1. Nunokawa (2010)
- Nunokawa, K. (2010). Multiplication: introduction, æ¥æ¬æ°å¦æè²å¦ä¼èª, No.92, Vol.11, pp.122-123. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110007994852
Students are required to clearly distinguish between multiplicands and multipliers at this stage because this distinction helps them understand the meaning of multiplication. Teachers pay attention to whether their students understand that multiplicands express sizes of units and multipliers express numbers of groups. These meanings are reversed from the viewpoint of some educators elsewhere in the world. The amount of oranges in Figure 1 is expressed as 4Ã6ï¼24 in Japan. The expression 6Ã4 is not usually allowed at the introductory stage.
(p.122)
ãã®ä¸ã®"These meanings are reversed"ã«ï¼æ¸æããè¦ãã¾ããï¼ãããã®æå³ã¯éã«ãªãâ¦ãããããæ°ã¨ãããæ°ã®æå³ãéã«ãªãï¼ã¨ã¯?
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±éã§ãªãï¼ä¾ãã°è±èªã§ã¯ããã6Ã4ï¼24ã¨ããã®ã§ï¼è¢«ä¹æ°ï¼ä¹æ°ã®æå³ã¯éã«ãªãï¼ã(p.50)ã§ãï¼ç´ ç´ã«è§£éããã°ï¼æ¥æ¬ã®4Ã6ï¼24ã¯ï¼è±èªã§ã¯6Ã4ï¼24ã¨æ¸ãã®ã ãï¼ã¨ãªãã¾ãï¼
ããã¾ã§ã«æ¸ãã¦ãããã¨ã¨ï¼æ°ãã«èªãã ãã¨ãæ´çãï¼æ¥æ¬èªã»è±èªã»ä»ã®è¨èªã§ã®ï¼ããç®ã®å¼ã¨è¨èã®å¯¾å¿é¢ä¿ã«ã¤ãã¦ï¼èª¿ã¹ã¦ã¿ã¾ããï¼
2. Yoshida (2009)
- Yoshida, M. (2009). Is Multiplication Just Repeated Addition? â Insights from Japanese Mathematics Textbooks for Expanding the Multiplication Concept, 2009 NCTM Annual Conference. http://www.globaledresources.com/resources/assets/042309_Multiplication_v2.pdfï¼ããããªã³ã¯ï¼
ã¿ã¤ãã«ã訳ãã¨ãããç®ã¯ç´¯å ã§ããã®? â æ¥æ¬ã®ç®æ°æç§æ¸ã«è¦ãï¼ä¹æ³æ¦å¿µã®æ¡å¼µã®èå¯ãã§ããããï¼NCTMï¼National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, å
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- Multiplication sentences describe equal set situations.
- Repeated addition and skip counting are ways to find the total (product).
- The numbers in a multiplication sentences mean something specific:
- Number in a group - multiplicand
- Number of groups - multiplier
- Total number of objects - product
- ï¼ããç®ã®å¼ã¯ï¼ããã¨æ°ã®çããï¼æ±ºã¾ã£ãç¶æ³ã表ãï¼
- ç´¯å ãï¼ã¾ã¨ãã¦æ°ãããã¨ã¯ï¼ããããç·æ°ï¼ç©ï¼ãæ±ããæ¹æ³ã§ããï¼
- ããç®ã®å¼ã«ç¾ããæ°ã«ã¯ï¼æ確ãªæå³ãããï¼
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- ã°ã«ã¼ãã®æ°ï¼ãããæ°
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(p.11)
3. Multiplication - Wikipedia
Yoshida (2009)ã¯ï¼Wikipedia:en:Multiplicationã®Notesã®1çªç®ã§ï¼ãã¤ã¦ãªã³ã¯ããã¦ãã¾ããï¼ãã®æ¬æã¯æ¬¡ã®ã¨ããã§ããï¼
Multiplication (often denoted by the cross symbol "Ã") is the mathematical operation of scaling one number by another. It is one of the four basic operations in elementary arithmetic (the others being addition, subtraction and division).
Because the result of scaling by whole numbers can be thought of as consisting of some number of copies of the original, whole-number products greater than 1 can be computed by repeated addition; for example, 3 multiplied by 4 (often said as "3 times 4") can be calculated by adding 4 copies of 3 together:
3 Ã 4 = 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12.
Here 3 and 4 are the "factors" and 12 is the "product".
Educators differ as to which number should normally be considered as the number of copies, and whether multiplication should even be introduced as repeated addition.[1] For example 3 multiplied by 4 can also be calculated by adding 3 copies of 4 together:
3 Ã 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12.
