Organic Chemistry

iGCSE Chemistry Topic 11

Subtopics
11.1 – Formulas and Terminology
11.2 – Naming Organic Compounds
11.3 – Fuels
11.4 – Alkanes
11.5 – Alkenes
11.6 – Alcohols
11.7 - Polymers
Formulas and Terminology
Topic 11.1
Specification Guidelines

*covered in 11.2
Starter
Can you still?...

1. Describe how to test for the

presence of copper(II) ions.
2. Explain why alloys are often stronger
than pure metals
3. Explain the trend in reactivity down
group 1 elements.
Starter - Answers
Can you still?...

1. React with sodium hydroxide, a light-blue

precipitate is formed and precipitate is
insoluble*.
2. Due to the different sizes of atoms in alloys the
layers cannot slide over each other like they can
in pure metals where all the atoms are the same
size.
3. Elements become more reactive as the outer
electron is further from the nucleus (due to
additional electron shells). Outer electron
experiences less of an attractive charge from the
nucleus and is lost easier increasing reactivity.

*Alternative – react with ammonia solution, light-blue

Homologous Series
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Homologous Series

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Define and explain the term
homologous series
Homologous Series

A homologous series is a series of compounds

that have
- The same general formula
- Similar chemical properties (react similarly)
- Gradually changing physical properties
(melting and boiling point, viscosity etc)

Alkanes and alkenes are both

examples of homologous series.
The alcohols are another example.
Homologous Series
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Homologous Series

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Define and explain the term
homologous series
Naming Organic Compounds
Topic 11.2

Specification Guidelines
Starter
Can you still?...

1. Determine the mass of CO2 in 260

cm3 of the gas at standard
conditions.

2. Describe the test for carbon dioxide

Starter - Answers
Can you still?...

1. 0.48 g

2. Turns limewater cloudy/milky

Common Organic Compounds
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Common organic compounds

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe compounds that are part of the
alkanes, alkenes and alcohol homologous
series
Name and draw structures from the
above families
Define the term isomer
Organic Chemistry
What is organic chemistry?

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-

containing compounds.

Carbon is found in all living things and is typically

found bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulfur.

There are several families (homologous series) of

organic compounds that we will look at in this
topic.
Hydrocarbons
There are a lot of organic molecules that are
classed as hydrocarbons.

What do you think a hydrocarbon is?

It is a compound that contains only carbon

and hydrogen atoms

Hydrocarbons
Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen
atoms only
The Alkanes
The alkanes are the first homologous
series that we will look at.

The alkanes are a family of

hydrocarbons that all end in “-ane”.

In an alkane, each carbon atom is

covalently bonded to four other atoms.
Naming System
First we have to look at the naming
system used for homologous series.
The prefix used will depend on the
number of carbon atoms in the
molecule.

The ending of the name depends on

the family that are being looked at. So
for the alkanes the ending is “-ane”.
Naming System
The following prefixes are used depending on
the number of carbon atoms in the molecule.
Prefix Number of carbon
present
Meth- 1
Eth- 2
Prop- 3
But-* 4
Pent- 5
Hex- 6
Hept- 7
Oct- 8

*At iGCSE you only need to know how to name up to four carbons
Alkanes
The first member of the alkanes has 1
carbon atom, therefore it is called methane.

It has one carbon atom and is bonded to

four hydrogen atoms.

This is the full structural This is the structural

formula for methane. shape of methane.
The molecular formula
for methane is CH4.
Alkanes
The second alkane is called ethane.
This has two carbons.

CH3CH
3

This is the full structural This is the shortened

formula for ethane. formula for ethane*.
The molecular formula
for ethane is C2H6.

*You don’t need to know about shortened formula for

Different Formulas?
When discussing organic chemistry there are different types of
formula spoken about. So what do each of them mean? Let’s look
at ethane.

Formula What does it show? Example

Full Structural It shows the 2D

Formula (often just arrangement of the
called structural atoms in the
formula) molecule as well as
the bonds
Molecular Formula The type of atoms C2H6
and each number of
atoms
Shortened Structural The structural
Formula* arrangement of CH3CH
atoms but no bonds
are shown 3

*You don’t need to know about shortened formula for

The Alkanes
Can you draw the structures for the
alkanes containing three and four
carbons?
The Alkanes

Ethane Heptane

The alkanes contain carbon to carbon

single bonds.
General Formula*
Each family of hydrocarbons have what is
called a general formula. A general formula
is used to represent the overall formula for a
group of compounds.

