60097 56.1% 7883 7.4% 38900 36.3% 323 0.3%
Valozhyn 115522 76722 66.4% 5261 4.6% 33240 28.8% 299 0.3% 61852 53.5% 5341 4.6% 47923 41.5% 406 0.4%
Braslaw 143161 93958 65.6% 7181 5.0% 37689 26.3% 4333 3.0% 89020 62.2% 7703 5.4% 29713 20.8% 16725 11.7%
Dzisna 159886 62282 39.0% 11762 7.4% 85051 53.2% 791 0.5% 56895 35.6% 11948 7.5% 88118 55.1% 2925 1.8%
Molodechno 91285 35523 38.9% 5789 6.3% 49747 54.5% 226 0.2% 21704 23.8% 5910 6.5% 63074 69.1% 597 0.7%
Oshmyany 104612 84951 81.2% 6721 6.4% 11064 10.6% 1876 1.8% 81369 77.8% 7056 6.7% 15125 14.5% 1062 1.0%
Pastavy 99907 47917 48.0% 2683 2.7% 49071 49.1% 236 0.2% 50751 50.8% 2769 2.8% 44477 44.5% 1910 1.9%
Švenčionys 136475 68441 50.1% 7654 5.6% 16814 12.3% 43566 31.9% 117524 86.1% 7678 5.6% 1978 1.4% 9295 6.8%
Vilyeyka 131070 59477 45.4% 5934 4.5% 65220 49.8% 439 0.3% 53168 40.6% 6113 4.7% 70664 53.9% 1125 0.9%
Vilnius-Trakai 214472 180546 84.2% 6508 3.0% 9263 4.3% 18155 8.5% 201053 93.7% 6613 3.1% 2988 1.4% 3818 1.8%
Vilnius City 195071 128628 65.9% 54596 28.0% 9109 4.7% 2738 1.4% 125999 64.6% 55006 28.2% 9598 4.9% 4468 2.3%
Brest 215927 50248 23.3% 32089 14.9% 115323 53.4% 18267 8.5% 43020 19.9% 32280 14.9% 135911 62.9% 4716 2.2%
Drahichyn 97040 6844 7.1% 6947 7.2% 81557 84.0% 1692 1.7% 5699 5.9% 6981 7.2% 83147 85.7% 1213 1.3%
Kamin-Kashyrskyi 94988 6692 7.0% 4014 4.2% 75699 79.7% 8583 9.0% 6026 6.3% 4037 4.3% 83113 87.5% 1812 1.9%
Kobryn 113972 10040 8.8% 10489 9.2% 71435 62.7% 22008 19.3% 8973 7.9% 10527 9.2% 93426 82.0% 1046 0.9%
Kosava 83696 8456 10.1% 6300 7.5% 68769 82.2% 171 0.2% 7810 9.3% 6333 7.6% 68941 82.4% 612 0.7%
Luninyets 108663 16535 15.2% 7811 7.2% 83769 77.1% 548 0.5% 13754 12.7% 8072 7.4% 85728 78.9% 1109 1.0%
Pinsk 184305 29077 15.8% 25088 13.6% 128787 69.9% 1353 0.7% 16465 8.9% 25385 13.8% 140022 76.0% 2433 1.3%
Pruzhany 108583 17762 16.4% 9419 8.7% 81032 74.6% 370 0.3% 16311 15.0% 9463 8.7% 82015 75.5% 794 0.7%
Stolin 124765 18452 14.8% 10809 8.7% 92253 73.9% 3251 2.6% 6893 5.5% 10910 8.7% 105280 84.4% 1682 1.3%
Grodno 213105 101089 47.4% 35354 16.6% 69832 32.8% 6830 3.2% 89122 41.8% 35693 16.7% 87205 40.9% 1085 0.5%
Volkovysk 171327 83111 48.5% 13082 7.6% 74823 43.7% 311 0.2% 76373 44.6% 13283 7.8% 80621 47.1% 1050 0.6%
North-East Poland 3849457 1663888 43.2% 347255 9.0% 1696567 44.1% 141747 3.7% 1512478 39.3% 356632 9.3% 1915317 49.7% 65030 1.7%

Largest cities and towns

edit

In 1931, according to the Polish National Census, the ten largest cities in Polish Eastern Borderlands were: Lwów (pop. 312,200), Wilno (pop. 195,100), Stanisławów (pop. 60,000), Grodno (pop. 49,700), Brześć nad Bugiem (pop. 48,400), Borysław (pop. 41,500), Równe (pop. 40,600), Tarnopol (pop. 35,600), Łuck (pop. 35,600) and Kołomyja (pop. 33,800).

