Wikipedia

Coup Belt

The Coup Belt (French: la ceinture de coups d'État[1]) is a modern geopolitical concept and neologism which emerged during the 2020s to describe the region of West Africa, Central Africa and the Sahel that is home to countries with a high prevalence of coups d'état.[2][3][4][5] Following the 2023 Nigerien coup, these countries form a continuous chain stretching between the east and west coasts of Africa.[6]

Coup Belt
Geopolitical concept
African countries that have had successful coups between 2020 and 2023
African countries that have had successful coups between 2020 and 2023
ContinentAfrica
SubregionSahel, West Africa and Central Africa
Countries

The coups have largely been similar in nature; most came from dissatisfied militaries who criticised their respective government's handling of Islamic insurgents or protests since 2003.[6] Resentment over French military, financial and political influence over African governments has also played a role.[7] The incoming juntas tend to have worse relations with the West, with many seeking support from either Russia and the Wagner Group or Turkey instead of France, which previously helped the countries fight against Islamic insurgents through Operation Barkhane. This led Ukraine to fund opposition groups which in turn caused a proxy war between Russia and Ukraine.[8][9]

Origin

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The number of successful coups d'état in postcolonial Africa (as of 28 September 2023).[10]
 
Human Development Index (HDI) of African countries, with the Coup Belt outlined in red (Gabon is sometimes included following the 2023 coup). Every country in the Coup Belt, except Gabon, has an HDI below 0.500, indicating low human development.

Although likely older,[11][12] the term became popular in the 2020s after a string of coups in the early part of the decade, including in Mali in 2020 and 2021,[13] Chad,[6] Guinea,[14] and Sudan[15] in 2021, two in Burkina Faso in January and September 2022,[16][17] and in Niger and Gabon in 2023.[18][19] The region also saw attempted coups in Niger and Sudan in 2021, Guinea–Bissau and The Gambia in 2022, and Sudan, Sierra Leone and Burkina Faso in 2023.

History

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Since 1990, 21 of the 27 coups in sub-Saharan Africa have taken place in former French colonies. This has led some to question whether French influence in Africa has a destabilising impact.[20]

The military juntas of Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger cancelled military agreements that allowed for French troops to operate on their territory, and in the case of Mali, removed French as an official language.[21][22][23][24]

ECOWAS has tried to actively work on changing the label that is associated with the region, although unsuccessfully. The regional bloc suspended Mali after its coup in 2021,[25] and also suspended Guinea on 8 September 2021, shortly after a military coup took place in the country.[26][27] The three members of the Alliance of Sahel States were suspended before ultimately withdrawing from ECOWAS in 2023.

Looking at the subregion of West Africa alone, the 2020 coup d'état in Mali occurred after a period of nearly six years, since the 2014 Burkina Faso uprising and the ousting of Burkina Faso’s President Blaise Compaoré, during which there was not a single undemocratic change of government in West Africa.[28] For this subregion where many countries have a history of civil war and violent conflict, this was a period of remarkable stability during which ECOWAS even managed to find a peaceful resolution to the 2016–2017 Gambian constitutional crisis.

The 2023 Gabonese coup d'état was somewhat different, as Gabon was ruled for 56 years by the Bongo family before the coup, is not near or part of the Sahel, and did not suffer from Islamist or separatist insurgencies. The Gabonese military coup occurred in the context of widespread protests over the conduct of the 2023 Gabonese general election, and led to the establishment of a presidential republic under a military junta.[29]