ï¼ããç®ï¼ããããå°ãÃãã§è¡¨ãããï¼ã¯ï¼ä¸ã¤ã®æ°ãä»ã®æ°ã§æ¡å¤§ããã¨ããï¼æ°å¦ã®æ¼ç®ã§ããï¼ããã¯å°å¦æ ¡ã®ç®æ°ã§å¦ç¿ããï¼ååæ¼ç®ã®ä¸ã¤ã§ããï¼æ®ãã¯ããç®ï¼ã²ãç®ï¼ããç®ï¼ï¼
æ´æ°ã«ããæ¡å¤§ã®çµæã¯ï¼ãã¨ã«ãªããã®ã«å¯¾ããããæ°ã®ã³ãã¼ã¨èããããã®ã§ï¼1ãã大ããæ´æ°ã®ç©ã¯ï¼ç´¯å ã«ãã£ã¦æ±ããããï¼ä¾ãã°ï¼3ã«4ããããï¼ã3ããã4ãã¨ãããï¼ã¨ï¼3ã®4ã¤ã®ã³ãã¼ã足ãåããããã¨ã§è¨ç®ã§ããï¼
3Ã4ï¼3ï¼3ï¼3ï¼3ï¼12
ãã®ã¨ãï¼3ã¨4ã¯ãå æ°ãï¼12ã¯ãç©ãã¨ããï¼
ã©ã¡ãã®æ°ãã³ãã¼ã®æ°ã«ãªããï¼ã¾ãããç®ã¯ç´¯å ã§å°å ¥ããã®ã§ããã®ãã«ã¤ãã¦ï¼æ師ãã¯è¦è§£ãä¸è´ããªã[1]ï¼ä¾ãã°ï¼3ããã4ã¯ï¼4ã®3ã¤ã®ã³ãã¼ã足ãåããã¦è¨ç®ãããã¨ãã§ããï¼
3Ã4ï¼4ï¼4ï¼4ï¼12ï¼
"original"ã®æ°ãï¼ãããããæ°ã§ï¼"copy"ã®æ°ãï¼ãããæ°ã§ãï¼multiplicandã¨multiplierã¯ï¼å°ãä¸ã«æ¸ããã¦ãã¾ããï¼
The numbers to be multiplied are generally called the "factors" or "multiplicands". When thinking of multiplication as repeated addition, the number to be multiplied is called the "multiplicand", while the number of multiples is called the "multiplier". In algebra, a number that is the multiplier of a variable or expression (e.g., the 3 in
) is called a coefficient.
ï¼ãããããã»ãã®æ°ã¯ä¸è¬ã«ï¼ãå æ°ãã¾ãã¯ããããããæ°ãã¨å¼ã°ããï¼ããç®ãç´¯å ã§èããã¨ãï¼ãããããã»ãã®æ°ãããããããæ°ãï¼è¤è£½ã®æ°ãããããæ°ãã¨ããï¼ä»£æ°ã§ã¯ï¼å¤æ°ã¾ãã¯å¼ã«ãããä¹æ°ï¼ä¾ãã°ã«ããã3ï¼ã¯ä¿æ°ã¨å¼ã°ããï¼ï¼
4. Greer (1992)
- Greer, B. (1992). Multiplication and Division as Models of Situations. In Grouws D.A. (Ed.): Handbook of Research on Mathematics Teaching and Learning, National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, pp.276-295. [isbn:1593115989]
å¼ã使ããã«ï¼ããç®ãç¨ããããå ´é¢ï¼ããã¦ä¹æ°ã»è¢«ä¹æ°ã説æãã¦ãã¾ãï¼
A situation in which there is a number of groups of objects having the same number in each group normally constitutes a child's earliest encounter with an application for multiplication. For example,
3 children have 4 cookies each. How many cookies do they have altogether?
Within this conceptualization, the two numbers play clearly different roles. The number of children is the multiplier that operates on the number of cookies, the multiplicand, to produce the answer. A consequence of this asymmetry is that two types of division may be distinguished.
