College of Education and Behavioral
Sciences
Department of Psychology
Course name: General
Psychology (Psyc 1011)
Why you need to study
psychology?
Understand Yourself Better
Improve Your Understanding of Others
Learn About Human Development
Become a Better Communicator
Develop Critical Thinking Skills
Help You in Your Future Career
Misconceptions about psychology &
psychologists
1. Anybody who has studied
psychology can read
people’s personality.
2. Psychologists can predict
fate or destiny.
3. Psychologists are doctors.
4. Psychologists give
medicines
Defining the Field of Psychology
1. Have you ever read any
material or heard
anything related to
psychology?
2. If so, what does
psychology mean to
you?
I. Classic
definition
The term 'psychology' was derived
from two Greek words:
Psyche= Mind, Soul or Spirit
Logos= Study or Discourse
Hence, the literal meaning of
psychology was “the study of the
soul or spirit’.
The nature of soul or spirit could
not be defined objectively.
II. Contemporary
definition
Psychology is “the scientific
study of human behavior and
mental processes”.
Psychology can be represented
by the following Greek letter
(psi).
Aspects of the definition
1. Science: what do you think is
science?
Science is a body of
systematized knowledge that is
gathered by carefully observing,
measuring, experimenting,
analyzing and drawing
conclusions about events.
2. Behavior
Everything we do that can
be directly observed.
For example;
Two people kissing
baby crying
3. Mental processes
Thoughts, feelings &
motives that each of us
experience privately, but
which can’t be observed
directly.
Goals of Psychology
1. Description of individual
behavior?
The first goal of psychology
is to describe how humans
and animals behave in
different situations.
Providing general picture
about behavior.
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2. Explanation the behavior: Causal
explanation about the behavior
It explains the reason why the behavior
happened depending on various theories It
answers the question of “why”?
3. Prediction: what comes next? What will happen
in the future?
Past behavior can be the clearest mirror into
future reemergence of any behavior,
The whole process of describing and
explaining is crucial in order to be able to
predict future occurrences.
Cont.. Goals of Psychology
4. Control the behavior: Influencing and change
the behavior
It is maintaining and influencing the
frequency and occurrence of undesirable
social behaviors such as aggression, conflict
and so on.
Supporting and promoting the behavior.
Controlling includes promoting the desirable
behaviors such as altruism and intergroup
tolerance in addition to reducing unwanted
social behaviors
Historical development of
psychology
Psychology is a relatively new
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field in the realm of the
sciences.
It emerged as a separate
discipline some 125 years
ago.
Psychology broke away from
I. Philosophy &
II. Physiology
In 1879 : Wilhelm Wundt
Established the first experimental laboratory
In Leipzig, Germany, devoted to psychological
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phenomena.
This event heralded the
beginning of psychology as a
scientific discipline.
Wilhelm Von Wundt (1832-
1920) considered by many as
the ―father of psychology.
Schools of Psychology
Influential psychologists of the
time held quite different views on
“subject matter” for psychology.
A. Should psychology be the
study of the mind?
B. Should it study behavior?
C. Should both mind & behavior
be included?
As a result, different schools
of thought formed, having
their own assumptions and
perspectives.
I. Early schools of psychology
Schools, in this context are groups
of scholars who held common
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beliefs about
The subject matter of the
discipline
The methods of study to be
used.
These schools of psychology include:
1. Structuralism
2. Functionalism
3. Behaviorism
4. Gestalt
psychology
5. Psychoanalysis
1. Structuralism
Founders;
A. Wilhelm Wundt
B. Edward
Titchener
Wilhelm Edward
Wundt Titchener
Major tenets of
structuralism
Psychology should concern itself with the
units & elements, which make up the
mind. And focused on The fundamental
elements that form the foundation of
thinking, consciousness, emotions and
other kinds of mental status and
activities.
Structuralists devised a technique
known as “introspection”.
2. Functionalism
Founder; William
James
Major tenets of
Functionalism
Psychology should focus on how the
mind allows people to function in the
real world.
James believed that
It is important to concentrated on
what the mind does and how
behavior functions.
