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残割女性生殖器：修订间差异

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小 Koala0090 已移動頁面 女性生殖器切割 至 女陰殘割
（没有差异）

2015年11月4日 (三) 08:32的版本

photograph
一幅设在乌干达的反对女性生殖器切割的广告牌（2004年）[1]
定义在1997年由WHO、联合国儿童基金会和联合国人口基金定义为“女性性器官切除類型一指部分或全部切除陰蒂以及陰蒂包皮或者对女性性器官在非医治的情况下伤害。”[2][3]
地区常见于非洲的27个国家，亚洲的也门和伊拉克库尔德斯坦也存在[4]
人数在这些国家有1.33亿人[5]
年龄自出生到青春期前[6]

女陰殘割（Female genital mutilation，FGM），又稱為女性生殖器切割（female genital cutting，FGC），或是女性割禮（female circumcision）。世界衛生組織將其定義為「所有非因醫療因素而涉及移除女性部分或全部外生殖器，或是造成其他類型傷害的手術。」[3]在撒哈拉以南、北非，以及中東等地區，許多族群（英语：Ethnic groups of Africa）將女陰殘割視為傳統習俗的一部分，目前已知有27個國家境內具有這種風俗[7]。每個地區進行女陰殘割的時間不同，有的是在出生後幾天，有的則是到青春期才進行。這27個國家中，當中只有一半的國家能夠取得統計數據。根據這些資料顯示，大多數的女孩在5歲之前就會進行女陰殘割[8]。

不同民族之間的女陰殘割過程不盡相同，有些切除部分陰蒂和陰蒂包皮，也有的切除整個陰蒂和小陰唇。更甚者甚至將大小陰唇全部切除，使陰道癒合，俗稱鎖陰手術（英语：Infibulation），WHO則稱之為「第三型女陰殘割」。被鎖陰後的女性下體僅剩下一個小孔，讓尿液和經血排除，直到要進行性交及生育時，才再次將陰道口打開[9]。女陰殘割所造成的影響因操作程序不同而有所差異，包含反覆感染、囊腫、不孕、生產時併發症，及致命性出血[10]。

女陰殘割是對女性的一種性控制，具有性別不平等的意味。執行女陰殘割的地區將此舉視作純潔、端莊，與美麗的象徵。而手術通常由家族中的女性成員操作，因為她們認為沒有進行女陰殘割會使她們的女兒或孫女遭受社會排斥[11]。目前逾1.3億名女性已接受過FGM，並分布於29個國家[12]。逾800萬女性接受過鎖陰手術，主要分布於吉布地、厄利垂亞、索馬利亞，和蘇丹。[13]。

在上述具有女陰殘割習俗的國家，大多明令立法禁止這類風俗，但成效不彰[14]。自從1970年代起，各國紛紛說服人們廢止它。2012年，聯合國大會認定女陰殘割違反人權[15]。但也並非沒有反對干預此習俗，特別是人類學家。埃里克·西爾弗曼（英语：Eric Silverman）表示，女陰殘割已經成為人類學的一項中心道德議題，因其涉及文化相對論、人權的普世性和寬容性等難題[16]。

世衛組織的分類

此圖顯示不同類型的女性生殖器切割及其區別
女性器切除類型四
一位被割礼的白人女性

類型一

世衛組織定義的女性器切除類型一指部分或全部切除陰蒂以及陰蒂包皮。

類型一甲：僅切除陰蒂包皮。

類型一乙：切除陰蒂和陰蒂包皮。

類型二

世衛組織定義的女性器切除類型二指部分或全部切除陰蒂和小陰唇，有時也切除大陰唇。

類型二甲：僅切除小陰唇。

類型二乙：部分或全部切除陰蒂和小陰唇。

類型二丙：部分或全部切除陰蒂、小陰唇和大陰唇。

類型三：切割縫合

世衛組織定義的女性器切除類型三指的是所有外生殖器，也就是内、外阴唇和阴蒂全部切除并缝合下体，留下一个小洞（2–3毫米）以通过尿液和经血。伤口通过手术线缝合，比较落后的地区用龙舌兰的茎或者草绳绑住女孩的腿直到2–6周后让伤口自动愈合。根据苏丹1982年的一项研究，鸡蛋和糖可以用作粘合剂。