ï¼ããã¤ãã®ã°ã«ã¼ãããã£ã¦ï¼åã°ã«ã¼ãã§åãåæ°ã®ã¢ããããã¨ãã¨ããã®ãï¼åã©ããæåã«ããç®ãç¨ããå ´é¢ã«ãªãï¼ä¾ãã°3人ã®åã©ãã4ã¤ãã¤ã¯ããã¼ãæã£ã¦ããï¼å ¨é¨åãããã¨ã¯ããã¼ã¯ä½åãï¼
ãããããç®ã®å¼ã§è¡¨ããã¨ããã¨ãï¼2ã¤ã®æ°ã¯æããã«ç°ãªãå½¹å²ãæ ã£ã¦ããï¼åã©ãã®æ°ã¯ãä¹æ°ãã§ããï¼ã¯ããã¼ã®æ°ããªãã¡ã被ä¹æ°ãã«ä½ç¨ãã¦ï¼çãã¨ãªãç·æ°ãå¾ãããï¼ãã®é対称æ§ããè¨ããã®ã¯ï¼2種é¡ã®ããç®ãèãããã¨ãã§ãã¦ããããåºå¥ãããã¨ãããã¨ã§ããï¼ï¼
(p.276)
ãã ãä¸è¨ã¯ï¼ããç®ã®å°å ¥ã¨ãã¦ããç¨ããããã¿ã¤ãã§ããï¼å°å¦æ ¡ã§å¦ç¿ããããç®ã®ãã¹ã¦ã§ã¯ããã¾ããï¼ãä¹æ°ã¨è¢«ä¹æ°ãåºå¥ããªãæèãã®èª¬æãããï¼ããã§ã¯ï¼mÃnã¨ããããç®ã®å¼ãåºã¦ãã¾ãï¼
Cartesian products provide a quite different context for multiplication of natural numbers. An example of such a problem is
If 4 boys and 3 girls are dancing, how many different partnerships are possible?
This class of situations corresponds to the formal definition of m à n in terms of the number of distinct ordered pairs that can be formed when the first member of each pair belongs to a set with m elements and the second to a set with n elements. This sophisticated way of defining multiplication of integers was formalized relatively recently in historical terms.
There is a symmetry between the roles of the two numbers here, and hence only one type of division problem. Given that there are 12 possible partnerships, there is no essential difference between (a) being told that there are 4 boys and asked how many girls there are and (b) being told that there are 3 girls and asked how many boys. (In fact, it would be unusual to pose division problems of this type.)
ï¼ãã«ã«ãç©ã¯ï¼èªç¶æ°ã®ä¹æ³ã«å¯¾ãã¦ã¾ã£ããç°ãªãæèãä¸ããï¼ä¾é¡ã示ãï¼4人ã®ç·ã®åã¨3人ã®å¥³ã®åããã³ã¹ãããã¨ãï¼ç·å¥³ã®ãã¢ã¯ä½éãã§ãããï¼
ä¸è¬åããã¨ï¼é åºå¯¾ã®ç·æ°ãæ±ãããã¨ãããã¨ã§ããï¼ãã®éï¼åé åºå¯¾ã®æåã¯måã®è¦ç´ ãããªãéåã«ï¼ã¾ã2çªç®ã¯nåã®è¦ç´ ãããªãéåã«å±ããï¼ããããã¨ï¼ç·æ°ã¯mÃnã§è¡¨ãããï¼ãã®ãããªæ´æ°ã®ä¹æ³ã®å®ç¾©ã¯ï¼æ¯è¼çæè¿ã«ãªã£ã¦ï¼æ´å²çãªè¦³ç¹ã§ãªãããããã«ãªã£ãï¼
ãã®å ´åï¼Ãã®åå¾ã«æ¸ã2ã¤ã®æ°ã®å½¹å²ã¯å¯¾ç§°æ§ãæã¡ï¼ãããã£ã¦é¤æ³ã®åé¡ã¯1種é¡ã ãã¨ãªãï¼ç·å¥³ã®ãã¢ã¯12éãã§ãããã¨ãåæã¨ãã¦ï¼ã(a) 4人ã®ç·ã®åãããã¨ãï¼å¥³ã®åã¯ä½äººãããï¼ãã¨ã(b) 3人ã®å¥³ã®åãããã¨ãï¼ç·ã®åã¯ä½äººãããï¼ãã¨ã®éã«æ¬è³ªçãªéãã¯ãªãï¼ï¼ã¨ã¯ããï¼ãããªå½¢ã®ããç®ã®åããåºé¡ããã®ã¯æ®éãããªããã ãã©ï¼ï¼ï¼
(p.277)
ãã¡ãã®èª¬æã§ã¯ï¼ããç®ã®å¼ãããä¸æ¹ã§ï¼ãä¹æ°ãã被ä¹æ°ãã«ç¸å½ããè¨èãåºã¦ãã¾ããï¼ããã¯ï¼ãã«ã«ãç©ã«åºã¥ãããç®ã®ç¹å¾´ã¨è¨ã£ã¦ããããã§ãï¼
"relatively recently historical terms"ï¼ãæ¯è¼çæè¿ã«ãªã£ã¦ï¼æ´å²çãªè¦³ç¹ã§ãã¨ããã®ã¯ï¼ç´å¾ã®Anghileri & Johnson (1988)ï¼å¾ãã®ä¸å³¶(1968)ã«ããã¨ï¼SMSGï¼School Mathematics Study Groupï¼å¦æ ¡æ°å¦ç 究ã°ã«ã¼ãï¼ã§ã¯ããç®ã®æå³ã¥ãã«ï¼ãã«ã«ãç©ã¨å¯æ¥ãªé¢ä¿ãæã¤ï¼ã¢ã¬ã¤ã使ç¨ãã¦ãããã¨ãæãã¦ããããã§ãï¼
