SURFACE MINE BLAST DESIGN

GOVINDA GAHINE
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE BLAST DESIGN
DRILLING PATTERN
BLASTING PATTERN
POWDER FACTOR CALCULATION
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST
REFERENCES
INTRODUCTION
This is meant to be a toolbox for blast design in conventional
rock quarrying and open pit mines. This write-up is not meant
to give straight answers to the blast design parameters, as
every single quarry is unique. However, the general relations
between the main blasting parameters; geology, blastability
and explosives, will be applicable, and the estimation model is
a very good tool for planning test blasts and experiments, and
also for adjustments of the blast design when this is necessary
for optimizing the quarry production line as time progresses.
High accuracy throughout the whole blasting process is
fundamental for achieving a proper blast result.
INTRODUCTION
RULES OF THUMB FOR BLAST DESIGN
• RULE 1: The detonation velocity of the explosive should
match, as closely as possible, the sonic velocity of the rock to
be blasted.
• RULE 2: Generally select the most dense explosive possible,
consistent with water, loading conditions, and desired results.
• RULE 3: Select explosives according to the characteristics of
the rock formation to be blasted.
• RULE 4 - When using slurry or water gel explosives, always
determine the critical temperature below which the explosive
will fail to reliably detonate.
Guidelines for Blasting Geometry
• RULE 1: The distance between holes (spacing) should
not be greater than one-half the depth of the
borehole.
• RULE 2: In any blast where there is hole-for-hole
delay, the spacing to burden relationship should be
seven to five.
• RULE 3: Stemming should be equal to the burden.
• RULE 4: Subdrill (if necessary) should be between 0.3
and 0.5 of spacing.
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
• Drilled Burden (b) - is defined as the distance between the
individual rows of holes. it is also used to describe the
distance from the front row of holes to the free face. when
the bench face is not vertical the burden on this front row of
holes varies from crest to toe.
• Spacing (s) - is the distance between holes in any given row.
• Subgrade (j) - generally the holes are drilled below the
desired final grade. this distance is referred to as the subgrade
drilling or simply the sub-drill.
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
• Stemming (t) - a certain length of hole near the collar is
left uncharged. this will be referred to as the stemming
length (t) whether or not it is left unfilled or filled with
drill cuttings/crushed rock.
• Bench height (h) – is the vertical height from the toe to
the crest.
• Drilled length (l) - is equal to the bench height plus the
sub-drill.
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
• Length of the explosive column (le) - is equal to the hole length minus
the stemming. this column may be divided into sections (decks)
containing explosives of various strengths separated by lengths of
stemming.
• BENCH HEIGHT
BENCH HEIGHT IS DECIDED BY
• PRODUCTION REQUIRED
• TYPE OF DEPOSITE
• THICKNESS
• GEOLOGY
• QUALITY
• EQUIPMENT
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
•Burden
Some important empirical formulas for burden
• b = 24*d+0.85 (vutukuri)
• b = (25-30)*d (hagan)
• b = k*d*(p*t)^0.5 (pearse), where k = constant (0.7-1), more for
weak rock
• p = peak explosive pressure, kg/cm2
• t = tensile strength of rock, kg/cm2
• burden is generally 25-40% of bench height depending upon
rock
• properties, fragmentation, and explosive used.
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
Spacing
Generally we take spacing as 1.1-1.5 times of
burden.
Subgrade drilling
Holes are drilled longer than bench height to avoid
toe problems. This extra drilling is called as subgrade
drill.
sd = 0.1*h
s = 0.3*b
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
Other parameters
• Powder factor
• Stemming and decking
• Delay timing
• Decoupling ratio
• Base charge
• Column charge
PARAMETERS OF BLAST DESIGN
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST DESIGN
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST DESIGN
The controllable variables are:
a. Hole diameter
b. Hole depth
c. Sub-drilling depth
d. Stemming distance
e. Stemming material
f. Burden and spacing
g. Number of holes in the blast
h. Direction of rock movement
i. Timing
j. Types of explosive and initiation system
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST DESIGN
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST
The followingDESIGN
are the some of the important factors which
generally govern for blast design:
Physico-mechanical properties of rock: Here type of the rock,
dynamic tensile strength, tensile strength, compressive strength,
young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, density and hardness of the
rock mass, presence of discontinuities, bedding plane and joints,
etc. are very important.
Geology
Pit geometry: Under this heading thickness of coal seam or ore
body and bench height, over burden bench height, bench slope
angle, strip width, height to width ratio, and length to width ratio
are generally considered.
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST DESIGN
Explosive characteristics:
Factors generally considered under this heading are type of
explosive, type of booster, bulk strength, energy release per unit
mass of explosive, detonation pressure, explosion pressure, ratio of
decoupling, strength of explosive used, time taken for explosive
wave to travel to the free face and back, volume of gaseous product
per unit mass of the explosive, velocity of detonation, velocity of
explosion propagation, explosion wave length, weight strength,
number of spalls that an explosive wave may produce, length,
diameter and weight of the cartridge, loading density, bottom
charge and column charge density, etc. are very important.
Characteristics of blasting accessories - type, thermalproperties are
also important.
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST DESIGN
Blasting technique: Here objective of blasting, drilling
pattern, number of availability of free faces, manner of
charging, charge per hole and per delay, sequencing of
initiation i.e. delay between two holes in a row and delay
between two rows, decking, length of explosive column,
height of the bottom charge, volume of the explosive in
the blast hole, etc., are to be considered.
FACTORS AFFECTING SURFACE
BLAST DESIGN
Powder Factor: The powder factor is defined as the explosive
necessary to fragment 1 m3 of rock. This equation can also be
defined as the amount of explosives over the cubic yards of
material desired to be blasted.
Kg of explosive used/volume of material blasted. = kg/ m 3
It is the opinion of many specialists this is not the best tool for
designing a blast, unless it is referring to pattern explosives or
expressed as energetic consumption. The size of the fragmented
rock should match the bucket size of the excavator and also the
grizzly size of the primary crusher. it can be also expressed in
ton/kg.
DRILLING PATTERN
The basic patterns of drill holes employed in opencast mines are
• Square Pattern
• Staggered (or) Triangular pattern
• Single row blasting pattern
• Multi blasting pattern
• Wedge cut pattern
• Diagonal blasting pattern
• Square Pattern:
• This pattern can also be called as multi row pattern.
• The drill holes are drilled in rows, one behind the other.
DRILLING PATTERN
Staggered (or) Triangular pattern:
• The drill holes are drilled in rows.
• The second row holes are positioned midway between the
first row of holes.

