CHAPTER II
LINGUISTIC ELEMENTS IN DISCOURSE
Cohesion
Cohesive devices: Reference; Substitution;
Ellipsis; Conjunction; Lexical cohesion
Coherence
Information structure: Given & new
information; Theme & rheme
Genres
COHESION
Cohesion is the grammatical & lexical
linking (cohesive ties/connections) within a
text or sentence that holds a text together &
gives it meaning.
2. TYPES OF COHESION
- Grammatical cohesion, which is based on structural
content
- Lexical cohesion, which is based on lexical content
& background knowledge.
* A cohesive text is created in many different ways.
* Five general categories of cohesive devices that create
coherence in texts: Reference , Ellipsis (word omission/),
Substitution (word/phrase replacement), Lexical
cohesion (lexical items) & Conjunction /connectors.
- Lexical Cohesion: Repetition uses the same word, or synonyms, antonyms,
etc.
For example, "Which dress are you going to wear?" – "I will wear my
green frock," uses the synonyms "dress" and "frock" for lexical cohesion.
Collocation uses related words that typically go together or tend to repeat the
same meaning.
- Ellipsis: a situation in which words are left out of a sentence but the sentence
can still be understood: “How many students are there in your group?” – “25”
COHERENCE
* Coherence is a Latin word. Its meaning - “to stick
together.”(Every thing fitting together well).
* In a composition, coherence is a literary technique
that refers to logical connections, which listeners or
readers perceive in an oral or written text.
> Coherence is a written or spoken piece that is not
only consistent & logical, unified & meaningful.
The differences between Cohesion & Coherence
Cohesion: In the text; Grammatical links; Clues,
Guides to coherence
Coherence: In the readers’s /listener’s mind; The
feeling that the text makes sense; The reader has to
create coherence.
- In fact: Sometimes A cohesive text (having a lot of connections)
is not coherent text (difficult to interpret)
Ex. Illustration of the relationship between cohesion & coherence
- John forgot to bring the corkscrew. The party was
spoilt.
(There’s no surface link, but it is coherent)
- Although Thu is a teacher, she is very honest.
(There is a formal cohesive device (conjunction “although”),
but it is not coherent because the sentence does not sound
right according to our common background knowledge)
Grammatical cohesion
1. Substitution: a device showing the relationship between
sentences avoiding repetition. They are Pro-form for nouns
(pronouns). Pronoun are frequently used where nouns are not
repeated.
Ex. The guys applied for a scholarship. Unfortunately, they were all
rejected.
* Pro-forms for adverbials (here, there, then…):
My brother lives in the States. He lives there with his wife.
* Pro-forms for predicates involving auxiliaries do, can, may, should.
Ex. John doesn’t smoke. Oh, I think he does.
* Pro-forms “not &so” for direct clause.
Ex. Is she leaving tomorrow? I think so/not.
2. Ellipsis: A form of substitution, the omission of elements which
the speaker/writer assumes are obvious from the context.
Distinction between substitution & ellipsis:
Ellipsis: Simply an omission of certain elements in context, there
exists the possibility of recovering them if the speaker or writer wants.
Such possibility does not exist to substitution.
Ex. * When did he arrive? Probably (she arrived) yesterday. (ellipsis)
* The president called on Congress to approve the budget. He
thought it was the right thing to do. (substitution – do)
3. Structural parallelism
Two or more sentences have identical/very
similar structure, serving as a means of
connecting sentences. The connection is further
reinforced by lexical equivalence.
Ex. - Wherever there’s despair, we bring hope.
- Wherever there’s fear, we bring
confidence.
Logical cohesive devices
Sentence connectors demonstrating the logical relationships
between sentences.
+ And: linking 2 clauses in a compound sentence
+ Enumeration: Indicating a listing of what is being said (first,
second…next; finally, to begin with, for one thing….
+ Addition: Additive conjuncts: reinforcing & equative conjuncts:
also, too, furthermore, moreover, then, in addition, above all, neither,
nor…..
+ Transition: “now” introduces a new stage in the
sequence of thought: with reference to, with regard to, by
the way…> digression (temporarily changing the topic)
+ Summation: generalizing, summing up what has been
discussed or said earlier: then, all in all, in conclusion, to
sum up, in a nutshell…
+ Apposition: used to refer back to the previous
sentence: namely (viz), in other words, for example, that is
(i.e./ie), for instance…
+ Result: Indicating the results or consequences of what
was mentioned or said in the preceding sentences:
consequently, hence, so, therefore, thus, as a result…
+ Inference: implicit in the preceding sentence: else,
otherwise, then, in that case, in other words…
+ Reformulation or replacement: Introducing another
way of saying the same thing by means of conjuncts:
better, rather, in other words, again…
+ Contrast: Introducing by conjuncts: instead, then,
on the contrary, in/by contrast, by comparison on the other
hand
+ Concession: (nhượng bộ): introducing the unexpected,
surprising nature of what being said before: anyhow,
anyway, besides however, though, in any case, in spite of
that, after all, all the same
+ Comparison: found in adjectives & adverbs:
more, as, less, least
Lexical cohesive devices
+ Reiteration: lexical equivalent as result of
repetition
+ Synonyms: Lexical equivalent- frequent use in English.