類型三甲：切除縫合小陰唇。

類型三乙，切除縫合大陰唇。

類型四：其它

所有其它女性器切除統歸為類型四，有些未必切除肉組織。世衛組織定義的女性器切除類型四指“所有其它無醫療目的的損害女性器的手術”。如刺、刮、烧灼。另有一种处女膜切开术也包括在内，去除太厚的处女膜，主要在西非的豪萨族实施。但并不包括变性手术。

流行地區

地圖估計了非洲各地區的女性器切除的比例，估計的數據來源非常不可靠。[來源請求]


大赦國際估計全世界有1.3億婦女接受了女性器切除，每年二百萬婦女接受性器切除。女性器切除主要流行于非洲，西起塞内加爾，東抵埃塞俄比亞海岸，北達埃及，南至坦桑尼亞。阿拉伯半島的部分人群中也有此風。此風最甚的國家是埃及，其後依次是蘇丹、埃塞俄比亞和馬里。埃及近年立法禁止女性器切除。

对全球有多少女性受到外生殖器切割的估计，这一数字在7000万到1亿4000万人之间。在非洲，估计每年有大约300万年轻女子受到这种手段的威胁。 这种习俗还存在于亚洲和中东，甚至在欧洲、澳大利亚、加拿大、新西兰以及美国的一些移民社区也仍存在，尽管范围较小。

联合国儿童基金会的研究表明，来自埃及、埃塞俄比亚、肯尼亚、塞内加尔以及苏丹等5个非洲国家的数据显示，在消除女性外生殖器切割的做法上出现了进步。这种伤害性的习俗在埃及、埃塞俄比亚和苏丹普遍存在，但是在肯尼亚及塞内加尔这种做法仅出现在某些特定人群之中。联合国儿童基金会的研究显示，15到49岁女性的态度发生了深刻的变化。例如，这项研究表明，2000年埃塞俄比亚有60%的女性同意外生殖器切割的做法，而5年以后的调查数据显示，这个百分比 已经下降了一半。与此同时在埃及和苏丹，赞同这种习俗的人数明显减少，而在肯尼亚和塞内加尔，否定这种做法的态度则已经非常普遍了。但是联合国儿童基金会发言人梅尔卡多说，不少家庭不愿意放弃切割生殖器的传统，因为他们认为这种做法有利于他们女儿。主要原因是，将自己女儿性器切割可以在某种意义上真正为他们的家庭带来经济及社会的安全保障。他们要保证自己的女儿能被社会接受，嫁人和过正常生活。在很多这种习俗通行的文化中，不进行切割，就會受到歧視。[17]

中东的库尔德地区也广泛存在，2011年6月，伊拉克库尔德三省将女性割礼和家庭暴力列入刑事犯罪，这是个具有里程碑意义的法律，但始终无法获得有效实施。

在伊拉克北部库尔德三省，享有很大的自主权，拥有自己的议会、预算和军队。比起伊拉克其他地方这里安全形势最好，库尔德当地人平均寿命特别是女性也比伊拉克其他省份要好。

但在当地有切割女性生殖器官的传统。据德国非政府组织2010年的对当地1700名妇女的调查中发现在埃尔比勒和苏莱曼尼亚两个省份中72.7％的女性都被切割了生殖器，某些地区几乎100％。

此外许多库尔德女性由于畏惧强奸和荣誉谋杀而自愿将下体缝合，部分人甚至选择切除输卵管并将下體完全缝合，终身不嫁。[18]