List of coups d'état in the Coup Belt

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See also: List of coups and coup attempts since 2010 § Africa
Date Country Event Head of state
or government 		Coup leader(s) Outcome
June 1957   Sudan 1957 Sudanese coup attempt Abdallah Khalil Abdel Rahman Ismail Kabeida Coup failure
17 November 1959 1959 Sudanese coup attempt Ibrahim Abboud Coup failure
13 January 1963   Togo 1963 Togolese coup d'état Sylvanus Olympio
Coup successful
28 October 1963   Dahomey 1963 Dahomeyan coup d'état Hubert Maga Christophe Soglo Coup successful
17 February 1964   Gabon 1964 Gabonese coup d'état Léon M'ba
Coup briefly successful; M'ba restored following French intervention
31 December 1965 – 1 January 1966   Central African Republic Saint-Sylvestre coup d'état David Dacko Jean-Bédel Bokassa Coup successful
3 January 1966   Upper Volta 1966 Upper Voltan coup d'état Maurice Yaméogo Sangoulé Lamizana Coup successful
16 January 1966   Nigeria 1966 Nigerian coup d'état Nnamdi Azikiwe
Coup failure
24 February 1966   Ghana 1966 Ghanaian coup d'état Kwame Nkrumah Emmanuel Kwasi Kotoka Coup successful
28 July 1966   Nigeria 1966 Nigerian counter-coup Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi Murtala Muhammed Coup successful
13 January 1967   Togo 1967 Togolese coup d'état Nicolas Grunitzky Étienne Eyadéma Coup successful
21 March 1967   Sierra Leone First 1967 Sierra Leone coup d'état Siaka Stevens David Lansana Coup successful
23 March 1967 Second 1967 Sierra Leone coup d'état David Lansana Andrew Juxon-Smith Coup successful
18 April 1968 Sergeants' Coup Andrew Juxon-Smith John Amadu Bangura
Siaka Stevens 		Coup successful
18 November 1968   Mali 1968 Malian coup d'état Modibo Keïta Moussa Traoré Coup successful
25 May 1969   Sudan 1969 Sudanese coup d'état Ismail al-Azhari Jaafar Nimeiry Coup successful
24 March 1971   Sierra Leone 1971 Sierra Leone coup attempt Siaka Stevens John Amadu Bangura Coup failure
19–22 July 1971   Sudan 1971 Sudanese coup d'état Jaafar Nimeiry Hashem al Atta Coup briefly successful; Nimeiry restored following counter-coup
13 January 1972   Ghana 1972 Ghanaian coup d'état Kofi Abrefa Busia Ignatius Kutu Acheampong Coup successful
26 October 1972   Dahomey 1972 Dahomeyan coup d'état Presidential Council Mathieu Kérékou Coup successful
15 April 1974   Niger 1974 Nigerien coup d'état Hamani Diori Seyni Kountché Coup successful
13–15 April 1975   Chad 1975 Chadian coup d'état N’Garta Tombalbaye Noël Milarew Odingar
Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué 		Coup successful
29 July 1975   Nigeria 1975 Nigerian coup d'état Yakubu Gowon Joseph Nanven Garba
Murtala Muhammed 		Coup successful
13 February 1976 1976 Nigerian coup attempt Murtala Muhammed Buka Suka Dimka Coup failure; Muhammed assassinated
2–5 July 1976   Sudan 1976 Sudanese coup attempt Jaafar Nimeiry Sadiq al-Mahdi
Muhammad Nour Saad 		Coup failure
17 January 1977   People's Republic of Benin 1977 Benin coup attempt Mathieu Kérékou Bob Denard Coup failure
10 July 1978   Mauritania 1978 Mauritanian coup d'état Moktar Ould Daddah Mustafa Ould Salek Coup successful
6 April 1979 1979 Mauritanian coup d'état Mustafa Ould Salek
Coup successful
21 September 1979   Central African Empire Operation Caban Bokassa I David Dacko Operation successful
12 April 1980   Liberia 1980 Liberian coup d'état William Tolbert Samuel Doe Coup successful
14 November 1980   Guinea-Bissau 1980 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état Luís Cabral João Bernardo Vieira Coup successful
25 November 1980   Upper Volta 1980 Upper Volta coup d'état Sangoulé Lamizana Saye Zerbo Coup successful
