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Parenting Styles and Parent-to-Child Emotional Intimacy: A Correlational Study

among Millennial Parents in Selected Cities and Municipalities in Cavite

BY

Lora Phill T. de Leon

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of CAP College Foundation Inc.

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Arts

in Psychology

JUNE 2025

Supervised by: Dr. Mateo D. Macalaguing, LPT

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APPROVAL SHEET

This thesis, entitled “Parenting Styles and Parent-to-Child Emotional

Intimacy: A Correlational Study among Millennial Parents in Selected Cities

and Municipalities in Cavite,” was prepared and submitted by Lora Phill T. de

Leon in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. After

thorough examination, it is hereby recommended for approval and

acceptance.
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ABSTRACT
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
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Table of Contents

A. Title Page
B. Approval Sheet
C. Abstract
D. Acknowledgements

1. Chapter: The Problem and its Scope.................................................................8

1.1Introduction..............................................................................................................8

1.2Background of the Study..................................................................10

1.3Structure of the Thesis…....................................................................................11

1.4Theoretical Framework…..................................................................................14

1.5Statement of the Problem................................................................14

1.6Statement of Assumptions...............................................................17

1.7Statement of Hypothesis..................................................................18

1.8Conceptual Framework....................................................................18

1.9Significance of the Study…...............................................................................19

1.10................................................Scope and Delimitations of the Study 20

1.11..........................................................................Definition of Terms… 21
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2. Review of Related Literature and Studies.............................................................24

2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................24

2.2 Theories of Child Development and Parenting......................................24

2.3 Parenting Styles and Emotional Development.......................................26

2.4 Parenting and Psychological Well-being...................................................27

2.5 Parenting and Social Development.............................................................28

2.6 Parent-Children Attachment.........................................................................29

2.7 Parenting and Cognitive Development.....................................................31

2.8 Emotional Attachment of Parents to Children........................................32

2.9 Quality of Communication.............................................................................34

2.10 Physical and Verbal Affection.....................................................................35

2.11. Gaps In Existing Research…........................................................................38

2.12. Key Takeaways………………….,.................................................................39

2.13. Synthesis of the Study…..............................................................................40

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3. Research Methodology……………………………………………………………..42

3.1 Research Methodology…………………………………….……………………..42

3.2 Types of Research Methodologies: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed...

…43

3.3 Research Design…………………………………………………………………..44

3.4 Population and Respondents……………………...……………………………..44

3.5 Sampling, Sample and Sample Size………………………..…………………..45

3.6 Research Locale…………………………………………………………………...46

3.7 Research Instrument……………………………………………………………… 47.

3.8 Research Procedure……………………………………………………………….48

3.9 Treatment of Data………………………………………………………………….49

References………………………………………………………………………………51

Survey Questionnaire…………………………………………………………………..61
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CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

Introduction

Parenting plays a crucial role in shaping the emotional, psychological,

social, and cognitive development of children. It is one of the most influential

factors that provide the foundation for a child’s growth. Over the years,

various methods and styles of parenting have been adopted in raising

children, significantly impacting how a child interacts with others and how

they approach or overcome challenges. Research evidence demonstrates

that authoritative parenting produces good academic performance because

it builds up children’s confidence and goal orientation for getting high grades

(Hayek et al., 2022). Within diverse family populations the way parents

approach parenting guides how their children develop cognitively and

socially and affectively. Democratic child rearing leads to better life

satisfaction and fair educational opportunities while fostering peaceful

environments thus fulfilling Sustainable Development Goals (Tripon, 2024).

Child mental health studies demonstrate that negative associations

between mental health problems exist between preschool children who

experience authoritative parenting while authoritarian parenting shows

positive associations (Wang, Tian, & Rozelle, 2024). The study results

underline why we must focus on teaching parents to practice nurturing

methods that help children’s mental health. Metastudy research proved

positive parenting establishes meaningful relations between subjective well-

being alongside life satisfaction and positive emotions but negative

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parenting affects well-being negatively through rising negative affect

patterns (Huang, Wu, & Yang, 2024).These approaches can range from
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highly structured and controlling to permissive and relaxed, each with its

own set of benefits. Research in Kenya demonstrated that 38.7% of

teenagers with neglectful parents developed unhealthy self-esteem thus

showing how such parenting behaviors damage adolescent self-images

(Wambua & Okul, 2024). Uninvolved parenting which refers to neglectful

parenting shows minimal responses to children needs while maintaining

weak communication and being uninterested in their developmental lives.

The characteristics of an authoritarian parenting approach produce stronger

overall performance alongside enhanced emotional management abilities

together with reduced behavioral challenges in young people (Febiyanti &

Rachmawati, 2021). The study provided valuable directions for parents to

modify their approaches so they can create an atmosphere which supports

physical and mental child development. Research confirms that authoritative

parenting usually creates positive outcomes which include strong self-

esteem combined with increased self-competence (Cherry, 2023). Parental

discipline in combination with affection enables significant developmental

outcomes which affect children’s growth in particular ways.

Despite the large quantity of studies done in this area, there are major

discrepancies in how parents are conceptualized and measured. Banayad et

al. (2024) documented that Filipino students from 18 to 24 years old at

private universities in Manila demonstrated superior social competence

through their parents’ use of an authoritative parenting method. The Grade

Point Average (GPA) results from both groups showed no significant variation

showing that parental approach did not affect academic performance within

this research sample. Research shows that permissive parenting produces

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unfavorable effects on emotional development in children. Parent

participation, on the
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other hand, involves a broader range of parent actions than simply reading

to children and can include any activity that gives a learning or cognitive

stimulation opportunity (Eijgermans et al., 2022). In addition, examining how

these strategies impact emotional well-being, cognitive development, and

social behavior. Research conducted by Ding & He (2022), in BMC Geriatrics

indicates that parental affection correlates with better self- rated health and

cognitive function in children, highlighting the long-term benefits of nurturing

parenting. The study journal about parenting reinforces various ways in

which different parenting styles and methods influence child development. A

conducted study by Alampay (2024), in the Ateneo de Manila University

Archives, highlights that Filipino youth tend to endorse parental authority

and influence in decision-making, which affects their social behaviors and

adherence to familial obligations. Parenting contributes greatly to children,

fostering an environment that influence the overall behavior of children.

Findings reveal that the participants’ authoritative, autonomy-supportive

parenting styles, alongside their educational backgrounds and

socioeconomic standing, enable them to instill a range of self-regulated

learning skills in their children (Geduld, 2024). This study will play a

significant role in parenting method, classifying the healthy approaches for

child’s well-being in shaping their cognitive, psychological, emotional, and

social development.