It is possible to determine the general

formula for the alkanes by looking at formula
of each member of the alkanes.

*Not needed for iGCSE

General Formula*
Methane CH4
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8
Butane C4H10

The number of carbon atoms can be represented by

n. For each carbon atom there are 2 hydrogen atoms
plus a further 2 hydrogens.

This makes the general formula for the alkanes

CnH2n+2
Alkenes
The second homologous series is the
alkenes.

In this family all the alkenes have a

name which end in “-ene”.

Alkenes differ from alkanes as they

contain a carbon to carbon double
bond.
Alkenes
As the alkenes contain a carbon to
carbon double bond then the first
member of the family is ethene.
Alkenes
Can you give the name, structural and
molecular formula for the alkenes with
three and four carbons?

Propene Butene
C3H6 C3H6
Alkenes
In the below alkenes the double bond is placed
between the first two carbons. However, it can
appear further along the chain.
This would give rise to an isomer.

Propene Butene
C3H6 C3H6
Isomer
Isomers are compounds that have the
same molecular formula but different
structural formula.

Both molecules have the formula C4H8 but as the

double bond is in a different position we have to
differentiate between there names.
So the carbon number that the double bond first
appears on is stated e.g. but-1-ene
Isomer
Can you name these molecules?

These are both but-1-ene.

Always number the carbons from the
end of the chain closest to the double
bond.
Isomer
Do you think you need to insert a
number into the name for propene?
No, you don’t have to. In propene the double
bond can only appear on the first carbon so there
is no differentiation.
The position of the double bond only needs to be
stated for chain lengths of 4 carbons or more.
General Formula
As the alkenes are a homologous
series they also have a general
formula.

The general formula for the alkenes is

CnH2n
Saturated Molecules
A hydrocarbon family can be described
as being saturated if all the carbon to
carbon bonds within the molecule are
single bonds.

The alkanes are example of a saturated

homologous series.

Saturated = single
Unsaturated molecules
A hydrocarbon family that contains
any carbon to carbon double bonds or
triple bonds can be described as being
unsaturated.

The alkenes are an example of a

hydrocarbon family that is
unsaturated.
The Alcohols
The alcohols are another example of a
homologous series. However, they
cannot be classed as hydrocarbons as
they also contain oxygen.
Ethanol is an
example of an
alcohol.
It is also the alcohol
used in alcoholic
drinks.

All alcohols contain the hydroxyl

functional group, OH.
The Alcohols
Alcohols are named in a similar way to
the homologous series we have looked
at so far.

The prefixes used to indicate the

number of carbons in the molecule
remain the same. However, the alcohol
names end in “-ol”.
The Alcohols
Can you state the name, structural
molecular formula for the first four member
of the alcohol homologous series?
The Alcohols
As the alcohols are a homologous
series than they have a general
formula.

The general formula for the alcohols is

CnH2n+1OH
Common Organic Compounds
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Common organic compounds

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe compounds that are part of the
alkanes, alkenes and alcohol homologous
series
Name and draw structures from the
above families
Define the term isomer
Fuels
Topic 11.3
Specification Guidelines
Starter
Can you still?...

1. State if bond making is endo or

exothermic.
2. Give the chemical formulas for
limestone, quicklime and slaked lime
3. Describe the test for chlorine gas.
Starter - Answers
Can you still?...

1. Bond making is exothermic

2. Limestone – CaCO3
Quicklime – CaO
Slaked lime – Ca(OH)2

3. Damp blue litmus paper should turn red, then

bleached white
Fuels and Fossil Fuels
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Fuels and Fossil Fuels

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
State what a fuel is
Describe what happens during combustion
State the main three fossil fuels
Explain what is meant by a finite resource
Describe how fossil fuels were formed
Fuels
We use fuels in everyday life – to heat
our homes, for petrol and diesel in our
cars, and gas for our stoves.
What is a fuel?
A fuel is a compound that contains stored
energy. When the fuel is burned, this
stored energy is released.

Fuels are substances that burn to release

energy.

One of the most common uses of fuels is

petrol and diesel being burned in a car.
Combustion
When a fuel burns it reacts with oxygen
and releases its stored energy.

This process is known as combustion.

As energy is released during this reaction,

then it is an exothermic reaction.

An exothermic reaction is
one which gives out heat.
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are the most widely used fuels.