16 March 1981   Mauritania 1981 Mauritanian coup attempt Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla Ahmed Salim Ould Sidi Coup failure
30 July – 4 August 1981   The Gambia 1981 Gambian coup attempt Dawda Jawara Kukoi Sanyang Coup failure following Senegalese intervention
1 September 1981   Central African Republic 1981 Central African Republic coup d'état David Dacko André Kolingba Coup successful
31 December 1981   Ghana 1981 Ghanaian coup d'état Hilla Limann Jerry Rawlings Coup successful
3 March 1982   Central African Republic 1982 Central African Republic coup d'état attempt André Kolingba Ange-Félix Patassé Coup failure
7 November 1982   Upper Volta 1982 Upper Voltan coup d'état Say Zerbo Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo Coup successful
28 February 1983 1983 Upper Voltan coup d'état attempt Jean-Baptiste Ouédraogo Saye Zerbo Coup failure
4 August 1983 1983 Upper Voltan coup d'état Thomas Sankara Coup successful
31 December 1983   Nigeria 1983 Nigerian coup d'état Shehu Shagari Muhammadu Buhari Coup successful
3 April 1984   Guinea 1984 Guinean coup d'état Louis Lansana Beavogui Lansana Conté Coup successful
April 1984   Cameroon 1984 Cameroonian coup attempt Paul Biya Coup failure
12 December 1984   Mauritania 1984 Mauritanian coup d'état Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Coup successful
6 April 1985   Sudan 1985 Sudanese coup d'état Jaafar Nimeiry Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab Coup successful
27 August 1985   Nigeria 1985 Nigerian coup d'état Muhammadu Buhari Ibrahim Babangida Coup successful
12 November 1985   Liberia 1985 Liberian coup d'état attempt Samuel Doe Thomas Quiwonkpa Coup failure
23 September 1986   Togo 1986 Togolese coup attempt Gnassingbé Eyadéma Coup failure
23 March 1987   Sierra Leone 1987 Sierra Leonean coup d'état attempt Joseph Saidu Momoh Francis Minah Coup failure
15 October 1987   Burkina Faso 1987 Burkina Faso coup d'état Thomas Sankara Blaise Compaoré Coup successful
30 June 1989   Sudan 1989 Sudanese coup d'état Ahmed al-Mirghani Omar al-Bashir Coup successful
18 September 1989   Burkina Faso 1989 Burkina Faso coup attempt Blaise Compaoré
Coup failure
22 April 1990   Nigeria 1990 Nigerian coup attempt Ibrahim Babangida Gideon Orkar Coup failure
3 December 1990   Chad 1990 Chadian coup d'état Hissène Habré Idriss Déby Coup successful
26 March 1991   Mali 1991 Malian coup d'état Moussa Traoré Amadou Toumani Touré Coup successful
29 April 1992   Sierra Leone 1992 Sierra Leonean coup d'état Joseph Saidu Momoh Valentine Strasser Coup successful
17 November 1993   Nigeria 1993 Nigerian coup d'état Ernest Shonekan Sani Abacha Coup successful
22 July 1994   The Gambia 1994 Gambian coup d'état Dawda Jawara Yahya Jammeh Coup successful
27 January 1996   Niger 1996 Nigerien coup d'état Mahamane Ousmane Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara Coup successful
9 April 1999 1999 Nigerien coup d'état Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara Daouda Malam Wanké Coup successful
24 December 1999   Ivory Coast 1999 Ivorian coup d'état Henri Konan Bédié Tuo Fozié Coup successful
15 March 2003   Central African Republic 2003 Central African Republic coup d'état Ange-Félix Patassé François Bozizé Coup successful
8–9 June 2003   Mauritania 2003 Mauritanian coup attempt Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya Saleh Ould Hanenna Coup failure
14 September 2003   Guinea-Bissau 2003 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état Kumba Ialá Veríssimo Correia Seabra Coup successful
