ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC AND PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES (EAPP) – LECTURE 5
Source: http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/featfram.htm
Features of Academic Writing
Introduction
Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with every part contributing to the main line of
argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard
written form of the language.There are ten main features of academic writing that are often discussed. Academic writing is to some
extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately. It is also well
organized and planned.
1. Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has longer words, it is lexically more dense and
it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the
language has more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.
2. Formality
Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should avoid colloquial words and expressions.
3. Precision
In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.
4. Objectivity
Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words that refer to the writer or the reader.
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather
than you. For that reason, academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and adverbs).
5. Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit about the relationships in the text. Furthermore, it is the responsibility of the writer in English to make it
clear to the reader how the various parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different
signaling words.
6. Accuracy
Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes
clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics"; general English does not.
7. Hedging
In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of
the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to do this in different ways.
A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a ‘hedge’.
8. Responsibility
In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.
You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of any source texts you use.
9. Organization
Academic writing is well organized. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical fashion. A good place to start is the genre
of your text. Once you have decided on the genre, the structure is easily determined.
10. Planning
Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation, according to a specific purpose and plan.
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Features of Academic Writing (with its examples)
1. Complexity
Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language (Biber, 1988; Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad &
Finegan, 1999; Chafe, 1982; Cook, 1997; Halliday,1989).
Written texts are lexically dense compared to spoken language - they have proportionately more lexical words than
grammatical words. Written texts are shorter and have longer, more complex words and phrases. They have more noun-
based phrases, more nominalizations, and more lexical variation.
Written language is grammatically more complex than spoken language. It has more subordinate clauses, more "that/to"
complement clauses, more long sequences of prepositional phrases, more attributive adjectives and more passives than
spoken language.
The following features are common in academic written texts:
Noun-based phrases, Subordinate clauses/embedding, Complement clauses, Sequences of prepositional
phrases, Participles, Passive verbs, Lexical density, Lexical complexity, Nominalization, Attributive adjectives, Adjectival
groups as complements
Examples
Halliday (1989, p.79) compares a sentence from a spoken text:
You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite sure that they'll be able to run more safely and more quickly
than they would otherwise, no matter how bad the weather gets.
with a typical written variant:
The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and faster train running in the most adverse weather conditions.
The main difference is the grammar, not the vocabulary.
Other equivalents are given below (p.81):
Spoken Written
Whenever I'd visited there before, I'd ended up feeling that it would be Every previous visit had left me with a sense of the futility
futile if I tried to do anything more. of further action on my part.
The cities in Switzerland had once been peaceful, but they changed when Violence changed the face of once peaceful Swiss cities.
people became violent.
Because the technology has improved, it’s less risky than it used to be Improvements in technology have reduced the risks and
when you install them at the same time, and it doesn't cost so much either. high costs associated with simultaneous installation.
The people in the colony rejoiced when it was promised that things would Opinion in the colony greeted the promised change with
change in this way. enthusiasm.
2. Formality
In general this means in an essay that you should avoid:
a. colloquial words and expressions; ""stuff", "a lot of", "thing", "sort of",
b. abbreviated forms: "can't", "doesn't", "shouldn't"
c. two word verbs: "put off", "bring up"
d. sub-headings, numbering and bullet-points in formal essays - but use them in reports.
e. asking questions.
Cla Clare: Julie, I'm your practice teacher, you're my student. And I have to
tell you to refrain from using terms such as "loony", "fruitcake" Julie: Oh, come on, Clare! Don't be so
"nutcase" and "one sandwich short of a picnic" to describe people with PC. Are you telling me you've never used
mental illness. those expressions?
3. Precision
In academic writing you need to be precise when you use information, dates or figures. Do not use "a lot of
people" when you can say "50 million people".
For example:
Chemists had attempted to synthesize quinine for the previous hundred years but all they had achieved was to discover
the extreme complexity of the problem.
