Arguments

Logic hand uot

Chapter two
Basic concept of logic: Argument, premise and
conclusion

By Mr. Asmera Beegi

Arguments
An Argument: is a group of statements
with one or more premises which are in
turn claimed to support the conclusion.
Etymologically, it was derived from Latin
word “Arguo” = “to make clear”, “to
prove”.
Arguments can be identified as:
valid/truth argument where the premises
support the conclusion and invalid / false
argument where the premise does not
support the conclusion.
A Statement: is a sentence/group of
See the following examples
1. Italy prevailed at Adwa in 1896.
2. Titanic was sunk by German sub
marines in 1912.
3. Carrot is a good source of vitamin A.
4. Bishoftu is a city in Oromia.

Examples 1 and 2 are false while 3 and 4

are true.
Note: We have not produced an argument
over an issue until we offer reasons that
entails our conclusion.
Premise and Conclusion
Premises: are statements that set forth
reasons/evidence on the basis of which the conclusion is
affirmed.

Conclusion: is a statement that the evidence is claimed

to support / imply.
In other words, it is a statement that is claimed to follow
from the premises.
Ex-1- All crimes are violations of the [Link]
Theft is a [Link]
Therefore, theft is a violation of the [Link]
Ex-2- All uncles are male. TP
Tola is an uncle. TP
So, Tola is a male. TC
Non-Statements Expressions
Questions
Ex- Would you lend me your pen?
Proposals
Ex- Let’s start business together.
Suggestions
Ex- You would better go by bus.
Commands
Ex- Stand up!
Turn to the left at the next corner.
Exclamations
Ex- Wow, what a save!
Subjective
Ex- White people never like blacks.
Note: Statements are declarative sentences. All
statements are sentences, but not vice versa.
Cont’d …
But consider these examples:
Ex-3- Some crimes are misdemeanors. TP
Murder is a crime. TP
Therefore, murder is a misdemeanor. FC

Ex-4- Some uncles are skinny. TP

Gemechu is an uncle. TP
So, Gemechu is skinny. T/FC
Ex-5- Adequate incentives are needed for
prosperous economy.
Socialism does not provide adequate
incentives.
Therefore, socialism is likely to fail.
Cont’d …
Conclusion may come first or middle.
E.g.- 6. Dr. Jabessa is the best for the
job.

This is because, he has most professional

experience of all candidates and personal
integrity to work with others.

E.g. Callistro orbits Jupiter. Hence, it is not

a planet, because something must orbit
the sun in order to be a planet.
Cont’d …
 Enthymeme – hidden premises

E.g. When wild animals are over

hunted, their population decreased.
Therefore, tigers has been decreasing
in recent years.

See: The premise “Tigers are being

over hunted in recent years” is
unstated.
Detecting P from C
1. Premise Indicators
Words like: Since, Because, As indicated by, May be inferred from,
Owing to, In as much as, In that, For the reason that, Given that,
Seeing that, As, For,…etc.