The three main fossil fuels are coal, crude oil

(petroleum) and natural gas.

During combustion these fuels produce

carbon dioxide.
Fossil Fuels

Fossil fuels are known as fossil fuels

due to the fact that they were formed
from the decayed and fossilised
remains of plants and animals that
lived millions of years ago.
Fossil fuels – A finite
resource
As fossil fuels were formed millions of years ago it is
impossible to replace them.

They are known as a finite resource meaning that

eventually the Earth will run out of fossil fuels.

Other sources of fuels, such as wood, can be replaced

easily. Another tree can be planted to replace one that
was cut down.

However, once the store of energy from fossil fuels

has been used up, they cannot be replaced.
How are fossil fuels formed?

Oil and gas formation

[Link]
v=8YHsxXEVB1M

Fossil fuel formation

[Link]
v=pvH-h7TzSsE
Fuels and Fossil Fuels
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Fuels and Fossil Fuels

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
State what a fuel is
Describe what happens during combustion
State the main three fossil fuels
Explain what is meant by a finite resource
Describe how fossil fuels were formed
Crude Oil
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Fuels and Fossil Fuels

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the composition of crude oil
Define the term hydrocarbon
Describe the process of fractional
distillation
Crude Oil
Crude oil (also called petroleum) is the
oil that comes directly from the ground
or the sea.

It is a highly viscous* liquid which is

trapped in rocks until it is released by
drilling.

*A viscous liquid is one which is very thick and sticky

e.g. honey
Crude Oil
Crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons.

A hydrocarbon is a compound that only

contains the elements hydrogen and
carbon.

Methane, for example, is the main

constituent of natural gas. Methane has
the formula CH4.
Crude Oil
The oil that comes from the sea or
ground is initially useless. However,
the different hydrocarbons in the crude
oil have various uses.

Hydrocarbons have different boiling

points and this allows them to be
separated out into useful products.
Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is the process
used to separate crude oil out into
more useful products.

Fractional distillation occurs on a large

industrial scale at oil refineries. They
“refine” the crude oil.
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
During fractional
distillation, crude oil is
® Gasoline
entered into a
fractionating column.
Inside the fractionating
® Naphtha
column, the different
fractions are separated
® Kerosene
out due to their different
boiling points.
® Gas oil (Diesel)
Fractions with lower
boiling points separate
® Residue
out at the top and
fractions with higher
boiling points separate at
the bottom.
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
The fractions with
® Gasoline shorter chain
lengths separate
out at the top of the
® Naphtha
column while
® Kerosene fractions containing
long chain
® Gas oil (Diesel)
molecules separate
® Residue
out at the bottom of
the column.
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
Refinery Gas
® Gasoline
Used for gas
cookers and
® Naphtha bottled gas for
heating
® Kerosene

® Gas oil (Diesel)

® Residue
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
Gasoline
® Gasoline
Used for petrol in
cars
® Naphtha

® Kerosene

® Gas oil (Diesel)

® Residue
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
Naphtha
® Gasoline
Used as a
feedstock for
® Naphtha making chemicals
® Kerosene

® Gas oil (Diesel)

® Residue
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
Diesel (Gas Oil)
® Gasoline
Used for fuels in
diesel engines
® Naphtha

® Kerosene

® Gas oil (Diesel)

® Residue
Fractional Distillation
® Refinery gas
Bitumen (residue)
® Gasoline
Used to tar roads

® Naphtha

® Kerosene

® Gas oil (Diesel)

® Residue
Crude Oil
Video on fractional distillation

[Link]
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Crude Oil
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Fuels and Fossil Fuels

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the composition of crude oil
Define the term hydrocarbon
Describe the process of fractional
distillation
Alkanes
Topic 11.4
Specification Guidelines
Starter
Can you still?...

1. Write the chemical equation for

copper(II) carbonate reacting with
sulfuric acid

2. Describe the difference between

melting and boiling points in
covalent molecular substances and
giant covalent structures.
Starter - Answers
Can you still?...

1. CuCO3 + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O +

CO2

2. Turns limewater cloudy/milky

Properties of Alkanes
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
The properties of alkanes

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe and explain the general
reactivity of alkanes
Explain what happens to boiling
point and chain length increases
Properties of Alkanes
It is important that you know the
relationship between carbon chain
length and boiling point for the
alkanes.