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The volatile oily liquid beta-chloro-beta-ethyl sulphide was first synthesized in 1854, and in 1887 it was reported to
produce blisters if it touched the skin. It was called mustard gas and was used at Ypres in 19I7, when it caused
many thousands of casualties.
It is approximately eight inches in length and runs from the urinary bladder, through the prostate gland, under the front
of the pelvis, and, passing through the corpus spongiosum, it ends at the tip of the glans penis in an opening called
the urethral meatus .
4.Objectivity
This means that the main emphasis should be on the information that you want to give and the arguments you
want to make, rather than you. This is related to the basic nature of academic study and academic writing, in
particular. Nobody really wants to know what you "think" or "believe". They want to know what you have
studied and learned and how this has led you to your various conclusions. The thoughts and beliefs should be
based on your lectures, reading, discussion and research and it is important to make this clear.
1. Compare these two paragraphs:
The question of what constitutes "language proficiency" and the nature of its cross-lingual dimensions is also at the core
of many hotly debated issues in the areas of bilingual education and second language pedagogy and testing. Researchers
have suggested ways of making second language teaching and testing more "communicative" (e.g., Canale and Swain,
1980; Oller, 1979b) on the grounds that a communicative approach better reflects the nature of language proficiency
than one which emphasizes the acquisition of discrete language skills.
We don't really know what language proficiency is but many people have talked about it for a long time. Some
researchers have tried to find ways for us to make teaching and testing more communicative because that is how
language works. I think that language is something we use for communicating, not an object for us to study and we
remember that when we teach and test it.
Which is the most objective?
2. In general, avoid words like "I", "me", "myself".
A reader will normally assume that any idea not referenced is your own. It is therefore unnecessary to make
this explicit.
- Don't write:" In my opinion, this a very interesting study."
- Write: "This is a very interesting study."
- Avoid "you" to refer to the reader or people in general.
- Don't write: "You can easily forget how different life was 50 years ago."
- Write: "It is easy to forget how difficult life was 50 years ago."
3. Examples
- Clearly this was far less true of France than ...
- This is where the disagreements and controversies begin ...
- The data indicates that ...
- This is not a view shared by everyone; Jones, for example, claims that ...
- . . .very few people would claim ...
- It is worthwhile at this stage to consider ...
- Of course, more concrete evidence is needed before ...
- Several possibilities emerge …
- A common solution is ...
5. Explicitness
Academic writing is explicit in several ways.
1. It is explicit in its signposting of the organization of the ideas in the text (Biber, Johansson, Leech, Conrad &Finegan,
1999, pp. 880-882). As a writer of academic English, it is your responsibility to make it clear to your reader how various
parts of the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling words.
For example, if you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear.
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The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and
Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in
Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.
If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.
While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross
that the significance of this outflow was realized. Partly this was because the current account deficit appears much
smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.
If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.
Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the
history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was
characterized by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from
the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social
systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.
If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.
He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition,
he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary
education at the Canadian Mission School.
If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.
This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in
the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr. Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership
in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.
For more information see Writing Paragraphs: Signalling.
2. It is explicit in its acknowledgment of the sources of the ideas in the text.
If you know the source of the ideas you are presenting, acknowledge it.
Do THIS in academic writing
McGreil (1977: 363-408) has shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish,
Dubliners still seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.
NOT
Although Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still seek a solution to the
Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.
NOT
Researchers have shown that though Dubliners find the English more acceptable than the Northern Irish, Dubliners still
seek a solution to the Northern problem within an all-Ireland state.
Accuracy
In academic writing you need to be accurate in your use of vocabulary. Do not
confuse, for example, "phonetics" and "phonology" or "grammar" with "syntax".
Choose the correct word, for example, "meeting", "assembly", "gathering" or
"conference".
Or from: "money", "cash", "currency", "capital" or "funds".
You also need to be accurate in your use of grammar.
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7. Hedging
It is often believed that academic writing, particularly scientific writing, is factual, simply to convey facts and
information. However it is now recognised that an important feature of academic writing is the concept of
cautious language, often called "hedging" or "vague language". In other words, it is necessary to make
decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different
subjects prefer to do this in different ways.