2. Conclusion Indicators
Words like: Therefore, Hence, So, Wherefore, Accordingly,
Whence, It follows that, It must be that, Thus, As a result, We may
infer, Consequently …etc.
con’t
E.g.-1- The prices of goods and services have
been sky rocketing in this country. So, since
the government is unable to effectively control
the crisis, this country’s economy will continue
to be stricken by inflation.
E.g-2. Abdi is taller than Badhasa. Badhasa is
taller than Cala. Therefore, Abdi is taller than
Cala.
Non-Argument Expressions
Passages that lack an inferential claim are also called
Unsupported Assertions.
1. Warnings
Ex-1- Watch out that you do not slip on the mud.
2. Piece of Advice
Ex-1- I suggest you take Logic during your first year.
3. Statements of Belief / Opinion
Ex-1- I think a nation like ours, with its high moral traditions has a
further responsibility to know how we become involved into this
conflict, and to learn the lessons it has to teach us for the future.
4. Report
Ex-1- A bomb exploded near national museum, injuring 25 people
and causing millions of birrs damage to the near by buildings, police
said. A police statement said the 9000-birr bomb was packed into a
basket hidden in the back of a stolen car.
Conditionals – “if … then”
Every conditional statement is made up of two
statements.
The component statement that immediately
follows the “if” is called the antecedent, and the
one following the “then” is called the consequent.
‘A’ is said to be a sufficient condition for ‘B’
whenever the occurrence of ‘A’ is all that is
needed for the occurrence of ‘B’.
Ex.1. If I am stabbed by a dagger, then a scar will
appear on my skin.
Ex.2. If Galgalo works hard, then he will get a
promotion.
Ex.3. If cigarette companies publish warning
labels, then smokers assume the risk of smoking.
Cont’d …
5. Illustration
Ex.1. Mammals are animals that nourish their young with
milk. For example, cats, dogs, goats, monkeys and humans
are mammals.
Ex.2. Chemical elements, as well as, compounds, can be
represented by molecular formulas. Thus, oxygen is
represented by O2, sodium chloride by NaCl and sulfuric acid
by H2SO4.
Ex.3. Whole numbers can be represented as factions.
Thus, 2 can be represented as 8/4 and 5 can be represented
as 15 /3.
N.B. Sometimes examples are given not merely to explain
but to support/provide support for a thesis, in which case the
passage becomes an argument and not an illustration.
Consider this:
Ex.1. You said that no mammal can fly, but that is
untrue. At least one mammal has wings and can fly. For
example, bats are mammals.
Cont’d …
6. Simple assertion.
E.g. Caltu is a graduate.
7. Reflection.
E.g. Our today’s agenda is to decide
whether or not corruption is the main
problem of our organization or not.
8. Evaluation.
e.g. I evaluated your performance and
found that you are unable to draw new
customers to our organization.
Cont’d …
On the other hand, ‘B’ is a necessary condition
for ‘A’ whenever ‘A’ can’t occur without the
occurrence of ‘B’.
Ex.1. If “X” is an uncle, then “X” is a male.
Ex.2. If water needs to be changed into an ice,
then the temperature should be reduced below
zero degree Celsius.

Singe conditional statements  argument

but components of syllogistic argument:
E.g. If a state faces frequent wars, then its
economy would collapse. If a state economy
collapse, then political instability occurs.
Arguments: Easy v.
Complex
Easy argument with single statement, but
thick.
E.g. I think, hence I'm. or I think, therefore
I exist. (Rene Descartes).
Complex argument with complex
concepts/ statements.
E.g. “Death is good. … either it is the state
of nothingness … or migration of soul from
this world to another. … find true judges
there … then, let me die again and again.”
Cont’d …
An Inductive Argument: is an argument in which
the premise are claimed to support to conclusion in
such a way that if they assumed true, then based on
that assumption it is improbable that the conclusion
is false(that is, it is probable that the conclusion is
true ). In these arguments the conclusion is claimed
to follow only probably from the premises.
Ex.1. The vast majority of the saleswomen in this
super market are [Link]
Obse is a saleswoman in this super [Link]
Therefore, probably, Obse is [Link]
Ex.2. 80 oranges selected at random from a basket
containing 100 oranges were found to be [Link]
Probably, all the 100 oranges are [Link]
Arguments: Deductive v. Inductive
A Deductive Argument: is the one in which the
premise/s are claimed to support its conclusion in such a
way that if they are assumed true, it is impossible for the
conclusion to be false. In such arguments the conclusion
is claimed to follow necessarily from the premise.
Ex.1. All humans are mortal. TP
Socrates is human TP
So, Socrates is mortal TC
Ex.2. All mammals are [Link]
All humans are [Link]
Therefore, all humans are [Link]
Ex.3. All saleswomen in this super market are
[Link]
Marartu is a saleswoman in this super [Link]
Therefore, Marartu is [Link]
Categories of Deductive Arguments
1. Arguments based on mathematics
Ex.1 a shopper might place two apples and
three oranges into a paper bag and conclude
that the bag contains five pieces of fruit.
2. An argument from definition
An argument in which the conclusion is
claimed to depend merely up on the definition
of some word or phrase used in the premises
or conclusion.