Background of the Study

Parenting is seen as very important in research and academic fields

because it impacts how a child develops in all the main areas of life such as
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social, emotional, cognitive and moral. Parents in a variety of cultures and

social backgrounds use many

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techniques and strategies to guide their children’s overall development.

These parenting practices are the main ways children pick up basic skills,

learn what is acceptable and develop skills to cope.

Many developmental psychology studies have stressed that parenting

has a deep effect on various outcomes in children. Good parenting tends to

boost a child’s own ability to control their emotions, think well, socialize and

understand ethical values. Although it is generally accepted, experts are still

involved in exploring how specific ways parents interact and relate with their

children can affect different abilities in children.

Examining parenting styles by their dimensions, like communication, the

type of punishment used, warmth, how responsive parents are and their

level of involvement, reveals that they impact the way children develop skills

and behavior. How parents solve arguments, teach their children and behave

plays a big part in influencing their kids’ abilities to cope with problems,

solve them and interact with others.

Based on these points, more effort should be made to explore how parenting

styles and approaches relate to developmental outcomes. A better insight

into these relationships supports interventions, parental education and policy

decisions that help children grow properly. The purpose of this study is to

provide new knowledge through an organized examination of parenting and

how it affects development, to help inform both theories and practical use in

development science.

Structure of the Thesis

This structure provides a clear flow of ideas and research findings,

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allowing for a comprehensive analysis.

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Chapter 1: The Problem and It’s Scope

Introduction

Background of the Study

Importance of parenting in child development

Overview of different parenting styles (authoritative, authoritarian,

permissive, uninvolved)

Significance of studying parenting’s impact on various aspects of a child’s

growth

Problem Statement

 The gap in understanding how different parenting approaches affect

children’s development holistically

 Why this research is important in modern family

dynamics Objectives of the Study

 To analyze the effects of parenting styles on emotional,

psychological, social, and cognitive development

 To identify the most effective parenting approaches for

positive child outcomes

Research Questions

 How do different parenting styles influence a child’s emotional and

psychological well-being?

 What is the impact of parenting on a child’s social skills and interactions?

 How does parenting affect a child’s cognitive development and academic

performance?
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Significance of the Study

 Contributions to psychology, education, and family studies

 Relevance for parents, educators, and

policymakers Scope and Limitations

 The study focuses on children aged (specific range) and

examines parental influence within home and school settings

 Limitations regarding cultural and socioeconomic differences

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Theories of Child Development and Parenting

 Attachment Theory (Bowlby)

 Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

 Parenting Styles Theory

(Baumrind) Parenting Styles and

Emotional Development

 The role of parental warmth and discipline in shaping emotional

intelligence Parenting and Psychological Well-being

 Effects of supportive vs. strict parenting on self-esteem and

resilience Parenting and Social Development

 The influence of parenting on peer relationships, communication

skills, and empathy

Parenting and Cognitive Development

 How parental involvement and home environment affect

academic performance
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Gaps in Existing Research

Areas where more studies are needed

Theoretical Framework

The research draws from Baumrind’s (1966) Parenting Styles Theory to

study relationships between parenting approaches and child development.

The study brings together traditional research findings and recent academic

work by focusing on parenting styles as the independent variable that affects

child development as the dependent variable.

Baumrind described four parenting styles, each of which has diverse

consequences for child development. Authoritative parenting (high warmth,

high control) produces good results in child development, including high

social competence, academic achievement, and good emotional regulation.

On the other hand, authoritarian parenting (low warmth, high control) can

have negative consequences for development, such as lower self-esteem,

poorer social skills, and increased aggression. Permissive parenting has

some common characteristics with authoritative-orange parenting in terms

of warmth but differs in exercise of control. Due to its permissiveness

regarding self-discipline, in general, it leads to poor academic results.

Neglectful parenting is very harmful to development, as children are

deprived of either care or nurturing.

This study uses the theory of Emotional Availability outlined by

Biringen (2000) to understand how these styles may influence emotional

bonding. The theory points at the ability of parents to be sensitive,

supportive, and responsive to their children emotionally.

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In essence, development of emotional intimacy is where there is mutual

trust, empathy, and open communication.

The study presents millennial parents as a moderating variable.

Millennials are individuals born between approximately 1981 and 1996

(Dimock, 2019) and have different parenting values and practices from the

previous generation, often placing much significance on emotional

connection, active listening, and mental health. Their attitudes and life

experiences may inform how parenting styles are practiced and emotional

intimacy with children established. This theoretical framework examines how

parenting styles affect emotional intimacy, while millennial characteristics

either shape or mediate this association. Information on age, education,

income and relationship status of millennial parents from various cities and

municipalities in Cavite is used as a control. It is checked if these factors can

help explain or lessen the way parenting styles and emotional intimacy

influence child development outcomes. Altogether, this theory claims that

the way parents parent affects how children grow up and parent-to-child

feeling plays a role in this, in addition to using socio-demographic factors as

control variables. This approach is used to study how different parenthood

styles and techniques relate to the way children develop in Cavite among

millennials.

Statement of the Problem

Different parenting styles have a major impact on the relationship

between parents and their children. Yet, research into the relationship

between parenting styles and emotional intimacy between millennial parents

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and their children in the Philippines, notably in Cavite, is still scarce. The aim

of this study is to find a connection between the

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parenting style and the emotional bond between parents and their

millennial-generation children living in Cavite. To be specific, it aims to

answer these questions:

1. What is the demographic profile of millennial parents participating in terms of:

1.1. Age;

1.2. Sex;

1.3. Civil Status;

1.4. Educational Attainment;

1.5. Employment Status; and

1.6. Monthly Family Income?

2. What is the level of parent-to-child emotional intimacy as perceived by

the participants in terms of:

2.1. Emotional availability

2.2. Quality of communication

2.3. Physical and verbal affection

2.4. Trust and comfort

3. To what degree is there a correlation between parenting styles and the

general level of emotional intimacy from parent to child?

4. Are levels of emotional intimacy substantively different when parenting

styles are grouped according to different demographic variables?

5. What do the results imply about developing parenting programs or

policies aimed at enhancing emotional bonds between parents and

children?
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Statement of Assumptions

The study is anchored to the following assumptions:

 Parenting styles, methods, and approaches are distinct and identifiable.

It is assumed that parents exhibit a consistent parenting style (authoritative,

authoritarian, permissive, or neglectful) along with specific parenting

methods (disciplinary techniques) and approaches (emotional

responsiveness and support).

 Parenting has a significant influence on child development.

The study assumes that variations in parenting style, method, and approach directly or

indirectly affect a child’s emotional, cognitive, social, and behavioral development.

