PHYSICS

INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
Topic
ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
CON
TENTS
1. AIM
2. INTRODUCTION
3. THEORY
4. OBSERVATION
5. APPLICATION
6. CONCLUSION
7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
AIM
The study of EM waves to understanding the properties of
light, its propagation through tissue, scattering and absorption
effects, and changes in the state of polarization.

INTRODUCTION
A new foundational physics is emerging which radically
changes our concepts of electromagnetic waves. The
original quantum ideas of Max Planck and Albert Einstein
from the turn of the twentieth century, are undergoing an
impressive renaissance now at the turn of the twenty-first
century. The result is a fundamental physics of
electromagnetic waves that is both new and classical.
Einstein’s insistence that quantum mechanics was
incomplete - that “hidden variables” were yet to be
discovered - was correct. The recent discovery of those
variables is the driving force behind this rebirth of the
foundations of quantum mechanics and the fundamental
physics of electromagnetic (“EM”) waves. The new
quantum variables have led to the discovery of new
universal constants for EM waves. The new constants have
revealed an elegant simplicity in quantum concepts, that
requires no paradoxical explanations and imposes no
uncertainties or limits. Instead, the new physics provides a
more realistic understanding of physical concepts related to
EM waves. The old paradigm is disappearing, and yielding
to a new paradigm which is both more understandable and
more powerful.
THEORY
Electromagnetic Theory
Electromagnetic Waves come in many varieties, including radio
waves, from the ‘long-wave’ band through VHF, UHF and
beyond; microwaves; infrared, visible and ultraviolet light; X-
rays, gamma rays etc.
About 1860, James Clerk Maxwell brought together all the known
laws of electricity and magnetism:
What difference did it make?
Maxwell’s new law and Faraday’s law couple together as a wave
equation, implying that any disturbance in the electric and
magnetic fields will travel out together in space at the speed of
light as an ‘electro-magnetic’ wave.

What happened next?

In 1887 Heinrich Hertz used a spark-gap transmitter and receiver
to demonstrate that these waves actually existed.
The spark generator causes a current spike across the gap in the
central antenna. The transient pulse of electric field travels
outwards at the speed of light. It alternates in direction (red for up,
blue for down) making a wave, and carries with it a magnetic field
and electromagnetic energy.
The electromagnetic wave disturbs the electric field at any point
through which it passes. It therefore moves the charges in the
metal loop, causing a current. Significant currents can create a
large enough voltage at the gap to cause a spark, indicating the
presence of the electromagnetic wave.
Milestones from Maxwell to the Wireless Communications of Today :
1885 - Oliver Heaviside reduces Maxwell’s original equations into the form used
today.

1897 - Guglielmo Marconi employs electromagnetic waves for radio

communications.

1905 - Albert Einstein uses Maxwell’s equations to a start his theory of special
relativity.

1920 - households begin listening to music and voice broadcast on crystal and valve
radios.

1957 - Sony begins mass producing affordable portable transistor radios.

1973 - First hand-held or personal cellular mobile telephone networks.

2000 - WiFi expands connectivity of mobile devices to the internet.

Refraction and reflection (wave equation)
The incident beam is characterized by its wavelength λi, its
frequency vi and its velocity c0 and refracted beam is
characterized by its wavelength λr, its frequency νr and its
velocity c , the simple dispersion Relation for vacuum is Co = fi

Electrical flux and Gauss law

Faraday’s Law :

Faraday’s law cannot be derived from the other fundamental

principles we have studied
Formal version of Faraday’s law

Sign: given by right hand rule

Differential form of Faraday’s law
Ampere’s Law in Magneto-statics :
Biot-Savart’s Law can be used to derive another relation:
Ampere’s Law
The path integral of the dot product of magnetic field and wit
vector along a closed loop, Amperian loop, is proportional to the

net current encircled by the loop,

Choosing a direction of integration

A current is positive if it flows along the RHR normal direction
of the Amperan top as defined by the direction of integration
Polarization
Restriction of the electric field vectors of a light in a particular
plane at a distinct point of time.

Electro-Magnetic Waves
Electric and magnetic fields fluctuating together can form a
propagating wave, appropriately called an electromagnetic wave.
• Equation of plane progressive electromagnetic wave :

• Properties of electro-magnetic wave

(a) These waves are transverse in nature and it does not
require a medium for propagation
(b) Those waves propagate through space with speed of light.
i.e. 3×10⁸m/s
(c) It carries energy as it propagates. The higher the
frequency,
The higher the energy associated watch the wave
(d) It can transfer its energy to the matter on which is
impinges.
(e) Its propagation obeys the inverse square law

Electromagnetic waves are coupled time varying electric and

magnetic fields that propagate in space.
Electric field is varying with time, and it will give rise to magnetic
field, this magnetic field is varying with
Time and it gives rise to electric field and the process continues so
on. These electric and magnetic fields are time varying and
coupled with each other when propagating together in space gives
rise to electromagnetic waves.
In the fig, red line represents the electric field and it varies in the
form of a sine wave.
The magnetic field as shown in the fig, represented by blue line.
The magnetic field will be a sine wave but in a perpendicular
direction to the electric field.
These both give rise to electromagnetic field.
If the electric field is along x-axis, magnetic field along y-axis, the
wave will then propagate in the z-axis.
Electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and to
the direction of wave propagation.
Electric and magnetic fields which is time varying and coupled to
each other they give rise to electromagnetic waves.