Some might argue that Michael is

mendacious, it follow that he tells lies, or that
because a certain paragraph is prolix, it
Cont’d …
3. Categorical Syllogism
This a syllogism in which each statement begins with
one of the words “all”, “no” or “some’.
Ex.1. No cats are [Link]
No dogs are mammals that can [Link]
Therefore, no cats are mammals that can
[Link]
4. Hypothetical Syllogism
This is a syllogism having a conditional statement for
one or both of its premises.
Ex.1. If you trespass campus compound illegally,
then the campus police will catch [Link]
If the campus police catch you, then you will face
disciplinary [Link]
Cont’d …
5. Disjunctive Syllogism
This a syllogism having a disjunctive
statement of an “either…or…”statement
for one of its premises.

Ex.1. Either breach of contract is a crime

or it is not punishable by [Link]
Breach of contract is not a [Link]
So, breach of contract is not punishable by
[Link]
Categories of Inductive Arguments
1. Arguments from Analogy
These are the ones that depend on
the existence of analogy between
two things.
Ex.1. Abebe’s 2006 model
Chevoloret has luxurious seats, an
excellent gas mileage and a
computer set. TP
Matiyas’s 2006 model Chevoloret
has luxurious seats, and an
Cont’d …
2. Inductive Generalization
This is an argument that proceeds from the
knowledge of a selected sample to some claim
about the whole group.
Ex.1. 10 apples selected at random from a
basket containing 100 apples were found to
be [Link] probably, all the rest 90 apples are
ripe. FC

3. Arguments based on Signs

If signs like traffic symbols are placed or
misplaced from the right position, then the
conclusion rests on chances of
Cont’d …
4. A Causal Inference
It underlies arguments that proceed from the
knowledge of a cause to the knowledge of an
effect or
It underlies from the knowledge of an effect to
knowledge of a cause.
Ex.1. A bottle of wine was accidentally put in
the freezer. Therefore, the bottle of wine had
been frozen. (Cause to Effect)
Ex.2. I have tasted a piece of chicken and
found it dry and crunchy. Therefore, the
chicken had been overcooked. (Effect to
Cause)
Cont’d …
Deductive Inductive

Conclusion follow with strict Conclusion doesn’t follow with

necessity strict necessity - Probability

If a premise is true, it is Probably true or false

impossible for a conclusion to be
false

“Living” – mathematics, “Future” – prediction,

definition, syllogism, etc. generalization, causation, etc.

e.g. Being healthy, holidays, e.g. weather forecasting, political

(Easter is always on Sunday), behaviors, sampling. etc.
profession (all medical doctors
… ) etc.

Factual reasoning – from general Statistical reasoning – from

to particular (though not always). particular to general (though not
always).
Valid v. Invalid Arguments
Valid Invalid

All wines are beverages. All wines are beverages.

Gouder is a wine. Gouder is a beverage.
So, gouder is a beverage. So, gouder is a wine.

All wines are soft drinks. FP All wines are whiskeys. FP

Coca Cola is a wine. FP Gouder is a whiskey. FP
So, Coca Cola is a soft [Link] So, gouder is a wine. FC

All A are B. All A are B

C is A C is B
So, C is B So, C is A.
Sound v. Unsound Arguments
A Sound deductive Argument= Valid + All True
Premises
Sound Unsound

All biologists are scientists. TP All mammals are animals. TP

John is a biologist. TP No reptiles are mammals. TP
So, John is a scientist. TC So, no reptiles are animals. FC

All dogs are animals. TP All dogs are animals. TP

All puppies are dogs. TP All cats are animals. TP
So, all puppies are animals. TC So, all cats are dogs. FC

All planets are round. TP All dogs are ants. FP

The earth is a planet. TP All mammals are ants. FP
So, the earth is round. TC So, all dogs are mammals. TC

If Helen stole my book, then All animals are living things. TP

Helen is a thief. TP All cabbages are living things. TP
Helen stole my book. TP So, all cabbages are animals. FC
So, Helen is a thief. TC
Strong v. Weak Inductive Argument
Strong Weak
All previous US presidents were Some US presidents were
men. TP Democrats. TP
Probably, the next US president Probably, the next US president
will be a man. Probably TC may be a democrat. Probably TC
No Strong argument with all true Only one US president was
premises and a false conclusion impeached by congress. TP
exists. Probably, the next US president
may be impeached by congress.
Probably FC