Fig. Square Pattern

DRILLING PATTERN

Staggered Pattern
BLASTING PATTERN
However considering the pattern of blasting the patterns can be classified as follows:
• [Link] row blasting pattern.
• [Link] row blasting pattern.
• a. Wedge blasting pattern.
• b. Diagonal blasting pattern.
• Single row blasting pattern:-
• The holes are drilled in a single row. The specific explosive consumption is low.
• The danger associated with fly rock is more.
• Multi blasting pattern:-
• The holes are drilled in several rows.
• The holes may be staggered or square.
BLASTING PATTERN

Fig - Single Row blasting

BLASTING PATTERN
Wedge cut pattern:-
• This pattern as shown in the fig, is adopted in hard and medium hard rocks.
• The delays are fixed from the middle to the ends as shown in the fig.
• The center blast hole in the first row blasts first, followed by the blast holes connected to the
second holes (from the center) with delay No.1,and then in the sequential order of the delays.
• The center blast hole in the first row blasts first, followed by the blast holes connected to the
second holes (from the center) with delay No.1,and then in the sequential order of the delays.
BLASTING PATTERN
Wedge cut pattern:-
BLASTING PATTERN
Diagonal blasting pattern:-
• This type of blasting pattern is carried out in benches where the cleavage plane of the rock is
parallel to length of the face.
• This pattern reduces secondary blasting.
• The blast holes can be drilled in square or staggered pattern.
• The delays must be planned in such a way that the blasting proceeds from one side to the other.
• It must be ensured that the delays are in proper sequence to avoid any cut off.
BLASTING PATTERN
Diagonal blasting pattern:-
BLASTING PATTERN
In opencast multi row blasting, various delay initiation sequences are
possible. They are : (i) Instantaneous, (ii) Row Delay and (iii) V, V1, V2
pattern.
BLASTING PATTERN
V, V1, V2 Patterns :These Pattern are far superior, to row delays. These result in
superior fragmentation due to reduce hole burdens and increased spacing at
the time of hole initiation and also due to inflight collision of broken rock
during its movement. Thedelayed action of holes in the back row reduces over
break ensuring increased wall stability.
The best available pattern is one where the holes are drilled (staggered) on a
equilateral triangle pattern. This in a drilled spacing to burden ratio of
approximately 1.16. It has been observed that an effective spacing (Se) to
Burden (Be), ratio of about 3.5 is achieved with holes drilled on an equilateral
triangle grid and fired using a V1 initiation sequence.
BLASTING PATTERN
POWDER FACTOR CALCULATION
The quantity of explosive required per round of holes is an estimate
only since it is a general practice to go by Trial and error method. This
is because of the variation in the physiological properties of the rock
mass.
However, the quantity of charge, Q, can be calculated by the formula
Q= E (H – St) D2/4 ,
where
• H= Depth of the hole,
• St= Height of the stemming column,
• D= Diameter of the hole,
• E= Specific weight of the explosives.
POWDER FACTOR CALCULATION
• Specific consumption (C ) of the explosive= Q / BSH Kg/m3 ,
• Where, B=Burden,
• S=Spacing and
H=height of the charge.
Powder factor P =B S H / Q m3/Kg.
The charge required per hole is first calculated considering the
blast geometry and the powder factor.
Then the total charge required can be easily calculated.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