+ Antonym: a word that has the opposite meaning of
another word.
+ Association: defined as that existing between 2 or more
words of one or the same field, possessing some common
semantic properties.
Ex. Military, conflict, armed forces, unit
LEXICAL FIELDS
+ Reference: the symbolic relationship of
one linguistic expression to another, in which one provides
the information necessary to interpret the other.
*Reference includes:
# Anaphoric reference (that, those, the former, the
later…) which looks backward in the text for its referents
# Cataphoric reference (as follows, the following,
below…) which looks forward in the text for its referent.
* Although Thu is a teacher, she is very honest
(a formal cohesive device “although”, but it is not coherent
because the sentence does not sound right according to our
common background knowledge)
* Hắn vừa đi vừa chửi. Chí Phèo xách một cái vỏ chai
đến nhà bá Kiến.
(He cursed as he walked. Chi Pheo went to Ba Kien’s
house with an empty bottle in his hand.)
SUMMARY
* Chapter II mentions about the distinction
between cohesion and coherence.
* Cohesion is formal links which exist
between sentences; Cohesion has 3 types:
grammatical, logical & lexical
* Coherence is the semantic ties in discourse.
Information structure
The information structure refers to the interface between
the structure & meaning of linguistic utterances; the
interlocutors' mental representations of information,
discourse referents, and the overall universe of discourse, on
the other.
Thuật ngữ cấu trúc thông tin đề cập đến giao diện giữa cấu trúc và
ý nghĩa của lời nói ngôn ngữ; là các biểu đạt tinh thần của người đối
thoại về thông tin, tham chiếu diễn ngôn và tổng thể vấn đề chung
của diễn ngôn.
Theme & Rheme
*A message consists of two main parts: Theme & Rheme.
*Based on Prague School of linguistics: Information structure
of a sentence consists of 2 parts: New information & given (old)
information
The theme - the topic/main character/Topic entity
The rheme - the comment
Ex. Marry was late again.(Marry: NI)
> The Theme is the element which serves as the point of
departure of the message.
> The remainder of the message, the part in which the
theme is developed, is called the Rheme.
In other words,
* Theme is left-most constituent of the
sentence –subject; It is starting point of the
utterance.
* Rheme is something what the speaker
says later.
In short, Theme may be seen as having 2
functions:
i) To connect back & link into the previous
discourse, maintaining a coherent point of
view.
ii) Serve as a point of departure for further
development of the discourse.
1) The cat ate the rat (the focus is the CAT).
2) The rat was eaten by the cat (the focus is
the RAT)
* There are 3 types of themes: Topical,
Interpersonal & Textual.
Ex. Frankly, the movie was a waste of
money. However, you should see it & make
up your own mind.
Interpl. Topical Textual Topical
DISCOURSE STRUCTURE- GENRE
* Discourse structure known as genre/style
A genre is a particular type of literature, painting, music,
film, or other art form which people consider as a class
because it has special characteristics.
* Types of discourse structure:
Narrative, Descriptive, Procedural, Argumentative
* Narratives: the most universal form of discourse,
occuring in all cultures.
It’s characteristics of organization: beginning with an
orientation: the time of the story & spatial setting
(character, goal, problem, solution…)
Ex. Once upon a time in a small village by the sea, there live an
old man & woman….
* Descriptive
* Telling a story about something related to the
object of description.
* The description topics could be: describing a
home, a building, a person….
* The description based on the syntactic structures:
links, relative clauses, prepositional & adverbial
phrases…
* Procedural/process
Called “How to” discourse because primary purpose
is to explain how to accomplish or to do a task.
Ex. how to set up a computer set, how to get to
airport…
* Argumentative
* Often describing the process of supporting
or weakening another statement whose
validity is open to question to doubt.
* Classical organization: an introduction,
explanation of the case or problem, outline of
argument, proof, refutation & conclusion.
Identify the old (given) & new in the
example.
Good evening & welcome to “this is your life”.
This is Terry Donovan speaking. We’re waiting
for the subject of tonight’s programme. He’s one
of the world’s leading actors, & he thinks he’s
coming here to take part in a discussion
programme…I can hear him now…yes, here he
is! Jason Douglas…This is your life!
Revision
1. What are Cohesion & Coherence? Their types. The
difference between Cohesion & Coherence.
2. Cohesive devices: Lexical & Grammatical devices.
3.What are Theme & Rheme. Illustrate through examples.
4. What is genre? Its types.
5. Write a short paragraph that demonstrates cohesion &
coherence
