INTEGUMENTARY

SYSTEM
(SKIN)

Ms. Gayatri Thapa,

Human anatomy and physiology,
Course- B. Pharm 1st semester.
INTRODUCTION
• The skin, also known as the cutaneous
membrane, covers the external surface of the
body and is the largest organ of the body in
weight.
• In adults, the skin covers an area of about 2
square meters and weighs 4.5–5 kg i.e. about 7%
of total body weight
STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN
• Skin consists of –
i. An outer layer called epidermis which covers-
ii. An inner layer called dermis.
• In certain areas, it contains accessory structures like
• Glands
• Hair
• Nails
• Between the skin and underlying structures is a subcutaneous layer
composed of areolar tissue and adipose tissue.
EPIDERMIS
• Most superficial layer
• composed of keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.
• It contains four types of cells: keratinocytes,
melanocytes, intra-epidermal macrophages, and
tactile epithelial cells.
• About 90% of epidermal cells are keratinocytes,
which are arranged in four or five layers and produces
the protein keratin.
EPIDERMIS

1. Stratum cornium : containing scale like cells which are constantly replaced.

These cells have a protein called keratin.

2. Stratum lucidum: a glistening layer.

3. Stratum granulosum : has spindle shaped cells with granules in the cytoplasm.

4. Stratum germinativum: contains cuboidal cells, the skin cells multiply in this

layer.
EPIDERMIS

• Several layers (strata) of cells present in the epidermis extend from the deepest
germinative layer to the most superficial layer, stratum corneum (a thick layer).
• Epidermal cells originate in the germinative layer.
• The gradual changes occurs to the surface of the skin.
• The cells on the surface are flat, thin, non-nucleated, in which cytoplasm has
been replaced by the fibrous protein, keratin.(dead cells)
• The surface cells are rubbed off and replaced.
• Complete replacement takes about a month.
EPIDERMIS
• Synchronization of healthy epidermis depends upon three processes:
i. Desquamation (shedding) of keratinized cells from the surface
ii. Effective keratinization of cells approaching the surface.
iii. Continual cell division in the deeper layers with the newly formed cells being
pushed upwards to the surface.
• The dermal papillae (upward projections) anchor the most superficial
epidermis and allows passage of wastes and nutrition to the lower part of the
epidermis.
• Blisters develops when trauma/damage causes the separation of the dermis
and epidermis  serous fluid accumulates between the two layers.
DERMIS
• Tough and elastic formed from connective tissue and the matrix called collagen fibres
interlaced with elastic fibres ( if stretched causes rupturation causing stretch marks).
• Collagen fibres bind water and provides tensile strength. During ageing the ability of binding
declines causing wrinkles.
• Main cells found in dermis are:
• Fibroblast
• Macrophages
• Mast cells.

• In its deepest layer is the subcutaneous layer that contains areolar tissue and adipose tissue.
• Blood vessels, lymph vessels, sensory endings, sweat glands, hairs, erector pili and
sebaceous glands are present in this region.
Secretion of skin

Sweat contains mainly water, some salts and trace of other waste products. The secretion

of sweat is controlled by sympathetic nerves.

Sweating or Perspiration can be categorised

1. Insensible perspiration which evaporates quickly and so it is not observed.

2. Sensible perspiration which occurs during excessive sweating. So production of sweat

is more than evaporation.

Secretion of skin

• Sebum is a greasy secretion produced by sebaceous glands.

• Sebum keeps the hair soft and pliable and gives it a shiny appearance. On the skin it provides some

waterproofing and acts as a bactericidal and fungicidal agent, preventing the successful invasion of

microbes.

• It also prevents drying and cracking of skin, especially on exposure to heat and sunshine.

• The activity of these glands increases at puberty and is less at the extremes of age, rendering infants

and the elderly prone to the effects of excessive moisture, e.g. nappy rash in infants.
Functions of skin

1. Protects body from external environment

2. Regulates body temperature

3. Synthesizes vitamin D

4. Detects cutaneous sensation

5. Wound healing
PROTECTION
• Forms a relatively waterproof layer provided by its keratinized epithelium
protects deeper delicate structures.

• Defense mechanism against- micro-organisms, chemicals, physical agents ( mild

trauma, UV light), dehydration.

• Immune response stimulated when dendritic cells present in the epidermis

phagocytose the intruding antigen to the T-lymphocytes.

• Abundant sensory nerve endings in the dermis enables perception.

• The pigment melanin protects against harmful UV rays coming from the sunlight.
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
• Constant body temperature across a wide range of body temperature is 36.8°C
(98.4°F).

• Variations are usually limited to between 0.5 and 0.75°C.

• It is raised slightly in the evening, during exercise and in women just after
ovulation.

• When metabolic rate increases body temperature rises and when it decreases
body temperature falls. To ensure this constant temperature a balance is
maintained between heat produced in the body and heat loss to the
environment.
Heat production
• Some of the energy released during metabolic activity is in the form of heat.
More active the organ, more heat generation.
i. The skeletal muscle  contraction  heat production strenuous exercise 
greater heat produced.
ii. The liver  metabolically active organ  heat is produced as a by-product.
Metabolic rate and heat production are increased after eating.
iii. The digestive organs produce heat during peristalsis and by the chemical
reactions involved in digestion.
Heat loss
• Body heat is losses through skin mostly.

• Small amounts are lost in expired air, urine and faeces.

• Heat loss through the skin is affected by:

• the difference between body and environmental temperatures.
• the amount of the body surface exposed to the air and the type of clothes
worn.

• Air is a poor conductor of heat and when layers of air are trapped in
clothing and between the skin and clothing they act as effective
insulators against excessive heat loss.
Heat loss

In evaporation, the body is cooled as heat converts the water in sweat to
water vapor.
In radiation, exposed parts of the body radiate heat away from the body.

In conduction, clothes and other objects in contact with the skin take up heat.

In convection, air passing over the exposed parts of the body is heated and
rises, cool air replaces it and convection currents are set up.
CONTROL OF BODY TEMPERATURE
• Temperature regulating centre in the hypothalamus is
sensitive to the temperature of the circulating blood.
• When heat is conserved in the body, the temperature rises
and negative feedback mechanism is switched on. Again
after normalization of the temperature, it is switched off.
• If high body temperature  heat loss is increased by
dilatation of arterioles in the dermis  increases blood flow
to skin  stimulates sweat glands  sweating until
temperature normalize.
FORMATION OF VITAMIN D

• 7-dehydrocholesterol present in the skin is converted

to vitamin D in the presence of sunlight.
• This vitamin is used with calcium and phosphate in
the formation and maintenance of bone.
THANK YOU