Search the boiling point for the first six

alkanes and try to determine the
relationship.
Properties of Alkanes
Alkane Number of Boiling point State at room
carbons in the (oC) temperature
chain
Methane 1 -161.6 Gas

Ethane 2 -89 Gas

Propane 3 -42 Gas

Butane 4 -1 Gas

Pentane 5 36.1 Liquid

Hexane 6 68.7 Liquid

As carbon chain length increases, the

boiling point increases.
Reactivity of Alkanes
Alkanes are generally unreactive due
to the strong C-H bonds within the
molecule. These are difficult to break,
which requires a lot of energy. This
makes the alkanes generally
unreactive.

However, the alkanes will readily take

part in combustion reactions.
Properties of Alkanes
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
The properties of alkanes

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe and explain the general
reactivity of alkanes
Explain what happens to boiling
point and chain length increases
Combustion
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Combustion reactions

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Define and describe combustion
Describe the fire triangle
Describe how to control a fire
Describe the difference between
complete and incomplete combustion
State the products of each type of
combustion
Release of Energy
During the burning of fossil fuels
energy is released.

This is known as a combustion

reaction.

As energy is released, combustion is

an exothermic reaction.
The Fire Triangle
Combustion is a chemical
reaction – understanding
combustion helps us to
control it.

The fire triangle is a

diagram that can be used

He
en
to show the conditions

yg

at
necessary for a fire to
burn. Ox

Fuel
The Fire Triangle

en

He
yg

at
Ox

Fuel

A fire needs fuel, oxygen and heat in order to

be able to burn.
If the fire does not have all three sides of the
triangle then the fire will extinguish.
The Fire Triangle
Once a fire has started it can be difficult to remove
the fuel source.

However, an example of this would be turning off a

Bunsen burner in a school lab. If the gas supply is cut
off then the fire will go out.

Oxygen can be restricted to fires by closing fire doors,

for example.
Kitchen fires can be covered with a fire blanket in
order to restrict the oxygen. Fire extinguishers also do
the same thing.
Complete Combustion
Most fuels that we burn contain
hydrocarbons.

In order to release the energy stored in

these fuels we must burn them (i.e. a
combustion reaction must take place)

When a hydrocarbon is burned in a plentiful

supply of oxygen we get what is called
complete combustion.
Complete Combustion
When a hydrocarbon is burned in a plentiful
supply of oxygen then water and carbon
dioxide is produced.

Hydrocarbon + oxygen Water + Carbon dioxide

Your teacher will demonstrate complete

combustion to you
Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion occurs when a
hydrocarbon is burned in a limited supply of
oxygen.

During incomplete combustion water, carbon

monoxide and carbon (soot) are produced.

Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Water + Carbon +

Carbon
(limited) Monoxide
(soot)
Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon is a
dangerous reaction as carbon monoxide (CO)
is a poisonous gas.

It is a colourless, odourless and highly toxic

gas.

It can be formed from faulty gas appliances in

the house and this is why homeowners are
advised to install a carbon monoxide detector.
Combustion
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Combustion reactions

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Define and describe combustion
Describe the fire triangle
Describe how to control a fire
Describe the difference between
complete and incomplete combustion
State the products of each type of
combustion
Alkenes
Topic 11.5
Specification Guidelines
Starter
Can you still?...
Starter - Answers
Can you still?...
Saturated and Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Saturated and Unsaturated molecules

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
State what the terms saturated and
unsaturated mean
Describe how to test for saturation and
unsaturation
Describe different addition reactions
Saturated Molecules - Recap
A hydrocarbon family can be described
as being saturated if all the carbon to
carbon bonds within the molecule are
single bonds.

The alkanes are example of a saturated

homologous series.

Saturated = single
Unsaturated molecules -
Recap
A hydrocarbon family that contains
any carbon to carbon double bonds or
triple bonds can be described as being
unsaturated.

The alkenes are an example of a

hydrocarbon family that is
unsaturated.
The Bromine Test
Alkanes and alkenes can often look
similar in chemical bottles.

For example, octane and octene are

both colourless liquids.

So how is it possible to tell the

difference between the two?
The Bromine Test
A simple test can be done to distinguish
between alkanes (saturated) and alkenes
(unsaturated).

Both substances can be tested with

bromine water, which has an orange
colour.

Your teacher will demonstrate the

reaction between a saturated and
unsaturated hydrocarbon.
The Bromine Test
When the bromine water is tested with
an alkane, it will not change colour.