Sources of Electromagnetic Waves (EM)

• EM waves are generated by electrically charged particles
oscillate
(accelerating charges)
• The electric field associated with the accelerating charge vibrates
which generates the vibrating magnetic field
• These both vibrating electric and magnetic fields give rise to
(EM) Electromagnetic waves
OBSERVATION
Gamma rays : (Range)
Wavelength - shorter than 0.01 nm
Frequency - above 3×10¹⁹ Hz
Energy - greater than 100 keV
X – rays : (Range)
Wavelength - 0.01 nm to 10 nm
Frequency - 3×10¹⁹ Hz to 3×10¹⁶ Hz
Energy – 100 keV to 100 eV

Ultraviolet rays : (Range)

Wavelength - 100 nm to 400 nm
Frequency - 3×10¹⁶ Hz to 8×10¹⁴ Hz
Energy - 100 eV to 3 eV

Infrared rays : (Range)

Wavelength - 700 nm to 1 mm
Frequency - 4×10¹⁴ Hz to 3×10¹² Hz
Energy - 1 eV to 1 meV

Microwave rays : (Range)

Wavelength - 1 mm to 1 m
Frequency - 3×10¹⁰ Hz to 3×10⁸ Hz
Energy - 1 meV to 1 μeV
Radio rays : (Range)
Wavelength - 1 m to 100 km
Frequency - 3×10⁸ Hz to 3×10³ Hz
Energy - less than 1 μeV

APPLICATION
Radio Waves (communications)

 TV and FM radio (short wavelength)

 Direct line of sight with transmitter (do not diffract)
 Medium wavelength – travel further because they reflect from layers in the
atmosphere

Satellite signals (Microwaves)

 Frequency of microwaves pass easily through atmosphere and clouds

Cooking (Microwaves)

 Microwaves are absorbed by water molecules.

 These water molecules become heated > heat food
 Dangers: microwaves are absorbed by living tissue Internal heating will damage
or kill cells

Infrared Radiation (remote controls, toasters)

 Any object that radiates heat radiates Infrared Radiation

 Infrared Radiation is absorbed by all materials and causes heating
 It is used for night vision and security cameras as Infrared Radiation is visible in
daytime or night-time
 Police use it to catch criminals, army use it to detect enemy
 Dangers: damage to cells (burns)

Ultraviolet

 Dangers:
o over-exposure to UVA and B damages surface cells and eyes and can
cause cancer.
 There is a problem with current sunscreens which protect
against skin burning from high UVB but give inadequate
protection against free radical damage caused by UVA.
 Dark skins are not necessarily safer from harm.
 Sun exposure for the skin is best restricted to before 11am and
after 3pm in the UK in summer months.
 Benefits:
o sanitary and therapeutic properties have a marked effect on architecture,
engineering and public health and have done so throughout history.
o UVC is germicidal, destroying bacteria, viruses and moulds in the air, in
water and on surfaces.
o UV synthesises vitamin D in skin, controls the endocrine system and is a
painkiller.
o Used in state of the art air-handling units, personal air purifiers and
swimming pool technology.
o Used to detect forged bank notes: they fluoresce in UV light; real bank
notes don’t. Used to identify items outside visible spectrum areas, known
as 'black lighting'.

X-rays

 X-rays detect bone breaks

 X-rays pass through flesh but not dense material like bones
 Dangers: X-rays damage cells and cause cancers. Radiographer precautions
include wearing lead aprons and standing behind a lead screen to minimise
exposure
Gamma Rays

 Gamma Rays cause and treat cancers

 In high doses, gamma can kill normal cells and cause cancers
 Gamma can be used to kill mutated cells though too.

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the study of electromagnetic waves sheds light on
light’s properties, interactions with tissue, and phenomena like
scattering and polarization changes. This understanding impacts
medicine by improving diagnostic imaging and treatment.
Additionally, it aids environmental monitoring and remote
sensing, enhancing resource management and disaster
preparedness. Moreover, insights from electromagnetic wave
research drive advancements in communication technologies,
leading to faster data transmission and more reliable networks. As
this research progresses, it not only deepens our understanding of
light but also fuels innovation across scientific and technological
fields, shaping a future where the manipulation of electromagnetic
waves opens up new frontiers for exploration and application.
In medicine, understanding how light propagates through tissue
enhances diagnostic imaging techniques, leading to improved
patient care and treatment outcomes. Additionally, in fields like
environmental monitoring and remote sensing, insights into
electromagnetic wave behavior aid in interpreting satellite data
and detecting environmental changes, contributing to better
resource management and disaster preparedness.

Furthermore, advancements in communication technologies,

informed by electromagnetic wave research, lead to the
development of more efficient optical communication systems,
enabling faster data transmission rates and more reliable networks.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

NCERT TEXTBOOK
* www.wikipedia.com
* www.mechanic37.com
* www.electricgyan.com