参考资料

  1. ^ Masinde, Andrew. "FGM: Despite the ban, the monster still rears its ugly head in Uganda", New Vision, Uganda, 5 February 2013.
  2. ^ "Classification of female genital mutilation", World Health Organization, 2014 (hereafter WHO 2014).
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 "Classification of female genital mutilation", World Health Organization, 2013 (hereafter WHO 2013).
  4. ^ "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change", United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013 (hereafter UNICEF 2013), p. 2.
  5. ^ Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold?, New York: UNICEF, 22 July 2014 (hereafter UNICEF 2014), pp. 3, 6.
  6. ^ UNICEF 2013, p. 50.
  7. ^ UNICEF 2013, p. 2
  8. ^ UNICEF 2013, pp. 47, 50, 183.
  9. ^ WHO 2013; WHO 2008, p. 4
  10. ^ Abdulcadira, Jasmine; Margairaz, C.; Boulvain, M; Irion, O. "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting", Swiss Medical Weekly, 6(14), January 2011 (review).
  11. ^ UNICEF 2013, p. 15: "There is a social obligation to conform to the practice and a widespread belief that if they [families] do not, they are likely to pay a price that could include social exclusion, criticism, ridicule, stigma or the inability to find their daughters suitable marriage partners."

    Nahid F. Toubia, Eiman Hussein Sharief, "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?", International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 82(3), September 2003, pp. 251–261: "One of the great achievements of the past decade in the field of FGM is the shift in emphasis from the concern over the harmful physical effects it causes to understanding this act as a social phenomenon resulting from a gender definition of women's roles, in particular their sexual and reproductive roles. This shift in emphasis has helped redefine the issues from a clinical disease model (hence the terminology of eradication prevalent in the literature) to a problem resulting from the use of culture to protect social dominance over women's bodies by the patriarchal hierarchy. Understanding the operative mechanisms of patriarchal dominance must also include understanding how women, particularly older married women, are important keepers of that social hegemony." PMID 14499972 doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7

  12. ^ Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold?, New York: UNICEF, 22 July 2014 (hereafter UNICEF 2014), p. 3/6: "If nothing is done, the number of girls and women affected will grow from 133 million today to 325 million in 2050." Also see p. 6/6:

    "Data sources: UNICEF global databases, 2014, based on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) and other nationally representative surveys, 1997–2013. Population data are from: United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 2012 revision, CD-ROM edition, United Nations, New York, 2013.

    "Notes: Data presented in this brochure cover the 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East where FGM/C is concentrated and for which nationally representative data are available."

  13. ^ P. Stanley Yoder, Shane Khan, "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total", USAID, DHS Working Papers, No. 39, March 2008, pp. 13–14: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. Survey data are available for Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti. Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... [T]he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in [Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, northern Sudan, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon and Tanzania, for women 15–49 years old] comes to 8,245,449, or just over eight million women." Also see Appendix B, Table 2 ("Types of FGC"), p. 19.

    UNICEF 2013, p. 182, identifies "sewn closed" as most common in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia for the 15–49 age group (a survey in 2000 in Sudan was not included in the figures), and for the daughters of that age group it is most common in Djibouti, Eritrea, Niger and Somalia. See UNICEF statistical profiles: Djibouti (December 2013), Eritrea (July 2014), Somalia (December 2013).

    Also see Gerry Mackie, "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account", American Sociological Review, 61(6), December 1996 (pp. 999–1017), p. 1002: "Infibulation, the harshest practice, occurs contiguously in Egyptian Nubia, the Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia, also known as Islamic Northeast Africa."

  14. ^ For countries in which it is outlawed or restricted, UNICEF 2013, p. 8; for enforcement, UNFPA–UNICEF 2012, p. 48.
  15. ^ "67/146. Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilation", United Nations General Assembly, adopted 20 December 2012.

    Emma Bonino, "Banning Female Genital Mutilation", The New York Times, 19 December 2012.

  16. ^ Eric K. Silverman, "Anthropology and Circumcision", Annual Review of Anthropology, 33, 2004 (pp. 419–445), pp. 420, 427.
  17. ^ UN: 取缔女性生殖器切割获成效. 美国之音. 
  18. ^ Agence France-Presse: 伊拉克库尔德地区禁止女性割礼. The Raw story. 