5. Anghileri & Johnson (1988)
- Anghileri, J. and Johnson, D.C. (1988). Arithmetic Operations on Whole Numbers: Multiplication and Division. In Post, T.R. (Ed.): Teaching Mathematics in Grades K-8, Longman Higher Education, Allyn and Bacon, pp.146-189. [asin:0205110762]
æ´æ°ã対象ã¨ããããç®ã»ããç®ã®è§£èª¬ã§ãï¼
3Ã4ã®èªã¿æ¹ããã¦æå³ã«ã¯ï¼"3 multiplied by 4"ï¼"3 times 4,"ï¼"3 fours"ã®3種é¡ãããã¨ãã¦ãã¾ãï¼
When considering how the symbolic expression 3Ã4 is interpreted by adults and children, we find the most common expressions are "3 multiplied by 4," "3 times 4," and "3 fours." Some people will use the expressions quite interchangeably on the understanding that all three are equivalent; in the domain of mathematics this may be acceptable but in real life there is an important distinction between these different interpretations. On one hand "3 times 4" and "3 fours" usually relate to three sets of four objects and are consistent with "3 lots of 4."
For children, three lots of four and four lots of three are fundamentally different. They think in concrete terms---three children each having four candies are luckier than four children each having three candies although the total number of candies is the same.
ï¼3Ã4ã¨ããå¼ãä½ãªã®ãï¼å¤§äººã¨åã©ãã説æããã¨ï¼ããã¦ãã3ã«4ãããããã3åã®4ãã3ã¤ã®4ãã®ããããã¨ãªãï¼ããã3ã¤ã®è§£éãåããã®ã¨ãã¦ç解ãï¼ã©ãã使ã£ã¦ãå¤ããããªãããã«ï¼3Ã4ã¨ããå¼ã使ã人ãããï¼æ°å¦çã«ã¯ï¼ãã®æ±ãã§åé¡ãªããããããªããï¼æ¥å¸¸çæ´»ã«ããã¦ã¯ï¼ãããã®è§£éã«ã¯å¤§ããªéããããï¼ã3åã®4ãã¨ã3ã¤ã®4ãã¯æ®éï¼4ã¤ã®ã¢ããããªãéåã3ã¤ããç¶æ ã«é¢é£ã¥ãããï¼ã4ã3ã¤ãã«å¯¾å¿ããï¼
åã©ããã¡ã«ã¨ã£ã¦ï¼ã4ã3ã¤ãã¨ã3ã4ã¤ãã¯åºæ¬çã«å¥ç©ã§ããï¼å ·ä½ç©ã§èããã¨---4ã¤ãã¤ãã£ã³ãã£ãæã£ã¦ãã3人ã®åã©ãã¯ï¼3ã¤ãã¤ãã£ã³ãã£ãæã£ã¦ãã4人ã®åã©ããããï¼éãããï¼ãã£ã³ãã£ã®ç·æ°ã¯åããªã®ã ããã©ãï¼ï¼
(p.157)
ã大ããªéããã¨ããã®ã¯ï¼ã"3 multiplied by 4"ãã¨ã"3 times 4"ã¨"3 fours"ãã®éã®éãã¨æããã¾ãï¼ãã ãï¼"3 multiplied by 4"ã«ã¤ãã¦ã¯ï¼ç¹å¥ãªè¨è¿°ã¯è¦å½ããã¾ããã§ããï¼
For childrenããå§ã¾ã段è½ã«ã¤ãã¦ã¯ï¼ãããããæ°ããããæ°ãï¼å¼ãåºã¦ãã¾ãããï¼4Ã3ã¨3Ã4ã®éãã説æãããã®ã«ãªã£ã¦ãã¾ãï¼ä¹æ³ã®äº¤ææ³åã®èª¬æãåæ§ã§ï¼æ¬¡ã®ããã«ãªã£ã¦ãã¾ãï¼
The balance or symmetry in the multiplication square relates to a very important property called the commutative property of multiplication, which states that for any two numbers a and b, aÃbï¼bÃa (for example, 3Ã4ï¼4Ã3). Note that this is a property of numbers. While it is true that 3Ã4 is equal to 4Ã3, 3Ã4 may not be the same as 4Ã3 in a real-life situation.