In addition, Daugavpils (pop. 43,200 in 1930) in inter-war Latvia was also a major Polish community with 21% ethnic Polish inhabitants.

Ethnolinguistic structure (mother tongue) of the population in 24 largest cities and towns in Kresy according to the censuses of 1931[39] and 1930[53]
City Pop. Polish Yiddish & Hebrew German Ukrainian & Ruthenian Belarusian Russian Lithuanian Other Today part of:
Lwów 312,231 63.5% (198,212) 24.1% (75,316) 0.8% (2,448) 11.3% (35,137) 0% (24) 0.1% (462) 0% (6) 0.2% (626)   Ukraine
Wilno 195,071 65.9% (128,628) 28% (54,596) 0.3% (561) 0.1% (213) 0.9% (1,737) 3.8% (7,372) 0.8% (1,579) 0.2% (385)   Lithuania
Stanisławów 59,960 43.7% (26,187) 38.3% (22,944) 2.2% (1,332) 15.6% (9,357) 0% (3) 0.1% (50) 0% (1) 0.1% (86)   Ukraine
Grodno 49,669 47.2% (23,458) 42.1% (20,931) 0.2% (99) 0.2% (83) 2.5% (1,261) 7.5% (3,730) 0% (22) 0.2% (85)   Belarus
Brześć 48,385 42.6% (20,595) 44.1% (21,315) 0% (24) 0.8% (393) 7.1% (3,434) 5.3% (2,575) 0% (1) 0.1% (48)   Belarus
Daugavpils 43,226 20.8% (9,007) 26.9% (11,636) - - 2.3% (1,006) 19.5% (8,425) - 30.4% (13,152)   Latvia
Borysław 41,496 55.3% (22,967) 25.4% (10,538) 0.5% (209) 18.5% (7,686) 0% (4) 0.1% (37) 0% (2) 0.1% (53)   Ukraine
Równe 40,612 27.5% (11,173) 55.5% (22,557) 0.8% (327) 7.9% (3,194) 0.1% (58) 6.9% (2,792) 0% (4) 1.2% (507)   Ukraine
Tarnopol 35,644 77.7% (27,712) 14% (5,002) 0% (14) 8.1% (2,896) 0% (2) 0% (6) 0% (0) 0% (12)   Ukraine
Łuck 35,554 31.9% (11,326) 48.6% (17,267) 2.3% (813) 9.3% (3,305) 0.1% (36) 6.4% (2,284) 0% (1) 1.5% (522)   Ukraine
Kołomyja 33,788 65% (21,969) 20.1% (6,798) 3.6% (1,220) 11.1% (3,742) 0% (0) 0% (6) 0% (2) 0.2% (51)   Ukraine
Drohobycz 32,261 58.4% (18,840) 24.8% (7,987) 0.4% (120) 16.3% (5,243) 0% (13) 0.1% (21) 0% (0) 0.1% (37)   Ukraine
Pińsk 31,912 23% (7,346) 63.2% (20,181) 0.1% (45) 0.3% (82) 4.3% (1,373) 9% (2,866) 0% (2) 0.1% (17)   Belarus
Stryj 30,491 42.3% (12,897) 31.4% (9,561) 1.6% (501) 24.6% (7,510) 0% (0) 0% (10) 0% (0) 0% (12)   Ukraine
Kowel 27,677 37.2% (10,295) 46.2% (12,786) 0.2% (50) 9% (2,489) 0.1% (27) 7.1% (1,954) 0% (1) 0.3% (75)   Ukraine
Włodzimierz 24,591 39.1% (9,616) 43.1% (10,611) 0.6% (138) 14% (3,446) 0.1% (18) 2.9% (724) 0% (0) 0.2% (38)   Ukraine
Baranowicze 22,818 42.8% (9,758) 41.3% (9,423) 0.1% (25) 0.2% (50) 11.1% (2,537) 4.4% (1,006) 0% (1) 0.1% (18)   Belarus
Sambor 21,923 61.9% (13,575) 24.3% (5,325) 0.1% (28) 13.2% (2,902) 0% (4) 0% (4) 0% (0) 0.4% (85)   Ukraine
Krzemieniec 19,877 15.6% (3,108) 36.4% (7,245) 0.1% (23) 42.4% (8,430) 0% (6) 4.4% (883) 0% (2) 0.9% (180)   Ukraine
Lida 19,326 63.3% (12,239) 32.6% (6,300) 0% (5) 0.1% (28) 2.1% (414) 1.7% (328) 0% (2) 0.1% (10)   Belarus
Czortków 19,038 55.2% (10,504) 25.5% (4,860) 0.1% (11) 19.1% (3,633) 0% (0) 0.1% (17) 0% (0) 0.1% (13)   Ukraine
Brody 17,905 44.9% (8,031) 35% (6,266) 0.2% (37) 19.8% (3,548) 0% (5) 0.1% (9) 0% (0) 0.1% (9)   Ukraine
Słonim 16,251 52% (8,452) 41.1% (6,683) 0.1% (9) 0.3% (45) 4% (656) 2.3% (369) 0% (2) 0.2% (35)   Belarus
Wołkowysk 15,027 49.6% (7,448) 38.8% (5,827) 0% (7) 0.1% (10) 6.9% (1,038) 4.6% (689) 0% (3) 0% (5)   Belarus