文献书目

  • Al-Qaradawi, Y. (2004, February 7). Islamic ruling on female circumcision. Retrieved March 29, 2006.
  • Al-Qaradawi, Y. (2004, December 13). Circumcision: Juristic, medical & social perspectives. Retrieved March 29, 2006.
  • Boyle, E. H. (2002). Female genital cutting: Cultural conflict in the global community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7063-7.
  • Dettwyler, Katherine A. (1994). Dancing skeletons: life and death in West Africa. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 0-88133-748-X.
  • Ferguson, I and Ellis, P. (1995). Female Genital Mutilation: a Review of the Current Literature Department of Justice, Canada. Working document
  • Gruenbaum, E. (2001). The female circumcision controversy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1746-9.
  • Hoffman, B. (2002). Womanhood and Circumcision: Three Maasai women have their say. Berkeley: Berkeley Media.
  • Hrzán, Daniela. (Re)Discovering FGC: Anthropology, Whiteness, Feminism. In: Tißberger, Martina/ Dietze, Gabriele/ Hrzán, Daniela/ Husmann-Kastein, Jana (eds.). Weiß – Weißsein – Whiteness: Kritische Studien zu Gender und Rassismus/Critical Studies on Gender and Racism. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 2006, pp. 113–142.
  • IRIN. Razor's Edge - The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation. IRIN. 2005. 
  • Johnson, Michelle C. (2000). Becoming a Muslim, Becoming a person: Female 'circumcision', religious identity, and personhood in Guinea-Bissau. In B. Shell-Duncan & Y. Herlund (Eds.), Female circumcision in Africa: Culture, controversy, and change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
  • Kandela, P. (1995, January). Egypt sees U turn on female circumcision. British Medical Journal, 310, 12.
  • Kassindja, F. (1998). Do they hear you when you cry. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 0-38531-832-4.
  • Obermeyer, Carla Makhlouf (2003). The health consequences of female circumcision: Science, advocacy, and standards of evidence. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(3), 394-412. PMID 12974204. doi:10.1525/maq.2003.17.3.394
  • Pieters, G., & Lowenfels A. B. (1977). Infibulation in the horn of Africa. New York State Journal of Medicine, 77(5), 729-31. PMID 265433.
  • Research papers from medical gynecologists, judges, linguistics, and social scientists on the subject (1994). University of Khartoum, Sudan. Umm Atteya Organization website (Arabic). Retrieved March 29, 2006.
  • UNICEF (1999). Consultation on the elimination of female genital mutilation: 14 December-16 December 1998. New York: Author. 40 pp.
  • World Health Organization. (1996). Female genital mutilation: Report of a WHO Technical Working Group (unpublished document WHO/FRH/WHD/96.10). Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved 2007-02-21.

出版物

  • Aldeeb, Sami (2000). Male and Female Circumcision in the Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities, Religious debate. Beirut, ISBN 1855134063.
  • Daw, E. (1970). Female circumcision and infibulation complicating delivery. Practitioner, 204(222), 559-63. PMID 5443542.
  • Dewhurst, C.J., & Michelson, A. (1964). Infibulation complicating pregnancy. British Medical Journal, 2(5422), 1442. PMID 14209371.
  • Dirie, Waris (2001). Desert Flower. Autobiography of a Somali woman's journey from nomadic tribal life to a career as a fashion model in London and to the post of special ambassador at the United Nations. Dirie recounts her personal experience with female genital mutilation that began with circumcision at age five.
  • Leonard, Lori (2000). We did it for pleasure only: Hearing alternative tales of female circumcision. Qualitative Inquiry, 6(2), 212-228.
  • Mernissi, Fatima. Beyond the veil: Male-female dynamics in a modern Muslim society. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Pub. Co. ISBN 0-470-59613-9.
  • Mustafa, Asim Zaki (1966). Female circumcision and infibulation in the Sudan. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth, 73(2), 302–306. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.1966.tb05163.x.
  • Robinett, Patricia (2006). The rape of innocence: One woman's story of female genital mutilation in the USA. N.p.: Aesculapius Press. ISBN 1-878411-04-7.

参见

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