However, if an alkene is tested with

bromine water, then the alkene will turn
the bromine water colourless.
Alkenes are
said to rapidly
decolourise
bromine water.
The Bromine Test
So why does the bromine water rapidly
decolourise an unsaturated molecule
and not a saturated molecule?
The Bromine Test

The bromine water can rapidly decolourise

an
unsaturated molecule because the bromine
adds
across the double bond.

The carbon to carbon double bonds breaks

Addition Reactions
The addition of bromine to an alkene
across a double bond is known as an
addition reaction.

There are several types of addition

reactions.
Halogenation

The addition of bromine is known as a

halogenation reaction.

The reaction would be similar if another

halogen e.g. chlorine was used.
Hydrogenation
Hydrogen can also react with alkenes and
undergo an addition reaction.

When hydrogen reacts with ethene, ethane is

formed. This is known as a hydrogenation
reaction.

During this reaction, a temperature of ~200oC

and a nickel catalyst are required.
Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation is used to produce

margarines from unsaturated oils. The
unsaturated oils contain lots of C=C
bonds but hydrogen is added to cause
the oils to become more saturated.
This raises the melting point of the oil
causing it to become solid margarine.
Hydration (Reaction with Steam)
It is also possible for water (steam) to
add across the double bond of an
alkene.

When steam reacts with an alkene, an

alcohol is produced, in a hydration
reaction. The above alcohol is known as
Hydration (Reaction with Steam)

This reaction requires the ethene to be

heated to 300oC, in the presence of steam
and phosphoric acid (acts as a catalyst).

It should also be noted in this reaction

that the H2O splits into H and OH. The H
adds to one carbon whilst the O from the
OH bonds to the other carbon.
Saturated and Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Saturated and Unsaturated molecules

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
State what the terms saturated and
unsaturated mean
Describe how to test for saturation and
unsaturation
Describe different addition reactions
Starter
Can you still?...

1. Explain the overall charge of an

atom.

2. State a property of the transition

metal elements

3. Name the main ore containing

aluminium
Starter - Answers
Can you still?...

1. An atom is overall neutral due to the

having the same number of positive
protons and negative electrons. The
charges cancel each other out.

2. They have coloured compounds/are

generally unreactive/can be used as
catalysts.

3. Bauxite
Catalytic Cracking
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Catalytic cracking of alkanes

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Explain why catalytic cracking is used
State the products of catalytic cracking
Carry out catalytic cracking equations
State the conditions required for
cracking
Cracking
When crude oil undergoes fractional
distillation there are more long chain
hydrocarbons produced than short
chain hydrocarbons.

However, it is small chain

hydrocarbons that are most widely
used in the world.
Cracking
In order for the demand of small chain
hydrocarbons to be met, long chain
hydrocarbons go through a process
called cracking.

During cracking, long chain

hydrocarbons are broken into smaller
ones.
Cracking
Cracking of hydrocarbons
Cracking
Cracking is also the process that is
used to make alkenes.

When a large chain hydrocarbon is

cracked a mixture of alkanes and
alkenes are produced.
Cracking
There are two types of cracking each with their own
required conditions and advantages.

Thermal Cracking Catalytic Cracking

- Cracking long chain - Aluminium and ceramic-

alkanes to smaller ones based catalysts used
- A high temperature is - The catalysts lower the
required (~800oC) required temp to ~500oC
- Ethene and hydrogen gas
are produced

Advantage: More useful for Advantage: Cheaper to run

cracking longer chain Disadvantage: Not as
alkanes effective at cracking longer
Disadvantage: Very chain hydrocarbons to
expensive process due to smaller ones.
the high temperature
Cracking
Cracking can be used to convert
ethane into ethene.

However, this is simplified and cracking is more

often used to break longer chains into shorter ones.
Cracking

The above diagram shows decane (C10) splitting into

pentane, propene and ethene
Cracking Equations
When a hydrocarbon is cracked, a
mixture of alkanes and alkenes are
produced. However, at the end of the
reaction there is always the same
amount of carbon and hydrogens as
there were at the beginning.

C20H42 C8H18 + C4H8 + C3H6 +

C5H10
Catalytic Cracking
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Catalytic cracking of alkanes

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Explain why catalytic cracking is used
State the products of catalytic cracking
Carry out catalytic cracking equations
State the conditions required for
cracking
Alcohols
Topic 11.6
Specification Guidelines
Starter
Can you still?...