 Child development outcomes can be measured and assessed.

It is assumed that child development indicators such as emotional regulation,

academic performance, social skills, and behavior can be evaluated using

appropriate tools such as surveys, interviews, or observational assessments.

 Participants will provide honest and accurate responses.

It is assumed that parents, guardians, or other respondents will answer

truthfully and to the best of their knowledge regarding their parenting

practices and their child’s development.

 External factors exist but are not the primary of the study.

While factors such as socioeconomic status, cultural background, and child

temperament may influence development, this study assumes that

parenting remains a crucial determinant regardless of these moderating

variables.
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Statement of Hypothesis

H₁: Parenting patterns, methods, and approaches play a significant role in

the development of children.

H₀: Parenting patterns, methods, and approaches do not play a significant

role in the development of children.

Conceptual Framework

This correlational study seeks to analyze the relationship between parenting

styles and emotional intimacy from parent to child, with millennial parents as

a mediating variable. Parenting styles, according to Baumrind’s typology, are

supposed to be the independent variable and are defined as the behavioral

strategies employed in the raising of children. Emotional intimacy from

parent to child is the dependent variable referring to closeness in emotional

bonding involving trust, affection, and open communication. The framework

further presupposes that parenting styles will affect emotional intimacy with

this relationship possibly mediated by the generational propensities of the

millennial parents, such as emotional openness and communication-based

child-rearing, which might affect the parent-child emotional bond in

contemporary Filipino society.

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Parenting Styles Parent Child

Emotional
 Authoritarian Intimacy
 Authoritative
 Permissive  Emotiona
 Neglectful l
availabilit
y
 Quality of
Communicati
Millennial
on
Parents
 Physical and
Verbal
Fig. 01 Conceptual Framework

Significance of the Study

The study looks at how child growth outcomes in emotional

development together with cognitive ability social behaviors and behavioral

aspects relate to various parenting approaches and methods and styles. The

research findings will provide value to these specific individuals and

institutions:

Parents: can use this research to discover various parental approaches which

affect their children during emotional learning and social-skill development

and cognitive improvements. Parents will achieve better results in their child

development by using the research data to select appropriate parenting

strategies.

Educators and School Administrators: The research data serves employees in

education along with school administrators to comprehend student actions

and academic
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outcomes based on household parental approaches. School-based

interventions will benefit from these findings to establish programs that

propel student development.

Child Psychologists and Counselors: can use this research for creating

strategic programs of behavioral and emotional support which adapt

intervention approaches to align with parental influences.

Family Welfare Organizations and Social Workers: provides a valuable

reference to create successful parenting programs and policies.

Policymakers: policymakers who develop family welfare policies along with

parenting programs and child development projects targeting holistic health.

Future Researchers: will benefit from this study because it provides an

essential starting point to investigate positive child-rearing methods through

additional research on parenting and child development.

Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This research investigates how different parental approaches during child

development affect general growth. The research investigates parental

approaches to determine their effects on child personality development

alongside academic results as well as emotional stability and social

relationship development. The study evaluates the established parenting

approaches which include authoritative and authoritarian together with

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permissive and neglectful parenting styles and investigates their effects

during child development stages.

Multiple sources including guardians, parents, educators and child

development experts in both urban and suburban geographical areas

complete data collection for the study. The research team will perform data

collection within set time limits through survey methods as well as interview

and case study techniques to achieve a wide range of insights. This research

focuses mainly on parenting effects on child growth but does not include

external elements from peer dynamics alongside social media usage and

gene- based tendencies.

The study seeks to deliver important findings about effective parenting

methods while encouraging positive child upbringing along with helping

future studies focus on child development and household dynamics.

Definition of Terms

Emotional Availability.

Emotionally availability means a parent must be able to sense their child’s

mood and respond to it appropriately (Biringen, 2000). It means that parents

are warm, attentive and able to manage their emotions when handling their

kids.

In terms of the study, emotional availability is measured by looking at parent

behavior, reported feelings or figures that suggest the amount of emotional

support given to the child.

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Parenting Method.

Parenting methods are applying different management approaches to shape a

child’s

behavior and help them learn good values (Darling & Steinberg, 1993).

The study integrates parenting techniques into different parenting styles

which are examined with survey questions concerning their use in daily

parental situations.

Parenting Approach

Parenting approaches represent the general attitudes, beliefs and values

that affect how parents act. Such parenting styles depend on what people’s

culture, beliefs and society accept as normal (Baumrind, 1966).

In this study, the researchers look at parenting by categorizing the parenting

styles of millennial parents according to their descriptions.

Parent-to-Child Emotional Intimacy.

Emotional intimacy between parent and child involves both of them feeling

emotionally close and having shared trust, openness, empathy and

understanding (Brandão & Simão, 2024).

In this study, emotional intimacy is assessed among parents and children by

noticing physical affection, verbal expressions of love, effective

communication and trust between them.

Physical and Verbal Affection.

Physical and verbal affection can be in the form of hugging, kissing, praising

and using caring words together (Brzozowska et al., 2021).

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In this research, affection is measured by asking parents to describe and rate

their level of affection while spending time with their children.

Quality of Communication

Researchers define how well communication happens between a parent and

a child by whether it is open, caring, regular and respectful of the child (Lyu

et al., 2024).

The study looks at the operation of communication by checking the rate and

effectiveness with which parents and children share their thoughts, feelings

and experiences.

Trust and Comfort.

Trust and comfort can be seen as the child’s belief that they will feel safe

and secure sharing what’s on their mind, emotions and concerns with their

parent (Ligeski, 2023).

During the study, researchers find out if children feel comfortable

approaching their parents with their problems, errors or when they just need

to share their feelings.

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Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature and Studies

Introduction
This chapter tends to include a wide array of theoretical and empirical

studies that together shed light on the very fundamental role that parenting

plays in determining multiple facets of child development. The review is said

to focus on the influence of early parent-child interactions on emotional,

psychological, cognitive, and social development, drawing from key theories

such as Bowlby's attachment theory, Bandura's social learning theory, and

Baumrind's parenting styles. Within this broad context, some of the subjects

of discussion range from parental warmth, discipline, quality of

communications, emotional availability, and attachment security to the

influence of these factors on children's emotional regulation, mental health,

academic performance, and peer relationships. These findings have been

replicated in various cultural and developmental contexts and lend credence

to the enduring impact of parenting styles, supportive, responsive, and

developmentally attuned caregiving, which foster holistic child well- being.

Through the structured synthesis of literature, this chapter puts parenting

forward as a fundamental force that shapes child development across a

multitude of domains.