Language used in hedging:
1. Introductory verbs: e.g. seem, tend, look like, appear to be, think, believe, doubt, be sure, indicate, suggest
2. Certain lexical verbs e.g. believe, assume, suggest
3. Certain modal verbs: e.g. will, must, would, may, might, could
4. Adverbs of frequency e.g. often, sometimes, usually
5. Modal adverbs e.g. certainly, definitely, clearly, probably, possibly, perhaps, conceivably,
6. Modal adjectives e.g. certain, definite, clear, probable, possible
7. Modal nouns e.g. assumption, possibility, probability
8. That clauses e.g. It could be the case that .
e.g. It might be suggested that .
e.g. There is every hope that .
9. To-clause + adjective e.g. It may be possible to obtain .
e.g. It is important to develop .
e.g. It is useful to study .
EXAMPLES
Compare the following:
1. It may be said that the commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.
The commitment to some of the social and economic concepts was less strong than it is now.
2. The lives they chose may seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.
The lives they chose seem overly ascetic and self-denying to most women today.
3. Weismann suggested that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement
of individuals and hence no evolution.
Weismann proved that animals become old because, if they did not, there could be no successive replacement of
individuals and hence no evolution.
4. Yet often it cannot have been the case that a recalcitrant trustee remained in possession of the property entrusted
to him.
Yet a recalcitrant trustee did not remain in possession of the property entrusted to him.
5. Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland indicates a separating out of protestant and
catholic, with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice versa.
Recent work on the religious demography of Northern Ireland shows a separating out of protestant and catholic,
with the catholic population drifting westwards and vice versa.
6. By analogy, it may be possible to walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level
or uphill, and yet a straight line between the points would cross a valley.
By analogy, one can walk from one point in hilly country to another by a path which is always level or uphill, and
yet a straight line between the points would cross a valley.
7. There are certainly cases where this would seem to have been the only possible method of transmission.
There are cases where this would have been the only possible method of transmission.
8. Nowadays the urinary symptoms seem to be of a lesser order.
Nowadays the urinary symptoms are of a lesser order.
8. Responsibility
In academic writing you are responsible for demonstrating an understanding of the source text. You must also be
responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and justification for, any claims you make.
This is done by paraphrasing and summarizing what you read and acknowledging the source of this information or ideas
by a system of citation.
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9. Organisation
Academic writing is well organized. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical fashion. A good
place to start is the genre of your text. Once you have decided on the genre, the structure is easily determined.
Students are asked to write many different kinds of texts. Depending on your subject, these could be essays,
laboratory reports, case-studies, book reviews, reflective diaries, posters, research proposals, and so on and
are normally referred to as genre families or genres.
Genres are defined by their purpose, their audience and their structure. Looking at typical structures can help
you with your organization.
The following genres are common in higher education.
1. Essays
2. Reports
3. Case Studies
4. Research proposals
5. Book reviews
6. Brief research reports
7. Literature reviews
8. Reflective writing
9. Introductions
10. Research methods
11. Research results
12. Research discussions
13. Writing conclusions
14. Research abstracts
15. Research dissertations & theses
Which of the above genre families is expected?
A useful start is your brief or assignment title or question.
Features of Academic Writing: Test
Rewrite the following text in a more academic style. Show your answers to someone. If you are in one of my
classes, e-mail the corrections to me.
Until only a few hundred years ago doctors didn't operate on people - it was barbers. No-one had taught them
and they'd never got any qualifications. They just did what they'd learned when they were learning to be
barbers. Doctors had promised not to hurt anyone so they wouldn't cut people and were not even supposed to
watch. But the doctors did watch if they were following the rules properly and he sat on a big chair, high up,
and read out what the barber was supposed to do. He read this in Latin, which, of course, the barber didn't
understand. Of course, if you died, it was always the barber's fault and if you got better, the doctor got the
praise. In any case, the doctor got the most money.