ï¼ããç®ã®è¡¨ã®é£ãåãã対称æ§ã¯ï¼ä¹æ³ã®äº¤ææ³åã¨å¼ã°ããéè¦ãªæ§è³ªã«é¢é£ãã¦ããï¼ããªãã¡ï¼ä»»æã®2ã¤ã®æ°aããã³bã«å¯¾ãã¦ï¼aÃbï¼bÃaã§ããï¼ä¾ãã°3Ã4ï¼4Ã3ã¨ãªãï¼æ³¨æããªãã¨ãããªãã®ã¯ï¼ããã¯æ°ã®æ§è³ªã¨ãããã¨ã§ããï¼3Ã4ã4Ã3ã¨çããã®ã¯äºå®ã ãï¼æ¥å¸¸çæ´»ã«ããã¦ããããåãã§ããã¨ããããã§ã¯ãªãï¼ï¼
(p.177ï¼å¼·èª¿ã¯åæã§ã¯æä½)
6. Davies (1841)
- Davies, C. (1841). Arithmetic: Designed for Academies and Schools, A.S. Barners. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=bCSHpZu-OMQC (via http://genkuroki.web.fc2.com/sansu/)
1841å¹´ã®æ¬ã¨ããã®ã¯ï¼ãããããã¾ãï¼ã¨ãããï¼ããç®ã®å®ç¾©ï¼ãããããæ°ã¨ãããæ°ããï¼ç¢ºèªãã¾ããï¼
Multiplication is a short method of repeating one number as many times as there are units in another.
The number to be repeated is called the multiplicand.
The number denoting how many times the multiplicand is to be repeated, is called the multiplier.
The number arising from repeating the multiplicand as many times as there are units in the multiplier, is called the product.
The multiplicand and multiplier are called factors, or producers of the product.
The sign Ã, placed between two numbers, denotes that they are to be multiplied together. It is called, the sign of multiplication.
ï¼ããç®ã¯ï¼ä¸ã¤ã®æ°ãï¼ããä¸ã¤ã®æ°ã®æ°ã ãç¹°ãè¿ããã¨ã®ç°¡æ½ãªæ¹æ³ã§ããï¼
ç¹°ãè¿ãããæ°ã®ãã¨ãï¼ãããããæ°ã¨ããï¼
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ãããããæ°ãï¼ãããæ°ã®åæ°ã ãç¹°ãè¿ããã¨ã§çããæ°ã¯ï¼ç©ã¨ããï¼
ãããããæ°ã¨ãããæ°ã¯å æ°ï¼ãããã¯ç©ãçæãããã®ã¨å¼ã°ããï¼
è¨å·Ãã¯ï¼2ã¤ã®æ°ã®éã«ç½®ããï¼ããããããåããããã¨ã表ãï¼ããã¯ä¹ç®è¨å·ã¨å¼ã°ããï¼ï¼
(p.42)
p.44ã§ã¯ï¼ãããããæ°ããÃãã®å·¦ã«ï¼ãããæ°ãå³ã«ç½®ãå¼ãè¦ããã¾ãï¼
éã®pp.43-44ã«ï¼"1 times 0 is 0"ãã"12 times 12 is 144"ã¾ã§ã®ï¼ããç®ã®è¡¨ãããã¾ãï¼timesãåç½®è©ã¨è¦ãã¨ï¼ãã®å·¦ã«æ¸ãããæ°ããããããæ°ï¼å³ããããæ°ã§ãï¼
ã¨ããã§ï¼p.44ï¼EXAMPLESã®1ã®æå¾ã«ï¼"... the number arising from repeating 4 two times."ã¨ããã¾ãï¼two timesãã2åãã¨ããå¯è©å¥ã«ãªãï¼repeatingã修飾ãã¾ãï¼ã¨ãããã¨ã¯ï¼ããç®ã®è¡¨ã®a times bãï¼ããããã¦aããããæ°ï¼ä»ã®è±èªã¨åãï¼ã«ãªãã®ããªï¼ã¨æã£ããã®ã®ï¼two timesã¨4ã¨ã®éã«ã¯ä¿ãåãã®é¢ä¿ããªãã®ã§ï¼å¥æ±ãã¨ãã¦ããããã§ãï¼