Theories of Child Development and Parenting

According to Bowlby’s attachment theory human infants express an

innate biological drive to establish attachments so they survive. His theory

established monotropy which identifies a single main attachment through

which emotional security develops along with future relational abilities.

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According to his theory he specified that attachment development requires

two distinct phases with the critical period being 2.5 years of age
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followed by the sensitive period lasting up to 5 years. Scientists state that

maternal deprivation during critical periods causes children to develop

cognitive and emotional as well as social difficulties according to his

hypothesis. The internal working model developed by his theories shows how

early attachments create frameworks for future relationships as well as

establish the basis for social connections across life. The established

framework matches later studies on parenting techniques that analyze

parental conduct towards child development (McLeod, 2025).

Moreover, Rumjaun & Naron (2020) described social learning stands as a

fundamental behavior development factor under Bandura’s social learning

theory because parent-child observation forms the basis of this learning

theory. According to his framework children develop new behaviors through

observing and repeating demonstrations of others with special emphasis on

their parental figures. The different parenting styles identified by Baumrind

match his authoritative and authoritarian and lenient and neglectful

categories because they determine how a child responds to challenges and

social settings. Bandura’s theory agrees with Bowlby’s internal working

model because children learn behavioral patterns observed in their

caregivers which leads to changes in their social and emotional growth.

Baumrind’s parenting styles theory extends attachment research by

studying the ways parents create cognitive and behavioral changes in their

children, as stated by Fadlillah & Fauziah (2022). She categorized four

parenting approaches that bring distinct outcomes to the development of

children into authoritative and authoritarian as well as permissive and

neglecting. Through her studies she proves that academic achievement

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depends heavily on how parents support them while motivating them to

succeed in life.
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According to Bandura’s social learning theory parents affect their children’s

development by using both direct contact and observation-based learning

which demonstrates how parenting practices influence children permanently.

Parenting Styles and Emotional Development

A child’s emotional intelligence and mental health together with prosocial

behavior develops from how parents blend warmth and disciplinary actions

when raising their children. Parenting under an authoritative style produces

better emotional regulation together with resilience and social competencies

in children because it takes a balanced approach to warmth and discipline

according to research findings, as stated by Li et al. (2023). Children exposed

to authoritarian parenting methods receive strict discipline but minimal

parental warmth causing them to develop suppressed emotions and stress

handling issues according to Kumar & Anchal (2025).

The development of pro-social behavior relies heavily on the expression of

warmth between parents and children. The research conducted by Yavuz

[Link] (2022) showed that children under imperial parent care exhibit better

pro-social behaviors alongside increased empathy and cooperation.

Childhood emotional regulation ability impacts how much parental warmth

affects pro-social behaviors so researchers measured both parental reporting

and physiological data. A positive parenting environment linking warmth with

emotional control enables children to build better social connections with

others according to research results.

The development of pro-social behavior in children directly depends on both

mental health growth and the vital presence of parental warmth in their
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lives. Children under

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positive parental care experience better pro-social behavior development

including empathy and cooperation according to Lanjekar et al. (2022). The

negative effects of unfavorable socialization practices become more

prominent for children who exhibit strong emotion regulation abilities

according to their parents and physiological observations. Research evidence

shows that parents who build supportive relationships with their children

help these children develop better skills for positive social interactions. The

research findings validate previous studies which demonstrate positive

parenting brings about emotional control and resilience together with

improved self-esteem (Mokal & Ahmad, 2023).

Parenting and Psychological Well Being

A child’s psychological health develops fundamentally from parenting

approaches especially through interactions between parents and children

and development of their self-esteem and resilience. The mental health of

children strongly benefits from positive parenting behaviors that include

emotional support together with warmth and open communication yet harsh

and inconsistent parenting approaches produce adverse outcomes,

according to Okorn et al. (2021). Research shows mental well-being together

with life satisfaction serve as vital factors for adolescent development even

though they frequently get affected by familial expectations combined with

social prejudices particularly in Asian cultural contexts.

The study by Trong Dam et al. (2023) revealed that conflicts between

parents and their children reached above 70% which led to decreased life

satisfaction and poor psychological outcomes. Mental well-being is positively

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affected when adolescents have

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strong family bonds with effective communication channels and their

resilience and self- esteem levels are adequate.

Parents who enforce strict control characteristics tend to create negative

mental health outcomes as well as lowered self-esteem in their children.

Research conducted by Xuan (2023) shows that children develop low self-

esteem along with emotional problems when their parents use strict

supervision combined with limited warmth and excessive disciplinary

methods.

Chong et al. (2020) revealed that children from these environments fail to

receive emotional verification which results in fear of failure and struggles

with independent decision-making abilities. Children from these backgrounds

face greater anxiety and depression together with aggressive behavior that

makes it difficult for them to create lasting connections.

Parenting and Social Development

Children develop socially based on their parent interactions and peer

experiences and relations within their external social environment. Parents

have a vital responsibility to develop healthy social competencies and peer

relationships and emotional intelligence in their children because their

behavioral actions directly determine social interaction capabilities,

according to Yue et al. (2024). Competency development and overall growth

of children depends largely on how parents apply psychological control and

demonstrate warmth combined with guidance according to consistent

research findings.

According to Chen et al. (2024) manipulative and intrusive parenting

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techniques which constitute psychological control cause adverse effects on

peer relations during early

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childhood development. Children become susceptible to struggles regarding

social adaptation and peer relations together with emotional independence

since parents who tightly control their thoughts and feelings and behaviors

create such problems.

According to He (2023) research investigated the parental influence on how

children develop empathy toward their peers. The research confirmed that

authoritative parenting strategies which combine both clear rules and

responsive parenting tend to produce empathetic behaviors in children

learning in kindergarten. Empathy development shows negative correlations

with authoritarian and permissive along with dismissive parental behavior

but positive relationships when parents use an authoritative blend of

structure and dedication.

Parent-Children Attachment

Parent-partner and parent-child attachment relationships are very important

in emotional regulation skills of children. Ferreira et al. (2024) discovered

that a better quality in attachment by parents and children associate with

better skills in emotion regulation among preschoolers. Their longitudinal

study indicated the adverse effect of insecure parental attachments on

children’s emotional adjustments, the role of secure emotions in early

development. Complementing this, Mania et al. (2024) who studied the

children of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) found a significance in the

parent – child closeness and children’s positive attitudes towards academic

work as well as the efficient studying method which corresponds with parent

support, and was identified as an indispensable factor to reconcile home and

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Furthermore, according to Boekweg (2023), the level of parental self-efficacy

during childhood is moderately correlated to the quality of parent-child

relationships (i.e., closeness and conflict). Even if self-efficacy in childhood

could not directly predict the quality of relationship, it was strong enough to

establish the current parental self-efficacy, which plays an important role in

maintaining positive interactions between parents and children. In the digital

age, Nurhayati, Fatmasari, & Mujiasih (2023) asserted that parent- child

relationship involves such elements as communication, guidance, and

emotional support which is important for assisting children to overcome

conflicts, life struggles and behavioral problems. Their qualitative results

emphasized the need for closeness in the environment of fast technological

change.

