•4 functions of the

digestive system:
•1. Ingestion- taking in
food
•2. Propulsion-
movement of food
•3. Digestion &
absorption- breaking
down food & taking in
nutrients
•4. Egestion-
elimination of waste
1. Alimentary canal 2. Accessory organs
(gastrointestinal tract) • teeth
• mouth • tongue
• pharynx • salivary glands
• esophagus • liver
• stomach • gall bladder
• small intestine • pancreas
• large intestine
•All areas of the alimentary canal contain a four-
layer arrangement of tissues:
Serosa
(visceral peritoneum)
-membrane that secretes a slippery, watery fluid
-reduces friction as digestive organs contract and move

Muscularis
Layer of muscle extending in two directions:
-circular layer
-longitudinal layer
Submucosa
Contains glands, nerve fibers and blood vessels

Mucosa
-functions:
1. secreting mucus, digestive enzymes, &
hormones
2. absorption of nutrients
3. protection from pathogens (lymphatic tissue)
•Teeth are accessory digestive organs.
•They are responsible for beginning the
mechanical digestion process
Incisors: Used for cutting
pieces of food

Canines (cuspids): tear

Premolars (bicuspids):
used for crushing

Molars (tricuspids):
used for grinding
Enamel: hard, protects tooth
Dentin: calcified connective tissue
Pulp cavity: contains blood vessels and nerves
Gingivae (gum): provides seal around tooth
Cementum- covers the dentin in the root