7 October 2003   Burkina Faso 2003 Burkina Faso coup d'état attempt Blaise Compaoré Luther Diapagri Oualy Coup failure
16 May 2004   Chad 2004 Chadian coup attempt Idriss Déby Bechir Haggar Coup failure
5 February 2005   Togo 2005 Togolese coup d'état Fambaré Ouattara Natchaba
Coup successful
3 August 2005   Mauritania 2005 Mauritanian coup d'état Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya
Coup successful
14 March 2006   Chad 2006 Chadian coup attempt Idriss Déby
  • Tom Erdimi
  • Timane Erdimi
  • Seby Aguid
 Coup failure
6 August 2008   Mauritania 2008 Mauritanian coup d'état Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi
Coup successful
23 December 2008   Guinea 2008 Guinean coup d'état Aboubacar Somparé Moussa Dadis Camara Coup successful
18 February 2010   Niger 2010 Nigerien coup d'état Mamadou Tandja Salou Djibo Coup successful
16 July 2011 2011 Nigerien coup d'état attempt Mahamadou Issoufou Coup failure
21 March 2012   Mali 2012 Malian coup d'état Amadou Toumani Touré Amadou Sanogo Coup successful
23–24 March 2013   Central African Republic Battle of Bangui (2013) François Bozizé Michel Djotodia Séléka victory
1 May 2013   Chad 2013 Chadian coup attempt Idriss Déby Moussa Tao Mahamat Coup failure
3 November 2014   Burkina Faso 2014 Burkina Faso uprising Blaise Compaoré
Uprising successful
30 December 2014   The Gambia 2014 Gambian coup attempt Yahya Jammeh Lamin Sanneh Coup failure
16 September 2015   Burkina Faso 2015 Burkina Faso coup d'état attempt Michel Kafando Gilbert Diendéré Coup failure
7 January 2019   Gabon 2019 Gabonese coup attempt Ali Bongo Ondimba Kelly Ondo Obiang Coup failure
11 April 2019   Sudan 2019 Sudanese coup d'état Omar al-Bashir
Coup successful
18 August 2020   Mali 2020 Malian coup d'état Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta
Coup successful
31 March 2021   Niger 2021 Nigerien coup d'état attempt Mohamed Bazoum Sani Saley Gourouza Coup failure
20 April 2021   Chad Death of Idriss Déby Vacant Mahamat Déby Mahamat Déby takes office as leader of a military junta. Regarded as a coup by regional opposition.
24 May 2021   Mali 2021 Malian coup d'état Bah Ndaw Assimi Goïta Coup successful
5 September 2021   Guinea 2021 Guinean coup d'état Alpha Condé Mamady Doumbouya Coup successful
25 October 2021   Sudan 2021 Sudanese coup d'état Abdalla Hamdok
Coup successful
23 January 2022   Burkina Faso January 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état Roch Marc Christian Kaboré Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba Coup successful
30 September 2022 September 2022 Burkina Faso coup d'état Paul-Henri Sandaogo Damiba Ibrahim Traoré Coup successful
15 April 2023   Sudan War in Sudan (2023–present) Abdel Fattah al-Burhan Hemedti Inconclusive; led to civil war[30][31][32]
26 July 2023   Niger 2023 Nigerien coup d'état Mohamed Bazoum
Coup successful
31 July 2023   Sierra Leone 2023 Sierra Leone coup plot Julius Maada Bio Mohammed Yetey Turay Coup failure
30 August 2023   Gabon 2023 Gabonese coup d'état Ali Bongo Ondimba Brice Oligui Coup successful
26 September 2023   Burkina Faso 2023 Burkina Faso coup attempt Ibrahim Traoré
  • Abdoul Aziz Aouoba
  • Cheikh Hamza Ouattara
  • Christophe Maïga
  • Sekou Ouedraogo
  • Boubacar Keïta
 Coup failure
26 November 2023   Sierra Leone 2023 Sierra Leone coup attempt Julius Maada Bio Dissident military officers, unidentified militants and prisoners Coup failure
1 December 2023   Guinea-Bissau 2023 Guinea-Bissau coup d'état attempt Umaro Sissoco Embaló Victor Tchongo Coup failure
20 May 2024   Democratic Republic of the Congo 2024 Democratic Republic of the Congo coup attempt Félix Tshisekedi Christian Malanga Coup failure