The parent-child congruence in perceptions of parental control also has a

strong impact on children’s anxiety level. Gao et al. (2025) confirmed that

the differences between parental and children’s perceptions on psychological

and behavioral control are linked to anxiety in children, with mother-child

closeness protecting against such relationships. This implies that emotional

intimacy in parent-child dyad can alleviate negative consequences

connected to parental control conflicts.

Continuing on the emotional development topic, Zuo (2023) highlighted the

fact that parenting styles affect the mental health of children as they

determine the children’s emotional regulation capacities. A loving family

setting and emotionally stable parents enhance better emotional regulation

abilities amongst the children, which has a positive effect on their

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psychological development and social adaptability. Although the study found

some limitations of the examination of adult outcomes, it emphasizes the

centrality
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of the parent-child emotional intimacy in childhood as a basis for long-term

emotional stability.

A child’s development Is entrenched in a complex interplay of relationships,

and parent- child relationship is one of the most powerful ones (Frosch,

Schoppe-Sullivan, & O’Banion, 2019). Awareness concerning how early

parent-child relational health is significant has broadened the interest in

outcomes on socioemotional, cognitive, neurobiological, and physical health

that relational factors influence. This viewpoint reveals the dynamic nature of

the parent, child, and contextual roles in the building up of healthy

relationships that contribute to the optimal child development. In addition, it

brings to the fore the value of supportive parental relations with healthcare

providers in improving screening, intervention, and overall well-being of

families.

Parenting and Cognitive Development

Children’s cognitive development strongly reacts to parental intervention

combined with school support and the conditions they experience at home.

Parents are essential to developing their children’s academic performance as

well as problem-solving potentials and intellectual growth. It validated how

active parental participation results in improved cognitive development but

passive parental presence may block children from achieving academic

goals, according to Jeong [Link] (2021).

Sengonul (2022) applied Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory,

Bourdieu’s concept of cultural capital, and Coleman’s social capital theory

(as cited in Sengonul, 2022) to examine the effects of parental involvement

43

on academic achievement through a review of 42 studies published

between 2003 and 2021. The research investigation

44

established that family involvement creates positive effects which directly

impact academic performance in children. A combination of five important

parental actions which involved reading to children, teaching learning

material and establishing high academic goals and sustaining school

communication and providing support worked together to yield superior

educational success for children. Although family financial standing impacts

how much and what type of parental involvement happens their active

participation in education drives student success independently of financial

situation.

Emotional Attachment of Parents to Children

Emotional availability (EA) means a parent is warm, ready to respond, aware,

and gives support to their child in their relationship. It provides a base for

secure connection with others and has a big influence on a child’s mood,

behavior, and mental growth.

Criscuolo et al. (2022) stated that emotional availability in parents happens

when they are sensitive, close, warm, and supportive toward their child.

According to the study, the teens with anorexia nervosa (AN) felt that their

mothers showed more empathy than their fathers. Emotional availability

alone did not link to eating disorder symptoms, but it was positively related

to better family functioning. This reveals that showing emotions positively in

a family is key to keeping the home healthy and safe.

Brandão and Simão (2024) also validated the Lum Emotional Availability of

Parents (LEAP) scale among Portuguese teenagers. It was found by the

scientists that having emotionally accessible parents related to a better level

45

of health in children. Results also showed that greater parental EA was linked

to adolescents choosing to reappraise their emotions rather than try to hide

them. These studies show that having an emotionally

46

available adult encourages adolescents to better control their emotions and

highlights the link to mental health and how emotions are managed.

Adding a neurobiological perspective, Clark et al. (2021) looked at a number

of studies to see if how caregivers act and react to their children affects how

the kids’ brains and mental growth develop. The researchers found that by

scoring the EA Scales, emotional availability provides an overview of the

emotional well-being of the dyad by examining how the caregiver and child

relate emotionally. Their review focused on looking at studies about how

stress affects the body, the hormone system the body uses to deal with

stress, how genes and environment can change how our bodies react to

stress, and how the brain handles stress. According to studies, in households

with available emotions, a child’s brain development and stress response are

likely to be affected in positive ways. The authors introduced a model that

combined emotional availability and brain processes and encouraged more

studies about this topic.

In the Philippines, Busalla and Mendoza (2024) looked at the link between

parents’ being active at home and teachers’ being present for their students’

emotions on kindergarteners’ learning. While teachers were generally very

engaged emotionally, parents were somewhat moderately engaged with

their kids, according to the descriptive- correlational study with 120

kindergartners and their parents. Both social factors greatly influenced how

well the children could read and number, with the greatest effect coming

from parents’ involvement. In addition, the study points out that it is crucial

to focus on home-school relationships and emotional support in schools for

young children.
47

Quality of Communication

Emotional stability, academic success, and self-perception are just a few of

the developmental outcomes that are strongly influenced by the quality of

communication between parents and children. Open discussion, emotional

support, reciprocal understanding, and responsiveness are traits of high-

quality communication that promote positive growth and trust.

Zhang (2020) looked at the relationship between parent-child

communication and teenagers’ academic achievement, highlighting the

importance of quality over quantity. The study used a structural equation

model to show that children’s strong sense of self- concept acts as a

mediator between academic achievement and high-quality communication.

Remarkably, there was no discernible correlation between academic results

and communication frequency (quantity). These results demonstrate that

thoughtful, emotionally charged, and supportive communication is more

important for development than the quantity of interactions.

Zapf et al. (2023) carried out a systematic review to examine the

instruments available for assessing the quality of parent-child

communication from the child’s perspective, concentrating on people aged 8

to 21 years. This study further supports the significance of assessing

communication depth. 106 studies using 12 different instruments were found

from an initial pool of more than 5,000 articles; the Parent-Adolescent

Communication Scale (PACS) was used in 75% of the studies. Nevertheless,

the authors pointed out that even though these instruments are used

frequently, there is still little psychometric evidence to support them,

especially in clinical and at-risk populations.

48

To close this gap, Lyu et al. (2024) developed the Parent–Child

Communication Quality Scale (PCCQS), a novel instrument based on the

theory of self-psychology that evaluates communication quality by gauging

how well children’s psychological needs are satisfied. A second-order, four-

factor model consisting of mirroring, idealization, empathy, and appropriate

response was validated by their study, which involved 1,095 urban children

in China. A useful addition to the instruments available for assessing

communication quality from a psychological perspective, the PCCQS

demonstrated strong construct and criterion validity, split-half reliability, and

high internal consistency.

