Introduction to Probability and
Statistics
BS Semester-4
Math2111
Lecture-2
Lecture-02
• Frequency Distribution
• Graphic representation
Frequency Distribution
• A frequency distribution is an overview of all
distinct values in some variable and the
number of times they occur.
• That is, a frequency distribution tells
how frequencies are distributed over values.
• Frequency distributions are also used for
summarizing categorical variables.
Frequency Distribution of Discrete Data
• Tally marks are often used to make a
frequency distribution table.
• For example, let’s say you survey a number of
households and find out how many pets they
own. The results are 3, 0, 1, 4, 4, 1, 2, 0, 2, 2,
0, 2, 0, 1, 3, 1, 2, 1, 1, 3.
• Looking at that string of numbers boggles the
eye; a frequency distribution table will make
the data easier to understand.
Frequency Distribution of Discrete Data
Frequency Distribution of Discrete Data
• Example-1.1 Let’s say you have a list of IQ
scores for a class in a particular elementary
school. The IQ scores are:
118, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 130, 133,
136, 138, 141, 142, 149, 150, 154.
• That list doesn’t tell you much about anything.
You could draw a frequency distribution
table, which will give a better picture of your
data than a simple list
Frequency Distribution of Discrete Data
• Step 1: Figure out how many classes (categories) you
need. There are no hard rules about how many classes to
pick.
• There is a more mathematical way to choose classes. The
formula is
log(observations)\ log(2).
You would round up the answer to the next integer.
For example, log17\log2 = 4.1 will be rounded up to become
5 classes or groups or intervals.
Frequency Distribution of Discrete Data
• Step 2: Subtract the minimum data value from the maximum data value. For
example, our IQ list above had a minimum value of 118 and a maximum value of
154, so:
154 – 118 = 36
• Step 3: Divide your answer in Step 2 by the number of classes you chose in Step 1.
36 / 5 = 7.2 Round the number up to a whole number to get the class width.
Rounded up, 7.2 becomes 8.
• Step 4: Write down your lowest value for your first minimum data value:
The lowest value is 118. Add the class width lower class limit:
118 + 8 = 126
• Step 5: keep on adding your class width to your minimum data values until you
have created the number of classes you chose in Step 1. We chose 5 classes, so our
5 minimum data values
• The first class interval is 118-125. 118 is the lower class limit and 125 is the upper
class limit.
• The class width is the difference of any two consecutive lower or upper limits
Frequency Distribution of Discrete Data
IQ (x) Number of Students (f)
118-125 (118 x < 126) 4
126-133 (126 x < 134) 6
134-141 (134 x < 142) 3
142-149 (142 x < 150) 2
150-157 (150 x < 158) 2
Graphic representation
• Graphic representation is another way of analyzing
numerical data. A graph is a sort of chart through
which statistical data are represented in the form of
lines or curves drawn across the coordinated points
plotted on its surface.
• Graphs enable us in studying the cause and effect
relationship between two variables. Graphs help to
measure the extent of change in one variable when
another variable changes by a certain amount.
Graphic representation
• Graph is a basic way to show how data is
spread out.
• Graph are useful tools in that they organize
data so the information becomes clearer.
• Any chart or graph that shows production
uses statistics.
Methods to Represent a Frequency Distribution:
Histogram
Histogram: Histograms use rectangles with
frequency along y-axis.
Histogram is a non-cumulative frequency graph.
Histogram
• It is drawn on a natural scale in which the representative frequencies of the
different class of values are represented through vertical rectangles drawn
closed to each other.
• How to draw a Histogram:
• Step—1:
• Represent the class intervals of the variables along the X axis and their
frequencies along the Y-axis on natural scale.
• Step—2:
• Start X axis with the lower limit of the lowest class interval. When the
lower limit happens to be a distant score from the origin give a break in the
X-axis to indicate that the vertical axis has been moved in for convenience.
• Step—3:
• Now draw rectangular bars in parallel to Y axis above each of the class
intervals with class units as base: The areas of rectangles must be
proportional to the frequencies of the corresponding classes.
Histogram of Discrete Data
Example-1.2 Make a frequency distribution of the
following data using intervals.
12, 14, 14, 14, 16, 18, 20, 20, 21, 23, 27, 27, 27, 29,
31, 31, 32, 32, 34, 36, 40, 40, 40, 40, 40, 42, 51, 56,
60, 65.
Note: The right hand endpoint of any group isn’t
included in that group. It goes in the next group. That
means 21 would be in the second group and 30
would be counted in the third group.
We get the following frequency table:
Frequency Distribution
CLASSES(CLASS BOUNDARIES) FREQUENCY
12 – 21 () 8
21 – 30 () 6
30 – 39 () 6
39 – 48 () 6
48 – 57 () 2
57 – 66 () 2
Histogram
Pie Chart
• Pie chart is a type of graph in which a circle is divided
into sectors that each represents a proportion of the
whole.
• Pie charts are generally used to show percentage or
proportional data and usually the percentage
represented by each category is provided next to the
corresponding slice of pie.
• Pie charts are good for displaying data for around 6
categories or fewer.
• Example : A pie chart of how public money is spent.
Example: Pie Chart
A student is asked how much he spends indifferent activities. The
angles for various observations can be calculated as:
Activity No. of Hours Measure of central angle
School 6 (6/24 × 360)° = 90°
Sleep 8 (8/24 × 360)° = 120°
Playing 2 (2/24 × 360)° = 30°
Study 4 (4/24 × 360)° = 60°
T. V. 1 (1/24 × 360)° = 15°
Others 3 (3/24 × 360)° = 45°
Pie Chart Diagram
Now, we shall represent these angles within the circle as
different sectors. Then we get the pie chart:
Lecture-02
• Frequency Distribution
• Graphic representation
• Histogram
• Pie chart