Poles east of the Curzon Line after expulsion

edit

Despite the expulsion of most ethnic Poles from the Soviet Union between 1944 and 1958, the Soviet census of 1959 still counted around 1.4 million ethnic Poles remaining in the USSR:

Republic of the USSR Ethnic Poles in 1959 census
Byelorussian SSR 538,881
Ukrainian SSR 363,297
Lithuanian SSR 230,107
Latvian SSR 59,774
Estonian SSR 2,256
rest of the USSR 185,967
TOTAL 1,380,282

According to a more recent census, there were about 295,000 Poles in Belarus in 2009 (3.1% of the Belarus population).[54]

Ethnicity west of the Curzon Line until 1939

edit
Main article: Zakerzonia

According to Piotr Eberhardt, in 1939, the population of all territories between the Oder-Neisse Line and the Curzon Line—all territories which formed post-1945 Poland—totalled 32,337,800 inhabitants, of whom the largest groups were ethnic Poles (approximately 67%), ethnic Germans (approximately 25%), and Jews (2,254,300 or 7%), with 657,500 (2%) Ukrainians, 140,900 Belarusians and 47,000 people of all other ethnic groups also in the region.[55] Much of the Ukrainian population was forcibly resettled after World War II to Soviet Ukraine or scattered in the new Polish Recovered Territories of Silesia, Pomerania, Lubusz Land, Warmia and Masuria in an ethnic cleansing by the Polish military in an operation called Operation Vistula.

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ Polish sources estimated, based on the percentage of votes for Polish parties in the 1923 Lithuanian parliamentary election, that the real number of ethnic Poles in interwar Lithuania in 1923 was 202,026.
  2. ^ Includes German and Czech, etc.
  3. ^ Includes Protestants, Old Believers, etc.
  4. ^ Includes Lithuanian and Ukrainian, etc.
  5. ^ Includes Old Believers, Protestants, etc.