Physical and Verbal Affection

Fostering children’s emotional and cognitive development requires parents

to show them affection both verbally and physically. Hugs, verbal

responsiveness, affirmations, and praise are examples of these expressions

that support emotional control, stable attachment, and early academic

success.

Parents are crucial in forming children’s emotional capacities, particularly in

early childhood when they lack the emotional maturity to self-regulate,

according to Rahmadani and Sumadi (2023). Parents foster emotional

development and teach children acceptable emotional expression techniques

by showing them affection both verbally and nonverbally. Their research did,

however, also reveal a lack of knowledge among parents about how to

emotionally engage their kids, which could result in a lack of emotional

expression and behavioral control.

49

Brzozowska et al. (2021) investigated caregiver touch as a mechanism of

emotional and neurological development in infants, further highlighting the

significance of affectionate
50

interaction. Their research, which contrasted observational and parent-

reported approaches to measuring physical touch, discovered that context

had a major impact on the type and quantity of touch that was used.

Although there was a moderate correlation between parent-reported touch

and touch observed in playful settings, one-off questionnaires might be

biased or only apply in certain situations. However, in developmental

research, concise and organized parental reports can be useful instruments

for gauging affectional interactions.

Carver (2022) investigated the relationship between preschool-aged

children’s language and math development and parental praise, affirmation,

and corrective feedback, building on the link between verbal affection and

early learning outcomes. The findings of this observational study, which

involved parents and 4-year-old children, showed that while general

corrective feedback was negatively correlated with concurrent math

outcomes, general praise and affirmation were positively correlated with

children’s expressive vocabulary and math gains. Interestingly, with the

exception of math-specific corrective feedback, which was inversely

correlated with math skills, math-specific feedback did not consistently

correlate with children’s academic performance. This suggests that verbal

feedback that is general and emotionally encouraging may have a greater

impact on the development of early academic skills than feedback that is

content-specific.

Trust and Comfort

A parent-child relationship built on trust and comfort is essential for

51

emotional safety, a healthy attachment style, and successful developmental

outcomes. Children are more likely to display resilience, emotional control,

and adaptive behavior when they feel safe

52

with their caregivers. On the other hand, a lack of trust can make it more

difficult for a parent and child to communicate honestly and emotionally.

Kotaman and Aslan (2024) looked into how young children interpret and use

the idea of trust. The study, which involved 273 kindergarteners,

investigated the relationship between trust and kids' readiness to share

personal belongings like toys and favorite foods. Remarkably, the findings

demonstrated that the kids thought of trust and sharing as two different

ideas. Although reciprocity was frequently mentioned as a justification for

sharing, trust was viewed more broadly and was not always linked to direct

social interactions. This implies that children distinguish emotional security

from simple acts of interaction even at an early age, highlighting the fact

that trust is built through ongoing relational experiences rather than discrete

actions.

In support of this idea, Ligeski (2023) looked at parent trust as a predictor of

parental involvement, concentrating on the relationship between trust and

children’s symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The

study discovered that greater parent involvement, especially in home-school

communication, was linked to higher levels of parent trust. However,

inattentive ADHD symptoms moderated this relationship, indicating that a

child’s behavior can influence how trust translates into active parental

engagement. This emphasizes that trust is a dynamic component in the

parent–child dyad, not only affecting emotional closeness but also parental

behavior, such as support, advocacy, and collaboration with educators.

53

Gaps in Existing Research

The field of parenting research and child development has numerous

unanswered questions because of existing gaps in knowledge that require

more study. Studies about parental impact on child development mainly

concentrate on youth but the adult-oriented outcomes from parenting

practices require better documentation regarding career achievements and

emotional health together with social relationships. Almost all existing

literature investigates parenting through Western perspectives while

researchers need to study diverse parenting methods across cultures.

Research scrutinizes female parental influence extensively without enough

attention on paternal effects which affect emotional and cognitive

development in children.

Research about the influence of modern technology and social media

parenting methods remains limited in its examination of digital regulations

and digital interaction effects on child cognitive and social development.

Studies concerning proper parental interventions which address adolescent

anxiety and depression require additional investigation despite well-

established knowledge about how parenting styles affect adolescent mental

health. Researchers have provided limited investigation into the

connection between how parents raise their children and

neurodevelopment. Research indicates that parenting techniques could

affect brain growth together with cognitive abilities yet additional

neurological testing needs to advance such findings. Research that

tackles these untreated research areas would offer a complete view of how

parental practices influence children’s comprehensive welfare development

54

throughout their life stages within different cultural communities.

55

Key Takeaways

 Parenting Style has a Definite Impact: The literature is adamant

about the fact that parenting style, whether it is authoritative,

authoritarian, permissive or neglectful, has a quantifiable influence

on the emotional, cognitive, psychological and social growth of the

child. There is always the authoritative parenting option that proves

to be the most fruitful.

 Emotional Intimacy Developed on Many Levels: Emotional

availability, proper communication, physical/verbal affection, trust

and comfort are vital aspects of emotional closeness between the

parent and child. These are aspects that build good relational bonds

and ensure positive development.

 Quality of Communication is More Important than the Frequency of

Communication: Good quality, emotion support and two-way flow of

communication between parent and child results in very good

emotional self- regulation, school achievements and improvement

in self-concept within children.

 Parental Warmth is Structural: This is because many studies have

emphasized that warmth (in the form of love and emotional care) is

linked with improved emotional control, social interactions, and

resilience amongst children. The lack of warmth particularly when it

comes together with strictness is usually the cause of mental health

problems.

 Culture, Technology, and Fathers are Underrepresented: Much of

the literature revolves around the Western society and mother

56

parenting, whereas there is a

57

literature gap on the role of a father, impact of cultural values, and

parenting in the virtual age-- in non-western countries like that of

the Philippines.

 Safe parent-child bonding results in long-term stability: The ability

of the parent and child to be securely attached and emotionally

close to one another acts as a resilience factor against the

development of psychological challenges, and insecure

attachments have been found to position children at risk of anxiety,

negative educational achievement, and affective dysregulation.

Synthesis of the Study

The literature reviewed all confirm that parenting is central in determining the

different dimensions of a child, emotional, psychological, social, and

cognitive. Basing itself on Bowlby Attachment Theory (McLeod, 2025), the

Social Learning Theory of Bandura (Rumjaun & Narod, 2020) and the

Parenting Styles Theory by Baumrind (Fadlillah & Fauziah, 2022), the studies

are in agreement that parenting is not just a guide on behavior but also a

sort of framework that leads to lifetime developmental outcomes.