Concerned with the purposes,
functions, of the mental processes.
How people work, play, and
adapt to their surroundings,
It focused on how behavior
allows people to satisfy their
needs
3. Gestalt psychology
Founders;
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1. Max Wertheimer
2. Kurt Koffka
3. Wolfgang Kohler
Max Kurt Wolfgang
Wertheimer Koffka Kohler
Gestalt Psychology
Max Wertheimer.
Emphasizes how perception is organized
and acknowledged consciousness.
The word Gestalt is a German word refers to
form, whole, or pattern.
Psychology should study human experience
as a “whole,”
Major tenets of Gestalt
Psychology
“The whole is greater than or different
from the sum of its parts”
Conveyed the idea that meaning is
often lost when psychological events
are broken down;
That is, our perception, or
understanding, of objects is greater and
more meaningful than the individual
elements that make up our perceptions.
D. Behaviorism
Founders;
1. John B. Watson
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2. Edward
Thorndike
3. B.F. Skinner
John B. Edward
Watson B.F. Skinner
Thorndike
Major tenets of
Behaviorism
Scientific psychology should
study only observable behavior”
Psychology should altogether
abandon the study of mental
processes
Psychology should focus on the
role of experience in shaping
behavior.
5. Psychoanalysis
Founder; Sigmund
Freud
Major tenets of
Psychoanalysis
Our unconscious urges and
thoughts (hidden wishes &
passions, guilty secrets) make
themselves known in
A. Dreams,
B. Slips of the tongue,
C. Jokes
Our early childhood experience
determine our personality as an
adult.
There is always a conflict among
the three personality structures
(Id, Ego & Super ego)
How do these schools of psychology
differ?
Basically they differ in terms of
three issues:
1. In their object of study: i.e. what
they studied (conscious mind,
unconscious mind & overt
behavior).
2. In their goal: analyze the
components of the mind or
observing the effect of the
environment on behavior.
3. In their method: Introspection,
observation, clinical case
studies.
In
conclusion
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The discourse made by the
structural, gestalt & functional
schools of psychology have
vanished
Behaviorism & psychoanalysis
are still, in modified forms.
Modern schools of psychology
1.Psychodynamic
perspective
2.Behavioral perspective
3.The Humanistic
Perspective
4.The Biological Perspective
5.The Cognitive Perspective
6.The Socio-Cultural
Perspective
1. Psychodynamic perspective
It has its origins in
Freud's theory of
psychoanalysis.
This perspective focuses largely on
The influence of unconscious mental behavior on
everyday behavior
The role of childhood experiences in shaping
adult
personality
The role of intrapersonal conflict in determining
human behavior
Cont. Psychodynamic perspective
Psychodynamic perspective tries to dig
below the surface of a person's behavior
to get into unconscious motives;
Psychodynamics think of themselves as
archaeologists of the mind.
2. Behavioral perspective
It emphasizes the role of learning
experiences play in shaping the behavior
of an organism.
It is concerned with how the
environment affects the person‘s
actions.
Behaviorists focus on environmental
conditions (e.g. rewards, and
punishments) that maintain or
discourage specific behaviors.
3. Humanistic Perspective
Founders;
1. Carl Rogers
2. Abraham Maslow
Major tenets
The uniqueness of human beings and focuses
on human values and subjective experiences.
This perspective viewed humans as
Free agents capable of controlling their own
lives (as opposed to being controlled),
Making their own choices(setting goals), and
Working to achieve them.
Cont. Humanistic perspective
Humanistic psychology was born out of a desire
to understand
The conscious mind,
Free will,
Human dignity, and
The capacity for self-reflection and growth.
Cont. Humanistic perspective
People will struggle to reach their full
potential if they are given the
opportunity.
The emphasis of the humanistic
perspective is on free will, the ability to
freely make decisions about one’s
own behavior and life.
People have the ability to make their
own choices about their behavior and
achieve self-fulfillment.
Cont. Humanistic perspective
Thus, the goal of humanistic psychology was
Helping people to express themselves
creatively and
Achieve their full potential or self-actualization
(developing the human potential to its fullest).