1. Define the term unsaturated.

2. Determine the Mr for copper(II)

sulfate

3. State two factors that can affect the

rate of diffusion.
Starter - Answers
Can you still?...

1. A molecule containing carbon to

carbon double or triple bonds

2. CuSO4 = 160

3. The molecular mass

If there is a vacuum or not
Alcohols
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Properties and reactions of alcohols

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the complete combustion
of alcohols as well as the products
formed
State uses for ethanol
The Uses of Alcohols
We already know that ethanol is the alcohol
used to produce alcoholic drinks. Alcohols
however, have other uses in everyday life.

Alcohols can be used as solvents. Short chain

alcohols such as methanol, ethanol*, propanol
and butanol are able to dissolve a variety of
compounds and so can be used as solvents in
numerous applications.

*Note for iGCSE, you only need to know about

the uses of ethanol
The Uses of Alcohols
Alcohols can be used to dissolve compounds
required to make perfumes, deodorants, paints and
dyes. Alcohols evaporate easily and so once the
product has been applied (i.e. paint on a wall) the
alcohol evaporates and leaves the solute behind.

Ethanol is used extensively in perfumes and

cosmetics as it is safe for human contact.

Short chain alcohols are also used in cleaning

products since they can dissolve a variety of
compounds and evaporate easily. Examples of this
are alcohol hand gels and disinfectant wipes.
The Uses of Alcohols
Ethanol can also be used as a fuel as it is highly
flammable and burns with a very clean flame. A
fuel is a substance which burns to release
energy and alcohols release a significant amount
of energy when they are burned.

Alcohols when burned produce carbon dioxide

and water.

Alcohol + oxygen carbon dioxide +

water
Ethanol – The Invisible Flame?

As ethanol burns with an incredibly

clean flame, it is sometimes called the
‘Invisible Flame’

Hand sanitiser - Invisible Flame

The Uses of Alcohols
Ethanol can be produced by the
fermentation of sugar cane so it is
regarded as a renewable source of
energy as sugar cane can be regrown.
The ethanol produced can be used as a
fuel or mixed in with petrol or diesel to
produce a fuel blend.

Methanol is used as a fuel in racing cars.

The Uses of Alcohols
Alcohols
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
Properties and reactions of alcohols

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the complete combustion
of alcohols as well as the products
formed
State uses for ethanol
Polymers
Topic 11.7
Specification Guidelines
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Polymers
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
molecules called polymers

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Define the terms monomer, polymer and
polymerisation
Describe how different monomers
produce different polymers
State the names of polymers from the
given monomer and vice versa
What is a polymer?
A polymer is a long–chain molecule that
can be found in nature or can be
synthetic (made by scientists).

Natural polymers include wool and cotton

whilst synthetic polymers are substances
such as nylon and kevlar.

Many plastics are made from polymers.

What is polymerisation?
Polymerisation is the name of the reaction that makes
polymers.

Polymers in turn are made up of tiny joining units

called monomers.

When many monomers join together, a polymerisation

reaction occurs and a polymer is made.
Need to know definitions
Polymer – A long chain molecule made
from many monomers

Monomer – A small, single unit of a

substance that joins together to form
polymers

Polymerisation – The name of the reaction

in which monomers join to form polymers
Polymerisation

Monomers

Process used to make

polymers is called Polymerisation
polymerisation

Polymers
Naming polymers
To name a polymer we have to use the name
of the corresponding monomer that it is
made from.
For example:
Monomer Polymer
propene Poly(propen
styrene e)
Poly(styrene
tetrafluoroethene )
Poly(tetrafluoroethene)
vinylchloride Poly(vinylchlorid
e)
Naming Polymers
What would the polymer be from the
following monomers?
• Chloroethene
• phenylethene

What would the monomer be from the

polymer poly(propylene)?
Different monomers
Different monomers will form
different polymers.

For example, ethene can make

polyethene which is used for
disposable plastic bags.

Ethene
repeating
unit
Different monomers
If a hydrogen from ethene is replaced with
a chlorine we get chloroethene. This joins
to make polychloroethene (sometimes
called polyvinylchloride or PVC). PVC can
be used for drain pipes as it is a strong but
light plastic.

Chlorethene
repeating
unit
Different monomers
If the hydrogens on ethene were replaced
with fluorine this gives the monomer
tetrafluoroethylene. This gives the
polymer polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
which is used as a non-stick coating on
cooking pans.