All previous US presidents were TV Very few US presidents were TV

debaters. FP debaters. FP
Probably, the next president may Probably, the next US president
be a TV debater. Probably TC may be a TV debater. Probably TC

All previous US presidents were A Few US presidents were women.

women. FP FP
Probably, the next US president Probably, the next US president
Cogency v. Uncogency Inductive
argument
Cogent = Strong + All True Premises
There is a difference between sound and cogent
arguments in regard to true premises requirement.
In a sound argument it is only necessary that the
premises be true. In a cogent argument, on the other
hand, the premises must not only be true, they must
also ignore some important piece of evidence that
outweighs the given evidence.
Uncogent Argument: falls into one of the following
three categories:
It is strong but has at least one (more) false
premise/s.
It is weak but has all true premises.
It is weak but has at least one (more) false premise/s.
Cont’d …
Cogent Uncogent

All or nearly all lemons Slightly 50% of

tasted so far were sour. Ethiopians are males. TP
Probably TP “X” is an Ethiopian. TP
So, all or nearly all Probably, “X” is a male.
lemons are sour. Probably Probably FC
TC

This barrel contains 100 This barrel contains 100

apples. TP apples. TP
85 apples selected at 5 apples selected at
random were found to random were found to
be ripe. TP be ripe. TP
Probably, all the 100 Probably, all the 100
apples are ripe. Probably apples are ripe. Probably
TC FC
Chapter three: Language and Logic
Language and logic are related.
Without proper use of words, phrases and
the grammar presenting a valid argument is
difficult.
Thus logical discourses are made in the
domain of language.
The basic units of any ordinary language are
words which have meanings.
A term – is any word or arrangement of
words that may serve as a subject of a
statement. Terms consists of proper names,
common names and descriptive phrases.
Cont’d …
Proper Name Common Descriptive Phrases
Name

Hacalu Animal - First prime minister of

Ethiopia
Ethiopia House - Author of Godanisa

The FDRE House Person - Those who study hard

of Federation
Activity
Cat
Intension and Extension Meaning
The Intentional meaning: consists of the
qualities/attributes that the term connotes. It
is also known as connotation.
The Extensional Meaning: consists of the
members of the class the term denotes. It is
also known as denotation.
Ex. “Cat”
Intension: a domestic animal which is furry,
having four legs, moves in a certain way, emits
certain sounds (Mi’aw) and eats house mice
and so on.
Extension: – all the cats in the universe.
Order of terms
Increasing intension - a series of terms
in order of increasing intension - with
more attributes than the one preceding
it.
Decreasing intension – the reverse.
Increasing Extension - a series of terms
is in order of increasing extension when
each term in the series (except the first)
denotes a class having more members.
Decreasing Extension – the reverse.
Cont’d …
Importance of Language
Language has the following
functions:
1. Cognitive function
2. Emotive function
3. Directive function
Cognitive
Cognition – terminologies that convey
information.
Examples:
There are 20,000 homicides in South Africa
each year, with hand guns being the most
frequent instruments of death.

The CIA has engaged in political sabotage in

some countries. For example, the CIA
collaborated in the overthrow of president
Edwardo Ayende of Chile.
Disputes in Cognitive Meanings
Verbal disputes
Galana: I’m afraid Abebe is guilty of arson.
Last night he confided to me that he was the
one who set fire to the old school house.
Hailu: No, you could not be more
mistaken. In this country no one is guilty until
proven so in a court of law, and Abebe has not
yet even been accused of any thing.
This dispute centers on the meaning of the
word “guilty”
Galana: Uses the word in moral sense
Hailu: Uses the word in legal
sense
Cont’d …
Factual Disputes
Daniel: I know that Samuel stole a computer from the
department; Almaz told me that she saw Samuel do it.
Elias: This is ridiculous! Samuel had never stolen any
thing in his life. Almaz hates Samuel, and she is trying to
pin the theft on him only to shield her criminal boyfriend,
Tesfaye.