4. The Biological Perspective
This perspective focuses on studying
how bodily events/ functioning of the
body affects Behavior, feelings and
thoughts.
It holds that the brain and the various
brain chemicals affect psychological
processes
Such as
Learning, performance, perception of
reality, the experience of emotions, etc.
Cont.
For Example,
What happens inside your body when
you think, listen to music, grow hungry, or
become angry? And
What takes place when you dream,
experience anxiety, become sexually
aroused, or simply read a text?
Cont.
Biology and behavior interact in a
complex way;
Biology affecting behavior and
Behavior in turn affecting biology.
They investigate
The contribution of genes and other
biological factors in the development of
traits and abilities.
Cont.
It also emphasizes the idea that
We are physical beings who evolved
over a long time and
That genetic heritage can
predispose/influence us to behaving in a
certain way.
5. The Cognitive Perspective
What goes on in people’s heads-
Including
How people reason,
Remembers,
Understand language,
Solve problems,
Explain experiences and
Form beliefs.
Cont..
• This perspective is concerned about the
mental processes.
• One of these perspectives most
important contributions has been to
show
How people’s thoughts and explanations
affect their actions, feelings and choices.
6.The Socio-Cultural Perspective
Major tenets
Focuses on how the social and
cultural environment outside the
person influences our behavior.
We are like fish that are unaware
that they live in water; so
obvious is water in their lives.
These psychologists study the
water (social & cultural
environment) that people
―swim in everyday.
For instance,
Social psychologists examine
How group membership affects attitudes
and behaviors,
Why authority and other people (like
spouse, lovers, friends, bosses, parents,
and strangers) affect each of us.
In
summary
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Behavior is sometimes greater
than knowledge, because in
life there are many situations
where knowledge fail, but
behavior can handle
everything .
Activity 1
1. How many of the sub-
fields of psychology do
you know?
2. Where do you think
psychologists are
employed to work after
graduation?
Sub-fields of Psychology
1. Bio-psychology/Neuropsychology:
Study the biological foundations of
behavior.
2. Developmental Psychology:
Study physical, mental & social
development of humans from
conception to death.
3. Personality Psychology:
Study differences in behavior among
individuals.
A. Are our personalities determined
more by nature or by nurture?
B. To what extent do people behave
consistently?
4. Educational Psychology:
Apply psychological principles &
theories to improve educational
process including;
Curriculum
Teaching
Administration of academic
programs.
5. School psychology:
Set up programs to improve student
academic performance & school
behavior
Provide counseling to students who
are having social or academic
problems.
Usually, they work in elementary
6. Clinical Psychology:
Deal with severe psychological
disorders, including;
A. Causes of severe abnormal
behavior.
B. Diagnosis & treatment of
disorders.
7. Counseling Psychology:
Deal with less severe problems
than those treated by clinical
psychologists. This includes
A. Educational,
B. Social,
C. Marital
D. Career adjustment problems
8. Social Psychology:
Study the way we affect and are
influenced by other people.
9. Cross-cultural Psychology
Examines the role of culture in
understanding behavior, thought &
emotion.
Compares the nature of psychological
processes in different cultures.
10. Industrial/Organizational
psychology
Work to increase productivity in
industries & GOs & NGOs by;
A. Improving working conditions &
methods for hiring
B. Providing training on stress
management & burnout.
10. Forensic psychology:
Work in the legal system.
Study validity of eyewitness
testimony
Devise ways to select jurors.
Train police officers
11. Health psychology:
Studies the relationship between
psychological variables well-
being of a person.
Research Methods in Psychology
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Psychology employs various
research methods to investigate
and understand human behavior,
cognition, and mental processes.
These methods allow researchers
to collect data, analyze it, and draw
meaningful conclusions.
Cont..
Research:- is a systematic attempt to answer a
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meaningful question through the application of scientific
methods
Scientific method - a process of testing ideas through
systematic observations, experimentations, and statistical
analysis.
Theory - is an integrated set of principles about
observed facts that is intended to describe and explain
some aspects of experience
Hypotheses - is a tentative proposition about the
relationship between two or more variables or phenomena
E.g. Males have high self - confidence in making decisions
than females.