References

edit
  1. ^ Sarah Meiklejohn Terry (1983). Poland's Place in Europe: General Sikorski and the Origin of the Oder-Neisse Line, 1939-1943. Princeton University Press. p. 121. ISBN 9781400857173.
  2. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2012). "The Curzon line as the eastern boundary of Poland. The origins and the political background". Geographia Polonica. 85 (1): 5–21. doi:10.7163/GPol.2012.1.1.
  3. ^ R. F. Leslie, Antony Polonsky (1983). The History of Poland Since 1863. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27501-9.
  4. ^ Rees, Laurence (2009). World War Two Behind Closed Doors, BBC Books, pp. 122, 220
  5. ^ "Modern History Sourcebook: The Yalta Conference, Feb. 1945". Fordham University. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
  6. ^ Henryk Zieliński (1984). "The collapse of foreign authority in the Polish territories". Historia Polski 1914-1939 [History of Poland 1918-1939] (in Polish). Warsaw: Polish Scientific Publishers PWN. pp. 84–88. ISBN 83-01-03866-7.
  7. ^ a b "Curzon Line | Definition, Facts, & Border | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-10-09.
  8. ^ Zara S. Steiner (2005). The Lights that Failed: European International History, 1919–1933. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822114-2.
  9. ^ Anna M. Cienciala; Wojciech Materski (2007). Katyn: a crime without punishment. Yale University Press. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-300-10851-4. Retrieved 3 February 2011. It also happened to coincide with the eastern limits of pedominantly ethnic Polish territory.
  10. ^ Aviel Roshwald (2001). Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, Russia, and the Middle East, 1914–1923. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-17893-8.
  11. ^ Joseph Marcus (1983). Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland, 1919–1939. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-90-279-3239-6.
  12. ^ Sandra Halperin (1997). In the Mirror of the Third World: Capitalist Development in Modern Europe. Cornell University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-8014-8290-8. curzon line ethnographic.
  13. ^ Richard J. Krickus (2002). The Kaliningrad question. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7425-1705-9. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Manfred Franz Boemeke; Manfred F. Boemeke; Gerald D. Feldman; Elisabeth Gläser (1998). The Treaty of Versailles: a reassessment after 75 years. Cambridge University Press. pp. 331–333. ISBN 978-0-521-62132-8. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  15. ^ Arno J. Mayer (26 December 2001). The Furies: Violence and Terror in the French and Russian Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 300. ISBN 978-0-691-09015-3. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
  16. ^ a b Piotr Stefan Wandycz (1962). France and her eastern allies, 1919-1925: French-Czechoslovak-Polish relations from the Paris Peace Conference to Locarno. U of Minnesota Press. pp. 154–156. ISBN 978-0-8166-5886-2. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
  17. ^ a b c d Eric Suy; Karel Wellens (1998). International law: theory and practice : essays in honour of Eric Suy. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-90-411-0582-0. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
  18. ^ Anna M. Cienciala. "Lecture Notes 11 - THE REBIRTH OF POLAND". University of Kansas. Retrieved 2011-01-26.
  19. ^ E. H. Carr (1982). The Bolshevik Revolution 1917–1923 (A history of Soviet Russia), volume 3 , p.260, Greek edition, ekdoseis Ypodomi
  20. ^ Michael Palij (1995). The Ukrainian-Polish defensive alliance, 1919-1921: an aspect of the Ukrainian revolution. CIUS Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-1-895571-05-9. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
  21. ^ Henry Butterfield Ryan (19 August 2004). The vision of Anglo-America: the US-UK alliance and the emerging Cold War, 1943-1946. Cambridge University Press. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-521-89284-1. Retrieved 3 February 2011. A peace was finally concluded and a boundary, much less favourable to Russia than the Curzon Line, was determined at Riga in March 1921 and known as the Riga Line.
  22. ^ Michael Graham Fry; Erik Goldstein; Richard Langhorne (30 March 2004). Guide to International Relations and Diplomacy. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-8264-7301-1. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  23. ^ Spencer Tucker (11 November 2010). Battles That Changed History: An Encyclopedia of World Conflict. ABC-CLIO. p. 448. ISBN 978-1-59884-429-0. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  24. ^ Roman Dmowski: La question polonaise. Paris 1909, in French, translated from the Polish 1908 edition of Niemcy, Rosja a sprawa polska (Germany, Russia and the Polish Question, reprinted in 2010 by Nabu Press, U.S.A., ISBN 978-1-141-67057-4).