Sanbon: Your friend Dibora told us that she would be

visiting her parents in Adama this weekend. Therefore,
she must not be at home.
Helen: I agree that Dibora is probably not at home,
but you did not hear her right. She said that her parents
live in Ambo.
In both, argument focuses on matter of facts.
Emotive
Emotive - a terminology that expresses/evokes
feelings (good or bad/likes or dislikes) and hence
elicits emotions and has thus emotive forces.
Examples:
The death penalty is a cruel and inhuman form of
punishment in which hapless prisoners are
dragged from their cells and summarily
slaughtered only to satiate the blood lust of a
vengeful public.

The number of murders per year here is now so

high that you have got to have a death wish to
walk the streets, day or night. Every lunatic and
every thug carries a “heater” just waiting to blow
you away.
Emotive function
In advertising
Sport cola is the best, cheerful soft drink
whose taste is so unbelievably remarkable
that you won’t help drinking it all day along!
And the best is for you and not for anyone
else.

Nyala Insurance is like a good neighbor. A

good neighbor is a person who is always there
in time of need, which is exactly what every
one wants from Nyala Insurance. Let our
company be your life time partner.
Cont’d …
In Military
Because languages associate with military
ventures often call forth negative emotions; to
counteract this effect, the military
spokespersons use neutral terminologies to
evoke a neutral response like:

“Human targets”  ‘Soft targets’