Major Types of Research Methods
Inpsychology there are three
major types of research methods:
1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Experimenta
l
1. Descriptive Research Method
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In descriptive research
The researcher simply
records what he or she has
systematically observed.
It includes
A. Naturalistic
observation
B. Case study
C. Survey
A. Naturalistic Observation
This is observing behavior in their
natural environment.
Often involves counting behaviors,
such as number of aggressive acts
or smiles.
Psychologists conduct naturalistic
observations at;
A. Football games
B. Day-care centers
C. College dormitories
D. Shopping malls
E. Restaurants etc.
Limitation: people who know they
are being watched may behave
artificially.
B. Case Study
This is an in-depth look at a
single individual/entity, typically
over an extended period of time.
It is used mainly by clinical
psychologists
Limitations
Generalization is impossible,
as usually only few cases are
involved
Time consuming.
More prone to researcher
bias.
C. Survey
Helps to gather large amounts of
data in a relatively short period
of time.
Questionnaires & interviews are
most frequently used in survey
research.
Limitations
Lacks depth or detailed
information.
Respondents may distort their
responses.
Misunderstanding of the
question,
Lack of control over extraneous
variables.
2. Correlational Studies
Correlation is a research method
which measures the relationship
between two or more variables.
However, based on results from
correlational research, we can’t
make any assumptions of cause
and effect.
Example; a researcher might be
curious to know whether or not
cigarette smoking is connected to
life expectancy.
A correlation coefficient can
range
( from -1 to +1
Positive correlation – variables are
related in the same direction.
As one increases, the other increases; as one
decreases, the other also decreases.
Negative correlation – variables are
related in opposite direction.
As one increases, the other decreases and vice versa.
o CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION!!!
A correlation coefficient can
range
( from -1 to +1
A. (−1) indicates a very strong inverse
relationship
Example:-the relationship between studying
hours and exam scores.
B. (+1) indicates a very strong positive
relationship.
C. Example:- the relationship between
exercise frequency and physical fitness
D. (0) indicates no relationship between
the two variables.
Example:- the relationship between shoe size
and intelligence.
3. Experimental Research
Methods
Experimentation involves manipulation
of one or more Independent Variable &
then the measurement of the effect of
the treatment on one or more
Dependent Variable.
Example; a researcher might be
curious to know the impact of
music on stress:
Variables in
ER
I. Independent Variable (IV):
The variable which is
manipulated by an
experimenter to see its effect
on Dependent Variable.
Music is an IV in the above
example
II. Dependent Variable (DV):
The variable which changes as
a consequence of changes in
the Independent Variable.
Stress is DV in the above
example
Types of groups in experimental
research
1. Experimental group:
A group comprising participants
who receive the experimental
treatment in an experiment.
2. Control group:
A group in an experiment
comprising participants who
don’t receive the treatment.
It serves as a baseline against
which the effects of the
manipulated condition can be
compared.
Example
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Suppose Mr. Ahmed conducted an experiment to know the effect
of coffee on sleeping. He gave 2 cups of coffee for “Group A” and 0
cup for “Group B”. Based on this case, what is the:
Control group________________
Experimental group _________________
IV ______________________
DV ______________________
Example
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A research wanted to study the
effect eating breakfast on student’s
memory. Group A student ate
breakfast and gave no breakfast to
group B then what is
IV________
DV________
EG________
CG________
Steps of Scientific Research
1. Defining the Problem
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Noticing something attention
catching in the surrounding.
Example-watching horror
movies & aggressive
behavior in children
2. Formulating the Hypothesis
Example: children who watch
violent cartoons will become
more aggressive than those
who watch non-violent
cartoons‖.
3. Testing the Hypothesis
Example: Collecting data from
children who watch aggressive
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videos & from those who don’t
watch aggressive videos & make
comparisons.
4. Drawing Conclusions
An attempt to make
generalizations or draw
implications
5. Reporting Results
This allows others to predict &
modify behavior based on the
findings.