The adaptive parenthood style, namely, authoritative parenting with

appropriate levels of warmth and discipline, was found to have the best child

outcome, so high-quality emotional regulation, pro-social attitudes, and

resilience could occur (Li et al., 2023; Mokal & Ahmad, 2023). On the other

hand, authoritarian type of parenting that is characterized by low warmth

and high control was also connected with emotions suppression, stress, and
58

low self-esteem among children (Kumar & Anchal, 2025; Xuan,

59

2023). Academic underachievements and mood swings were also caused by

permissive and laxity styles (Febiyanti & Rachmawati, 2021; Wambua &

Okul, 2024).

The parents and children emotional closeness (emotional availability, the

quality of communication, the affection, and the trust) appeared to be an

important mediator of the positive development (Biringen, 2000; Brandao

and Simao, 2024). The works by Clark et al. (2021) and Criscuolo et al.

(2022) suggest that emotionally available parenting supports the

development of the brain as well as the emotional resilience. In Busalla and

Mendoza (2024), moderate engagement at home of parents was a strong

predictor of early literacy and numeracy skills, which is why emotional

support plays an essential part in cognitive development.

Communication quality was a factor that was floated several times to foresee

academic and emotional good results. This experiment proved by Zhang

(2020) that emotional thickness of exchanged communication rather than

frequency contributes to constructing the academic confidence and self-

concept of children. The emergence and validation of Parent-Child

Communication Quality Scale (Lyu et al., 2024) also contributes to the same

belief with the provision of instruments to measure the psychological needs

of children using the interaction with the parents.

Affection of parents, both verbal and actual, was shown to have a significant

relationship with emotional development and early performance in academic

learning (Rahmadani & Sumadi, 2023; Brzozowska et al., 2021). Also, trust

and comfort, especially in emotionally safe families was established as being

central to the development of secure attachment preventing children against

60

getting into behavioral problems and mental health risks (Ligeski, 2023;

Kotaman & Aslan, 2024).

61

Lastly, one of the most common aspects of literature is the existence of

important gaps: underrepresentation of paternal roles (Okorn et al., 2021),

inadequate cross-cultural studies (Zuo, 2023), and lack of

neurodevelopmental ones (Clark et al., 2021). The reviewed literature

indicates that research at the local, culturally sensitive level, such as the

present study of millennial parents in Cavite, is required to fill in these gaps

and find out more about the new dynamics of parenting in the non-Western

world.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

This chapter details the procedure that was followed in conducting the study

entitled ” Parenting Styles and Parent-to-Child Emotional Intimacy: A

Correlational Study among Millennial Parents in Selected Cities and

Municipalities in Cavite” It outlines the research approach, the nature of

research, design, the people who will be studied, the method of sampling,

equipment that will be used to conduct the research, the process of

information collection, the locality, and how the results will be analyzed in

the research.

3.1 Research Methodology

This research will investigate the parenting styles and parent to child

emotional intimacy among millennial parents in Cavite, through a

quantitative research design. Quantitative research is the gathering and

interpretation of numerical data to describe, forecast, or regulate the

62

phenomena of interest. This approach was much more structured and

objective, which allowed the researchers to measure and quantify links

between variables and make conclusions that could be generalized at the

statistical level of evidence (Ghanad, 2023)

Specifically, the research will be conducted using correlational design within

the quantitative design. The correlational method is the correct method

where one aims at measuring the magnitude of the relationship sharing that

exists between two variables without trying to control it. This format is

helpful to find out trends, patterns, and potential predictive relationship

3.2 Types of Research Methodologies: Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed

There are three general categories of methodology that could be used in

research, namely, quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methodologies.

Quantitative research is based on quantifiable information as it attempts to

draw facts and develop patterns through research. It employs statistical

measurements to make hypothesis testing, conclusions as well as

generalization of findings on a sample to a population. This is the most

appropriate method in study where the variables used in the research are

predetermined as in this case (Kotronoulas [Link], 2023) A phenomenon

studied qualitatively is observed, interviewed and analyzed with the use of

content analysis. It is focused toward cognizing meaning, experience, and

interpretation, yet it does not use statistical analysis (Vears & Gilliam, 2022).

Mixed methods research is undertaken to combine the quantitative and

63

qualitative lines to give a wider perspective. Although it has the capacity to

enhance the interpretation of data, it was not applicable herein considering

the statistical inclination of the research questions (Dawadi [Link], 2021).

Since the purpose of the study was to quantify the relationship between

parenting styles and emotional intimacy in form of numerical figures and

statistical analyses, the quantitative technique was considered as the most

appropriate one.

3.3 Research Design

This research will utilize a correlational research design, which is used to

identify existence of relation between two or more variables that can be

quantified and by what degree the relation is achieved. The parenting style

(authoritative, authoritarian, permissive and neglectful) is the independent

variable, whereas the parent-to-child emotional intimacy is the dependent

variable (parent-to-child emotional intimacy determined by such indicators

as emotional availability, communication quality, physical/verbal affection

and trust /comfort).

The correlational design Is not capable of identifying causation; however it

can suggest the tendency of the variables to alter in a predictable direction

(Willett, 2023). This design was chosen due to the fact it corresponds with

the goal that aims to study the relationship between the different parenting

styles and the level of emotional connection and bonding expressed by

millennial parents.
64

3.4 Population and Respondents

Millennial parents who have at least one child living in the same house, and

whose ages are between 1981 and 1996 and who live within the province of

Cavite in some of these cities and municipalities were chosen as the target

sample of this study. These parents will be selected according to the

generational background of the research because the millennium generation

is considered to be parenting differently than their predecessors, and they

tend to pay more attention to the emotional attachment and mental well-

being.

The eligibility criterion includes:

1. The respondents will have to be parents who are either biological or

legally aged within the millennial generation.

2. Need to have at least one child who lives with a same family.

3. Have to be based in Cavite (e.g., Bacoor, Imus, Dasmariñas, Tagaytay

etc.).

4. Should have the desire to participate in carrying out informed consent.

5. The researchers excluded individuals who did not meet the age range,

were not primary caregivers, or declined to participate

65

3.5. Sampling, Sample, and Sample Size

The research will employ a purposive sampling which is a non-probability

method of sampling participants to a study via predefined characteristics

pertinent to the study. This was perfect to make sure that only the parents

belonging to the millennial generation (and with their criteria qualifying them

to be a parent) were represented.