7. Ask Dr.Math
- http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/58567.htmlï¼ããããªã³ã¯ï¼
2001å¹´ã®ãã©ã¼ã©ã ï¼é»åæ²ç¤ºæ¿ï¼ã®è³ªåã»åçã§ãï¼ã456 x 10ãã¨æ¸ãã¨ãï¼ã456ããããããæ°ï¼10ããããæ°ããªã®ãï¼ããã¨ãã456ãããæ°ï¼10ããããããæ°ããªã®ãã¨ãã質åã«å¯¾ãã¦ï¼åçè
(Doctor Peterson)ã¯ã¾ãï¼ãããªã®ã©ã£ã¡ã§ããããã ãï¼"factors"ï¼å æ°ï¼ã¨å¼ã¹ã°ãããã ããï¼ã¨ãã¦ãã¾ãï¼
ããã第2段è½ã¯ï¼é¢ç½ãå
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I recently saw a facsimile of a 19th-century text that defined the multiplier as the SMALLER of the two numbers, regardless of the order. So there's yet a third definition to use.
ï¼æè¿ï¼19ä¸ç´ã®ææ¸ã®è¤è£½ãè¦ããã¨ããã£ã¦ï¼ããã§ã¯ï¼2ã¤ã®æ°ã®ãã¡å°ããæ¹ãï¼ãããæ°ã¨å®ç¾©ãã¦ããï¼ãªã®ã§3çªç®ã®å®ç¾©ãããã£ã¦ãã¨ï¼ï¼
ç®ãå¼ãã®ã¯ï¼"regardless of the order"ã¨ãã表ç¾ã§ãï¼è±èªã§ãï¼ãããç®ã®é åºãã®ãããªããï¼è¨ã£ã¦ããããã§ãï¼
ããã¨å¥ã«ï¼å°ããæ¹ããããæ°ã¨ããã®ã¯ï¼åä¹ä¹ãé£æ³ãã¾ãï¼åçè
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8. Math Solutions
- http://www.mathsolutions.com/index.cfm?page=wp10&crid=137&contentid=463ï¼ããããªã³ã¯ï¼
質åã®å¤§è¦ã¯ï¼Ask Dr.Mathã¨åãã§ãï¼20 x 5 = 100ã¨æ¸ããã¨ãï¼"multiplier x multiplicand = product"ãªã®ãï¼ããã¨ã"multiplicand x multiplier = product"ãªã®ãï¼ã§ãï¼
Marilyn Burnsã®åçã¯ï¼äº¤ææ³åãããããï¼ã©ã£ã¡ã ã£ã¦ãããã ãï¼ããå§ã¾ãã¾ãï¼
20 x 5ã表ãè¨èã«ï¼"20 groups of 5"ï¼"twenty 5s"ã®ã»ãï¼"20 five times"ã¨ããã®ãããã¾ãï¼
ãããï¼"twenty $5 bills"ãä¾ã«æãã¦ï¼å¼è¡¨ç¾ã®æ³¨æãåèµ·ãã¦ãã¾ãï¼çµå¶æ°å¦ã®æç§æ¸ã§"multiplicand x multiplier = product"ãæ¡ç¨ãã¦ããã®ãªãï¼å¼ã¯5 x 20ã§ãï¼
"Neither is more precise or accurate than the other."ã¯ï¼ããããæ°Ããããããæ°ï¼ç©ãã¨ããããããæ°Ããããæ°ï¼ç©ãã¨ã®éã§ï¼ã©ã¡ããæ£ããï¼æ£ç¢ºã»é©åã§ããï¼ã¨ãããã®ã§ã¯ãªãï¼ã¨ãã£ãã¨ããã§ããããï¼
9. ä¸å³¶(1968)
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- ä¸å³¶å¥ä¸ (1968). ä¹æ³ã®æå³ã«ã¤ãã¦ã®è«äºã¨åé¡ç¹ã«ã¤ãã¦ã®èå¯, æ¥æ¬æ°å¦æè²ä¼èª, Vol.50, No.6, pp.74-77. https://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/110003849391
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