Tetrafluoroethylen
e repeating unit
Different monomers
Cellulose and starch are examples of natural polymers.

They are made from the monomer glucose.

However, they have different properties due to the

different bond angles of the oxygen when the glucose
molecules join.*

*You don’t need to know

this
Polymers
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
molecules called polymers

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Define the terms monomer, polymer and
polymerisation
Describe how different monomers
produce different polymers
State the names of polymers from the
given monomer and vice versa
Addition Polymerisation
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
addition polymerisation

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the structure of monomers used in
addition polymerisation
State what is meant by a repeating unit
Draw the structure of a polymer when given the
monomer
Determine the repeating unit in a polymer
Draw the monomer used when given the
repeating unit of a polymer
Addition Polymerisation
Addition polymerisation involves unsaturated
molecules like ethene.

Alkenes are important feedstocks in the plastic

industry.

Feedstock
A substance obtained from a raw material (like
crude oil) which is used to make other
substances
Addition Polymerisation
It is difficult/impossible to tell how many
monomer units join together to form a polymer.

Therefore, polymers can often be represented

using a repeating unit. This shows the unit that
will be consistently repeated with n representing
whatever number of units is repeating.
Addition Polymerisation
To show how the monomers join together we draw 3
side-by-side.

The double bonds

break
and form a
polymer

Open ended
polymer to
show
more than 3
monomers
can join
together
Addition Polymerisation
All monomers should be written as an “H
shape”.

Example:

To change propene into an “H shape” we move

the CH3 group on the end.

We can now draw poly(propene)…

Addition Polymerisation

Now try and do the same with butene.

Addition Polymerisation
We can identify addition polymers by the
unsaturated bond.

Chloroethene Tetrafluoroethene
Repeating Units
When given a polymer, you should be
able to work out the monomer used
from a “repeating unit”.

Repeating Unit –
A section of a polymer which is
repeated
Repeating Units
Can you figure out what the repeating
unit is in this polymer? (It must be an
“H-shape”)

We then take out this repeating unit to

Repeating Units
Repeating Unit Monomer

Shows that this repeating

unit is repeated “n” times
Questions
1. Draw three monomers joined to
make a polymer of the following
molecule
Questions
2. Identify the repeating unit from the
following polymer poly(vinyl chloride).

3. From the repeating unit, draw the

monomer which makes this polymer.
Addition Polymerisation
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
addition polymerisation

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the structure of monomers used in
addition polymerisation
State what is meant by a repeating unit
Draw the structure of a polymer when given the
monomer
Determine the repeating unit in a polymer
Draw the monomer used when given the
repeating unit of a polymer
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Condensation Polymerisation
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
condensation polymerisation

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the structure of monomers
used in condensation polymerisation
Explain the difference between
addition and condensation polymerisation
Describe the functional group formed
in a condensation polymerisation reaction
Condensation
Polymerisation
These polymer chains are made from two
different monomers that contain a functional
group at either end.

There needs to be a functional group at either

end to allow the chain to grow and allow more
than two molecules to add together

The chain joins together through a

condensation reaction

Condensation reaction
When two molecules join together resulting in
the loss of a smaller molecule, such as water
Nylon
Nylon is a synthetic polymer, made
through a condensation reaction, used
in many items of clothing.

Functional
group formed
in reaction
Nylon
During the reaction, the Cl from the dichloride joins
with an H from the diamine to form HCl.
The C from the dichloride and the N from the
diamine then join together to form the amide link.

The box is drawn to

simplify the monomer –
we don’t care about
what’s there, just the
functional groups.
Types of Polymerisation
You must be able to look at a structure and
determine whether a polymer was made from
addition or condensation polymerisation.
Row of C’s only Row of N’s and C’s

Addition Polymer Condensation Polymer

Hint: if the main chain has elements other than

carbon then it is a condensation
polymerisation
Condensation Polymerisation
Learning Intention:
To learn about…
condensation polymerisation

Success Criteria:
A successful learner will be able to…
Describe the structure of monomers
used in condensation polymerisation
Explain the difference between
addition and condensation polymerisation
Describe the functional group formed
in a condensation polymerisation reaction
Past Paper Questions
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Past Paper Questions
Past Paper Questions - Answers
Past Paper Questions
Past Paper Questions - Answers