The followings are the adverse effects of blasting in surface

mines:

 Vibrations,
 Air blast, and
 Flyrock.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

Explosive energy is used to break rock. However, the use of this

energy is not 100-percent efficient. Some of the energy
escapes into the atmosphere to generate air blast or air
vibrations. Some of the energy also leaves the blast site
through the surface soil and bedrock in the form of ground
vibrations.
Both air and ground vibrations create waves that disturb the
material in which they travel. When these waves encounter a
structure, they cause it to shake. Ground vibrations enter the
house through the basement and airblast enters the house
through the walls and roof.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

Air blast may be audible (noise) or in-audible (concussion).

When outside a house the blast may be heard because of the
noise, however noise has little impact on the structure. The
concussion wave causes the structure to shake and rattles
objects hanging on walls or sitting on shelves. This “interior
noise” will alarm and startle people living in the house.
Flyrock is debris ejected from the blast site that is traveling
through the air or along the ground. Flyrock is the single most
dangerous adverse effect that can cause property damage and
personal injury or death.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

Ground vibrations propagate away from a blast site as

Rayleigh (or surface) waves. These waves form a
disturbance in the ground that displaces particles of soil
or rock as they pass by. Particle motions are quite
complicated. At the ground surface (free boundary),
measured particle motions have the greatest
displacements, and displacements decrease with depth
(see the illustration below). At a depth of between 20 to
50 feet below ground surface, particle displacements are
barely detectable. Structures that are well coupled to the
ground tend to move with this motion; structures buried in
the ground are less affected by surface motions.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

Air blast is measured as a pressure in pounds per square inch

(psi) and is often reported in terms of decibels (dB).
Air blast is a pressure wave that that may be audible or in-
audible. Elevated air blast levels are generated when explosive
energy in the form gases escape from the detonating blast holes.
Energy escapes either through the top stemming or through
fractures in the rock along the face or at the ground surface.
Air blast radiates outward from the blast site in all directions and
can travel long distances. Sound waves travel much slower
(1,100 ft/s) than ground vibrations (about 5,000 – 20,000 ft/s) .
Hence, airblast arrives at offsite structures later than do ground
vibrations.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

Material that is ejected from a blast site that travels through

the air or along the ground. Flyrock may be rock or soil. Any
size material is capable of damaging property or injuring
people.
The Single Factor Of Surface Mining That Is Most Likely
To Cause A Fatality!!!
Flyrock control is essential. The blaster is responsible for
securing the area around the blast site where flying debris
may occur.
ADVERSE EFFECTS OF SURFACE BLAST

Fly rock can be cast thousands of feet from a blast. The most
dangerous source is ejection from a crack or weak zone in the
highwall face where gases violently vent. This action is akin to
a rifle where the expanding gases eject a projectile. Frequently
the ejection of stemming out of the top of a blast hole is called
rifling.
Flyrock damage is quite obvious when a structure is hit. Holes
and marks are very visible.
REFERENCES
Bhandari, Sushil,” Principle of Explosive and Blasting” Taylor and Francis New
York
Das, S.K., “ Explosive and Blasting Principle in mines” Lovely Prakashan
Dhanbad
Deshmukh, D.J., “Elements of Mining Technology” Denett & Co. Nagpur
Pradhan, G.K.’ “ Explosive and Blasting”, Skylark Publication, Kolkata