Bone of jaw

artery

vein
•The digestive system has multiple
functions and is generally divided
into 2 portions: the alimentary
canal and the accessory organs.
Teeth begin the process of
mechanical digestion by tearing
and grinding food.
Toddlers have only 20
teeth, compared to an
adult’s 32.
The incisors come in
first (6-8 months)
followed by the canines
and molars.
Even after these teeth
are replaced with
permanent teeth,
molars come in during
teens and early
twenties.
•Salivary glands produce
saliva:
•99% water
•Mucus (lubricates food for
swallowing)
•Amylase (breaks down starch)
•Lysozymes (kills bacteria)
•Antibodies (mark foreign
invaders)
•Hard palate: forms the bony roof of the mouth
•Soft palate: forms the rest of the mouth
•Uvula: prevents swallowed food from entering the
nasal cavity
•Tongue: helps to push food down towards the
esophagus
•Deglutition
(swallowing) has
2 major phases:
•1. The buccal
phase
•2. The pharyngeal-
esophageal phase
•The buccal phase:
•After chewing
(mastication) and
being mixed with
saliva, the food lump
is called a bolus.
•It is forced into the
pharynx by the
tongue.
•This is a consciously-
controlled process.
•The pharyngeal-
esophageal phase:
•A thin flap of skin
called the epiglottis
blocks the larynx
and the uvula
blocks the nasal
cavity.
•This causes food to
travel to your
esophagus instead
of into your
respiratory system.
•The bolus is propelled down the
esophagus using waves of muscle
contractions.
•This process is called peristalsis.
•Peristalsis is involuntary and caused by the
parasympathetic nervous system rather
than gravity.
•Mastication forms a bolus in the
mouth, which is swallowed. After
deglutition, the bolus moves past
the epiglottis and down the
esophagus by involuntary
contractions called peristalsis.
Stomach= muscular sac with thick walls
• Continues the processes fundus
of mechanical and
chemical digestion
Cardiac
• 4 main regions of region
stomach: Body
1. Cardiac region Pyloric
region
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pyloric region
• The digestive system has
thick rings of muscle at
certain points called
sphincters. These serve as
gatekeepers to allow food
to enter and leave at
appropriate times.
• The stomach allows food to
enter through the cardiac
sphincter and leave
through the pyloric
sphincter.
• Cardiac sphincter: separates
esophagus from stomach
• Pyloric sphincter: separates
stomach from small
intestine
How does mechanical digestion
occur in the stomach?
Serosa
The stomach has a slippery
outer layer of serosa,
followed by 3 layers of
muscle: Longitudi
nal
1. Longitudinal muscularis musculari
2. Circular muscularis s Circular
musculari
3. Oblique muscularis s
Oblique
These muscles help to musculari
s
churn food and propel it
towards the small
intestine. The churning
process is known as
maceration.
•The innermost layers of the stomach are made of
the submucosa and mucosa.
•The folds of the mucosa are called rugae
(“wrinkles”) that stretch when the stomach is full.
The mucosa layer contains several specialized gastric
gland cells:
1. Mucous cells- secrete mucus to protect stomach
lining Gastric
2. Chief cells- secrete pepsinogen (inactive enzyme) juices
3. Parietal cells- secrete HCl to kill microbes in food and
convert pepsinogen into the digestive enzyme pepsin,
which breaks down food proteins.
The soupy mixture formed from the
squeezing of the stomach and the
addition of these gastric juices is known
as chyme.
Location of
gastric glands
(chief cells,
parietal cells)
•The stomach is made of 3
muscular layers and an outer
layer of serosa. During
maceration, the stomach churns
the food and gastric gland cells
add chemicals and enzymes,
leading to the formation of
chyme.
•Small intestine is the location of most digestion and nutrient
absorption
• It is about 10 ft long in
an adult.
• The small intestine has 3
sections:
• Duodenum
• Jejunum
• Ileum
• After the ileum, it joins
the large intestine at the
ileocecal sphincter.
•In order to absorb nutrients efficiently, the
small intestine is lined with villi and
microvilli.
•Villi: Tiny, finger-like projections in the lining of
the intestine filled with blood vessels
•Many glands line the small intestine
and secrete digestive hormones.
•Alkaline mucus from mucous glands & duodenal glands-
protects from pathogens
•Secretin- inhibits the release of gastric juices when chyme is
very acidic
•Cholecystokinin (CCK)- causes gall bladder to release bile
•Intestinal juice
• Maltase
• Sucrase Break down sugars
• Lactase
• Peptidase
• Enterokinase Break down proteins
•Because the small intestine
needs time to absorb
nutrients, the chyme must be
slowed down.
•Circular muscles in the
intestinal wall cause
segmentation of the chyme.
•This is in contrast to
peristaltic contractions
which involve longitudinal
muscles.
•The small intestine is very long
and divided into 3 sections. It
contains villi, which absorb
nutrients and glands that secrete
hormones. To give the small
intestine time to absorb properly,
segmentation slows down the
movement of chyme.
•After food leaves the small intestine, it
enters the large intestine.
• The large intestine
has 3 major
sections:
1. Cecum
2. Colon (broken into
ascending colon,
transverse colon,
descending colon, and
sigmoid colon)
3. Rectum
2 major functions of the large
intestine:
•Absorption of water back into the body
•Removal of waste (feces) through the
rectum and anus
•Large amounts of bacteria (about 3 pounds
worth!) are located in the large intestine that
help to produce vitamins B and K.
•Strong doses of antibiotics can disrupt these
bacteria and cause vitamin deficiencies.
•The haustra are the small
pouches that give the large
intestine its lumpy appearance.
•Haustral contractions are slow,
segmenting movements that last
only about 30 minutes after food
moves into the large intestine.
•Mass movements, however, are
slower and more powerful
movements that push waste
towards the rectum 3 or 4 times
a day.
Transverse Colon
Duodenum
Jejunum

Ascending
Colon Descending
Colon

Cecum

Ileum Rectum
•The rectum collects and
stores undigested waste and
bacteria.
• As the rectum fills,
pressure is placed on the
internal anal sphincter,
causing it to relax.
• The external anal
sphincter, luckily, needs
to be voluntarily relaxed
to release the built up
feces through the anus.
•The large intestine is divided into
the cecum, colon, and rectum. It
is responsible for absorbing water
and removing waste through
haustral contractions and mass
movements towards the anus.