  25. ^ Serhii Plokhy (4 February 2010). Yalta: The Price of Peace. Penguin. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-670-02141-3. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
  26. ^ The Times of 12 January 1944; cited according to Alexandre Abramson (Alius): Die Curzon-Line, Europa Verlag, Zürich 1945, p. 45.
  27. ^ Yohanan Cohen (1989). Small Nations in Times of Crisis and Confrontation. SUNY Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-7914-0018-0.
  28. ^ Winston Churchill (11 April 1986). Triumph and Tragedy. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 568. ISBN 978-0-395-41060-8. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  29. ^ John Erickson (10 June 1999). The road to Berlin. Yale University Press. p. 407. ISBN 978-0-300-07813-8. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
  30. ^ a b Anna M. Cienciala. "The foreign policy of Józef Piłsudski and Józef Beck 1926-1939: Misconceptions and interpretations". The Polish Review. Vol. LVI, Nos 1-2. 2011. p. 112.
  31. ^ Rafal Wnuk. "The Polish underground under Soviet occupation, 1939-1941". Stalin and Europe: Imitation and Domination, 1928-1953. Oxford University Press. 2014. p. 95.
  32. ^ Piotr Eberhardt, Jan Owsinski (2003). Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth Century Eastern Europe: History, Data and Analysis. Routledge. p. 29.
  33. ^ Kühne, Jörg-Detlef (2007). Die Veränderungsmöglichkeiten der Oder-Neiße-Linie nach 1945 (in German) (2nd ed.). Baden-Baden: Nomos. see footnote no. 2. ISBN 978-3-8329-3124-7.
  34. ^ Alexander, Manfred (2008). Kleine Geschichte Polens (in German) (2nd enlarged ed.). Stuttgart: Reclam. p. 321. ISBN 978-3-15-017060-1.
  35. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2006). Political Migrations in Poland 1939-1948 (PDF). Warsaw: Didactica. ISBN 9781536110357. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-26.
  36. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2011). Political Migrations On Polish Territories (1939-1950) (PDF). Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences. ISBN 978-83-61590-46-0.
  37. ^ "Liczba i rozmieszczenie ludności polskiej na części Kresów obecnie w granicach Ukrainy". Konsnard. 2011.
  38. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2003). Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central-Eastern Europe: History, Data, and Analysis. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 241, Table 4.45. ISBN 9780765606655.
  39. ^ a b "Polish census of 1931".
  40. ^ "Liczebność Polaków na Kresach w obecnej Białorusi". Konsnard. 2011.
  41. ^ "Liczba i rozmieszczenie ludności polskiej na obszarach obecnej Litwy". Konsnard. 2011.
  42. ^ "Third Population and Housing Census in Latvia in 1930 (in Latvian and in French)". State Statistical Office.
  43. ^ "Plik:Woj.wołyńskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  44. ^ "Plik:Woj.tarnopolskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  45. ^ "Plik:Woj.stanisławowskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  46. ^ "Plik:Woj.lwowskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  47. ^ "Plik:M.Lwów-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1937. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  48. ^ "Plik:Woj.nowogrodzkie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  49. ^ "Plik:Woj.wileńskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1936. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  50. ^ Statystyczny, Główny Urząd (1937), English: Dane spisu powszechnego 1931 - Miasto Wilno (PDF), retrieved 2024-06-13
  51. ^ "Plik:Woj.poleskie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  52. ^ "Plik:Woj.białostockie-Polska spis powszechny 1931.pdf – Wikipedia, wolna encyklopedia" (PDF). commons.wikimedia.org (in Polish). 1938. Retrieved 2024-06-13.
  53. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (1998). "Problematyka narodowościowa Łotwy" (PDF). Zeszyty IGiPZ PAN. 54: 30, Tabela 7 – via Repozytorium Cyfrowe Instytutów Naukowych.
  54. ^ "Population census 2009". belstat.gov.by. Archived from the original on 4 October 2013. Retrieved 4 October 2013.
  55. ^ Eberhardt, Piotr (2000). "Przemieszczenia ludności na terytorium Polski spowodowane II wojną światową" (PDF). Dokumentacja Geograficzna (in Polish and English). 15. Warsaw: 75–76 – via Repozytorium Cyfrowe Instytutów Naukowych.

Sources

edit

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Curzon_Line&oldid=1258183201"