Slovin Formula was applied to estimate the sample size:

N = N / (1 + Ne²)

Where:

N = sample size

N = total estimated millennial parent population in selected Cavite areas

E = margin of error (0.05)

Since the estimated population is 5000 millennials with children the sample

size estimate corresponded to 370 participants. Sample size will be rounded

out and modified based on field feasibility, rate of response and data

saturation.

3.6 Research Locale

The study will be done in the chosen localities in the urban and suburban
66

areas around the province of Cavite in the CALABARZON region of the

Philippines, with the locality having a heterogeneous demographic structure

and is highly urbanized. The choice of areas was based on accessibility and

population density and on representation of various classes of people. These

were the main areas (e.g. Bacoor, Imus, General Trias, etc.).

These sites offeres a balanced environment in which the parenting behaviors

and emotional processes of the millennial parents in diverse milieu could be

analyzed.

3.7 Research Instrument

A structured questionnaire will be designed as the main instrument of data

gathering that served quantitative data collection on different dimensions

addressing the given research. Part one of the tool included part of the

demographic characteristics of the respondents such as age, sex, civil

status, educational level, employment status, and monthly family income.

The second part involved parenting styles that utilised an adapted Parental

Authority Questionnaire (PAQ) according to the Baumrind typology (Louis,

2022).

This instrument will contain questions based on four parenting styles, namely

authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful, and the respondents

were asked to report their agreements according to a five-point Likert scale

67

with strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). The third part evaluated the

parent-child emotional closeness evoking Emotional Availability approach

developed by Biringen and some other modern theories. This section of the

instrument measured emotional availability, good communication, physical

affection and verbal affection and trust and comfort. The professional in the

fields of developmental psychology, developmental and education ensured

content validity using an expert review of the instrument. An internal

consistency and reliability were determined through a pilot test of 30

qualified respondents who were outside the target sample. The obtained

Cronbach alpha coefficients exceeded 0.80 and that meant that the

instrument provided satisfactory reliability.

3.8 Research Procedure

The study process will start by creating the research instrument and having

it validated by a team of experts. Using relevant theoretical and empirical

framework the questionnaire will be well developed and evaluated on the

basis of content correctness and relevancy and suitability to the objectives of

study. Pilot testing was then undertaken where a group of 30 participants

was requested to fill the survey in order to check the survey in terms of

clarity, comprehensiveness, and internal reliability.

Upon revision, the instrument will be distributed in physical form, as well as

through digital forms (i.e., filed in Google Forms) to ensure the largest reach

of respondents. It was made clear to every respondent the purpose of the

68

study he/she would be participating in, and his/her confidentiality and right

to voluntarily participate in the study was guaranteed. All the surveys filled

will be gathered and compiled to process it. The polishing and sorting of data

was done in Microsoft Excel and SPSS where incomplete and invalid data was

excluded in the final analysis.

3.9 Treatment of Data

Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis tools will be applied to

evaluate the data obtained. The demographic profile and grade of emotional

intimacy between the respondents will be summarized with the use of

descriptive statistics in terms of frequency, percentage, mean, and standard

deviation. The Pearson r correlation coefficient will be used in order to

identify the association among parenting styles and parent-to-child

emotional intimacy. The direction and the strength of the correlation will be

interpreted by using the following scale:

0.0-0.19 = very weak

0.20- 0.39 = weak

0.40- 0.59 = moderate

0.60- 0.79 = strong

0.801.00 = very strong

Further inferential statistical analysis was also carried out with the help of
69

One-Way ANOVA, independent samples t-tests, etc to determine whether

there were significant changes in the level of emotional intimacy among

different demographic groups. A level of significance of p = 0.05 used to

evaluate all the tests that were conducted.

70

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Survey Questionnaire

Instructions

Dear Respondent,
This survey is part of a research study on parenting styles and parent-to-
child emotional intimacy. Your honest and complete answers will be
used solely for academic purposes. All responses will be kept strictly
confidential. Please read each item carefully and select the answer that
best reflects your experience or opinion.
Thank you for your participation.

Please check or fill in the appropriate information.

Age: _________

Sex: ☐ Male ☐ Female ☐ Prefer not to say

Civil Status: ☐ Single ☐ Married ☐ Separated ☐ Widowed

Educational Attainment:
☐ Elementary graduate
☐ High school graduate
☐ College graduate
☐ Postgraduate

Employment Status:
☐ Employed (full-time or part-time)
☐ Self-employed
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☐ Unemployed
☐ Homemaker

Monthly Family Income:

☐ Below ₱10,000
☐ ₱10,001 – ₱20,000
☐ ₱20,001 – ₱40,000
☐ ₱40,001 – ₱60,000
☐ ₱60,001 and above

Section II: Parenting Styles

Instructions: Please rate how much you agree with the following statements.
Scale: 1 – Strongly Disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Neutral 4 – Agree 5 –
Strongly Agree

No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5

1 I set clear rules and consistently follow them. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

2 I explain the reasons behind my rules to my child. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

3 I expect my child to obey without questioning. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

4 I listen to my child’s opinions before making decisions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

5 I use physical or verbal punishment when my child misbehaves. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

6 I give my child choices in decisions that affect them. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

7 I rarely enforce rules at home. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

8 I show love and affection regardless of my child’s behavior. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

9 I believe children should follow parents strictly. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

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10 I let my child explore independence, even if they make mistakes. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

Section III: Parent-to-Child Emotional Intimacy

Instructions: Please rate how often these apply to your relationship with your

child.

Scale: 1 – Never 2 – Rarely 3 – Sometimes 4 – Often 5 – Always

A. Emotional Availability

No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5

11 I am emotionally present when my child needs support. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

12 I can tell when my child is feeling down even without them saying so. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

13 I pay attention to my child’s emotional signals. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

14 My child feels secure knowing I’m emotionally available. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

15 I am aware of my child’s emotional highs and lows. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

85

B. Quality of Communication

No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5

16 My child talks to me about their problems. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

17 I encourage my child to express their thoughts. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

18 I listen to my child without interrupting. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

19 We openly talk about emotions at home. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

20 My child feels comfortable initiating conversations with me. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

C. Physical and Verbal Affection

No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5

21 I frequently hug, hold, or kiss my child. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

22 I tell my child “I love you” or express love verbally. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

23 My child seeks physical affection from me. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

24 I express affection even when correcting behavior. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

25 Affection is a normal part of our daily interactions. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

86

Trust and Comfort

No. Statement 1 2 3 4 5

26 My child trusts me with their secrets. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

27 I feel my child is emotionally comfortable around me. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

28 I support my child without judgment. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

29 My child confides in me when they’re afraid or confused. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐

30 I make my child feel accepted and safe regardless of their behavior. ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐ ☐