Notelist

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  1. ^ Gabon is only occasionally included in the grouping.

References

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  1. ^ Guibal, Claude (15 August 2023). "Niger : en Afrique, la ceinture des coups d'État redessine la carte du continent". France Info. Retrieved 16 August 2023.
  2. ^ Mekki Elmograbi (7 September 2021). "Guinea Joins the African Club of the "Coup Belt"". BL News.
  3. ^ Suleiman, Muhammad Dan (24 September 2021). "Towards a Better Understanding of the Underlying Conditions of Coups in Africa". e-ir.info.com. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  4. ^ "Africa's 'coup belt' facing further upheaval". Arab News. 2 February 2022.
  5. ^ Onuah, Felix (5 December 2022). "West African leaders plan peacekeeping force to counter 'coup belt' reputation". Reuters. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  6. ^ a b c Walsh, Declan (29 July 2023). "Coast to Coast, a Corridor of Coups Brings Turmoil in Africa". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 July 2023.
  7. ^ Usman, Abubakar (28 September 2023). "France has become the common denominator behind Africa's recent coups". Firoz Lalij Institute for Africa at London School of Economics. Retrieved 12 October 2024.
  8. ^ Butenko, Victoria; Elbagir, Nima; Mezzofiore, Gianluca; Qiblawi, Tamara; Goodwin, Allegra; Carey, Andrew; Munsi, Pallabi; Zene, Mahamat Tahir; Arvanitidis, Barbara; Platt, Alex; Baron, Mark; Lauren, Kent (19 September 2023). "Exclusive: Ukraine's special services 'likely' behind strikes on Wagner-backed forces in Sudan, a Ukrainian military source says". CNN. Archived from the original on 11 October 2023. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
  9. ^ Walker, Shaun (29 July 2024). "Ukraine military intelligence claims role in deadly Wagner ambush in Mali". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 30 July 2024.
  10. ^ Duzor, Megan; Williamson, Brian (2 February 2022). "By the Numbers: Coups in Africa". Voice of America. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
  11. ^ "Explainer: Niger a linchpin for stability in Africa's 'coup belt'". The Guardian. 27 July 2023. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
  12. ^ Dyer, Gwynne (7 February 2022). "Opinion: The return of Africa's military 'Coup Belt'". Bangor Daily News. Retrieved 2 September 2023.
  13. ^ "After Two Coups, Mali Needs Regional Support to Bolster Democracy". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  14. ^ Duncan, Timothyna Afua (16 December 2021). "Why a coup in Guinea was felt around the world". CNBC. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  15. ^ "Sudan's Coup: One Year Later". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  16. ^ "A timeline of the coup in Burkina Faso since January 2022". The Hindu. 3 October 2022. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  17. ^ "Burkina Faso's coup and political situation: All you need to know". Al Jazeera. 5 October 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  18. ^ "Niger's Bazoum 'held by guards' in apparent coup attempt". Al Jazeera. 26 July 2023. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  19. ^ Dixon, Gary (30 August 2023). "Gabon closes shipping down after post-election coup". TradeWinds. Archived from the original on 30 August 2023. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  20. ^ Mbulle-Nziege, Leonard; Cheeseman, Nic (6 August 2023). "Niger coup: Is France to blame for coups in West Africa?". BBC News. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  21. ^ Ndiaga, Thiam (20 February 2023). "Burkina Faso marks official end of French military operations on its soil". Reuters. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  22. ^ "Last French troops leave Mali, ending nine-year deployment". Al Jazeera. 16 August 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
  23. ^ Avi-Yonah, Shera (4 August 2023). "Mali demotes French, language of its former colonizer, in symbolic move". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 6 August 2023.
  24. ^ "France to close Niger embassy after row with military junta". BBC. 22 December 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  25. ^ "ECOWAS suspends Mali over second coup in nine months". Al Jazeera. 31 May 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
  26. ^ Samb, Saliou; Eboh, Camillus; Inveen, Cooper (9 September 2021). Heritage, Timothy; Orlofsky, Steve; Pullin, Richard (eds.). "West African leaders due in Guinea as post-coup calm pervades Conakry". Reuters. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
  27. ^ "West African leaders suspend Guinea from Ecowas following coup," September 9, 2021, BBC News, retrieved September 9, 2021
  28. ^ "Ecowas' dilemma: Balancing principles and pragmatism - The Nordic Africa Institute NAI Policy Note 2024:1". nai.uu.se. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
  29. ^ Obangome, Gerauds Wilfried (30 August 2023). "Gabonese military officers announce on television they have seized power". Reuters. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
  30. ^ Chotiner, Isaac (20 April 2023). "The Failed "Coup-Proofing" Behind the Recent Violence in Sudan". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
  31. ^ Picheta, Nima Elbagir,Jessie Yeung,Rob (17 April 2023). "Sudan military leader accuses rival of 'attempted coup' as vicious fighting grips capital". CNN. Retrieved 30 January 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ "Sudan's Junta Chief Survived the Coup, but Can He Win the War?". Political Violence at a Glance. 17 July 2023. Retrieved 30 January 2024.
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