“Dropping bomb”  ‘Servicing a site’
“Bombers” ’Face packages’
“A retreat”  ‘An adjustment on the
front’
“A war”  ‘A police action”
Definition
Definition: means a group of words that
assigns a meaning to some word or groups of
words. Every definition has two parts: the
definiendum and the definiens.
Definiendum: the word or group of words
that is supposed to be defined, and
Definiens: word or group of words that does
the defining.
Ex: “Tiger” means a large, striped, ferocious
beast indigenous to the jungles of India and
Asia.
“Tiger” = definiendum
Everything after “Tiger” = definiens
Types of Definitions
• Stipulative definition
• Lexical definition
• Précising definition
• Theoretical definition
• Persuasive definition.
Stipulative Definition – No T/F value
Coining a new word or Giving a new meaning to
an old word.
Ex:- A male tiger and a female lion were
interbred & given a new name “Tigon”
A female tiger and a male lion – “Liger”
Another use of stipulative definitions is to set up
secret codes.
Example:
“Operation Barbarosa” a name Germans gave to
the invasion of Russia
“Operation desert storm” – a code name given to
the 1991 military invasion of Iraq.
Purpose: to replace a more complex expression
Lexical Definition – either T/F
Dictionary definitions are all instances of lexical
definitions.
A word is Vague  if there are borderlines causes
such that it is impossible to tell whether the word
applies to them or not.
Ex: Words such as “Love” “happiness” “peace”,
“rich”, “poor,” etc are vague.
A word is Ambiguous when it can be interpreted
as having two or more clearly distinct meanings in
a given context.
Ex: Words like “light”, “bank”, “sound”, “right” or
“race”
Purpose: to reduce/eliminate the ambiguity of
words.
Précising Definitions – not arbitrary
They reduce the vagueness of a word.
E.g. A Legislation was introduced to give
direct financial assistance to the poor. “Poor”
is vague. Here we can use a précising
definition like: “Poor” means having an
annual income of less then 4,000 birr.
Ex.2. “Dead” person – vague
= Person whose heart stops beating,
= Person who has stopped breathing,
or
= Persons whose brain stops functioning
permanently.
Theoretical Definition – either T/F
This provides a theoretical picture or
characterization of entity denoted by
the definienum.
Ex 1: “Heat” means the energy
associated with the random notion of
molecules of a substance.
Ex 2: “Light” means a form of
electro magnetic radiation.
Ex.3. “Good” is the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of
people (John Stuart Mill).
Persuasive Definition – either T/F
Purpose: to influence the attitudes of the reader or
listener. Ex 1: “Abortion” means the ruthless murdering of
innocent human beings.
“Abortion” means of a safe and establish surgical
procedure whereby woman is relieved of an unwanted
burden.
Ex 2: “Taxation” means the procedure by means of which
our common wealth is presented and sustained.
“Taxation” means the procedure used by
bureaucrats to rip off the people who elected them.
Ex 3: “Capitalism” means the economic system in which
individuals are afforded the God – given freedom to own
property and conduct business as they choose.
“Capitalism” means the economic system in which
humanity is sacrificed to the wanton quest for money; and
mutual understanding and respect are replaced by
alienation, greed.
Definitional Techniques
1. Enumerative: Assign meaning to a term by
naming the members of a class the term denotes. May
be partial or complete.
Examples: “Actor” means a person such as Oli Nega,
Admasu Birhanu or Abebe Balcha (Partial)
“Planet” means one of the following: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune or Pluto.
(Complete).
2. A Definition by Subclass: Assigns a meaning to a
term by naming subclasses of the class denoted by the
term. It may be either partial or complete.
Examples: “Tree” means an oak, sycamore, acacia,
tid, maple and the like. (Partial)
“Fictional Work” means a poem, a play,
a novel or a short story. (Complete)
Cont’d …
2a. Synonymous definition: This is the one
in which the definiens is a single word that
connotes the same attributes as the
definiedum.
Ex: “Physician” means a doctor.
“Intentional” means willful.
“Observe” means see.
However, many words are not connoted by a
single word. For example, the word “wisdom”
is not exactly synonymous with either
“knowledge,” “understanding,” or “sense.”
Cont’d …
2b. Etymological Definition: Assigns a
meaning to a word by disclosing the word’s
ancestry in both its’ own language and other
languages.
Example: “License” is derived from the
Latin verb “licere,” which means to be
permitted.
“Captain” derived from the Latin noun
“caput” which means head.
“Polygon” derived from Greek “Poly” means
many, and “Ganos” means angles.
“Polygamy” means having many wives,
Greek “Gamus” means wives/partners”.
Cont’d …
2c. Operational definition: This assigns a
meaning to a word by specifying certain
experimental procedures that determine whether
or not the word applies to a certain thing.
Example 1: One substance is “harder than”
another if and only if one scratches the other
when the two are rubbed together.
A solution is an “acid” if and only if litmus paper
turns red when dipped into it.
A subject has “brain activity” if and only if an
electroencephalograph shows oscillations when
attached to the subject’s head.
Purpose: for clarifying abstract concepts to the
ground of empirical reality.
Cont’d …
2d. Genus and Difference: This assigns a meaning to a
term by identifying a genus term and one or more
difference words that, when combined, convey the
meaning of the definiendum.
Genus: means a relatively larger class,
Species: means a relatively smaller subclass of the
genus.
Difference: means the attribute/s that distinguishes
the various species with in a genus.
Examples: “Ice” means frozen water.
“Daughter” means female offspring.
“Husband” means married man.
“Doe” means female deer.
“Ewe” means female sheep.
“Ram” means male sheep.
“Skyscraper” means very tall building.
Chapter 3: Fallacies
A fallacy is a defect in an argument that
consists is some thing other than merely false
premises. Both deductive and inductive
arguments may contain fallacies. If they
contain, they are either unsound or uncogent
and if an argument is Unsound or Uncogent, it
has one or more false premises or it contains
fallacy.
Fallacy is divided into two as formal fallacy
and informal fallacy.
Formal fallacy: is the one that may be
identified through the mere inspection of the
form or structure of an argument. It is usually
observed in deductive argument--disjunctive
Cont’d …
Informal fallacy
is the one that can be defected only through analysis of
the content of the argument

Ex.1. All factories are plants. All plants are things that
contain chlorophyll.
Therefore, all factories are things that contain
chlorophyll.

The form is valid:

All A are B
All B are C
So All A are C
But the argument is clearly invalid because it has true
premises and a false conclusion.
Types of informal fallacies
1. Fallacies of Relevance
2. Fallacies of Weak
Induction
3. Fallacies of Presumption
4. Fallacies of Ambiguity
and
5. Fallacies of Grammatical
Analogy