PBSEDENG002

STYLISTICS AND DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Module 1
First -Fifth Weeks
An Overview of Stylistics

INTRODUCTION
The study of stylistics is considered as an important branch of linguistics. It is primarily
concerned with the linguistic analysis of written texts , but not exclusively with the literary
ones. In this module, you will be provided an overview of stylistics and the study of it.
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of module 1, you are expected to:

1.explain the nature, scope, and goals of stylistics;

2.trace the history of stylistics;
3.differentiate styles,meanings, contexts, devices and means in language and literature;
4.analyze sample texts on their denotative and connotative , lexical and stylistic
meanings,linguistic and extralingual contexts, expressive means, stylistic devices, and functional
means;
5. share one’s interest in stylistic research and study through appreciation of author’s unique styles
6.reflect on a learning experience.
TOPIC
Unit 1 – An Overview of Stylistics

Nature , Scope, and Goals of Stylistics

Rhetorics and the History of Stylistics
Influences: Analogists(Caesar) vs Anomalists ( Cicero)
What is Style?
Norm
Individual Style
Functional Style
Denotative vs Connotative, Lexical vs Stylistic Meaning
Linguistic vs Extralingual Contexts
Microcontext
Macrocontext
Megacontext
 Expresiveness vs Emotiveness
 Expressive Means, Stylistic Devices, and Functional Means
KNOWLEDGE ACTIVATOR

When you go for an online class or attend to a virtual meeting

or seminar, what gadget or device do you use? Why do you
prefer to use it compared to others? What does it have that
made you say that it’s the perfect choice?
Comprehension Check/Tasks:
A.Create an organizer that will explain the nature, scope, and goals of
stylistics.Be guided with the given rubric.
B. Using an appropriate graphic organizer, trace the history of
stylistics .Refer to task A’s graphic organizer rubric .
C.Differentiate important terms and concepts on stylistics-influences,
style, meaning, contexts, devices, and means through a summary table.
Same rubric will be used for this task.
D.Examine at least two sample texts on their denotative and connotative,lexical and
stylistic meanings,linguistic and extralingual contexts, expressive means, and stylistic
devices.Be ready to share orally your findings in class.Be guided with the oral
presentation rubric.
E.Research on famous authors.Share your findings of their styles and stylistic choices
using the oral presentation rubric.
INTEGRATION (Reflection)
Reflect on the learning that you gained from this lesson by completing the given
chart.

What were your misconceptions about What new or additional learning have
the topic prior to taking up this lesson? you gained from this lesson in terms of
skills, content, and attitude?

I thought… I learned that…

What is Stylistics?

It is a systematic way of exploring a literary text especially the language

of a text and tries to explain how language creates meaning, style and
certain effect. The study of stylistics is considered as one of the significant
tools to analyze a literary piece from the point of view of language.
(Prasanna Ramtirthe of Savitribai Phule Pune University,India.The study
is titled:STYLE AND STYLISTICS: AN OVERVIEW)
Important Definitions:
1.The general definition of stylistics is that it is the study of
style of the writers or the literary artists.
2. According to Lucas (1995) stylistics is the effective use of
language in prose to make statements or arouse emotions.
3. Stylistics can be also defined as the study of different styles
that are present in the text or the utterance of the character.
4. According to David Crystal stylistics is the study of certain
aspects of language variations as a part of linguistics.
5. G. N. Leech one of the renowned linguist opines that
stylistics is the linguistic approach to literature explaining the
relation between language and its artistic function,
6. H. G. Widdowson says that stylistics involves both literary criticism
and linguistics.
7. According to K. T. Khader stylistics an intensive study of
literary text on an advanced level.
8. In the opinion of Thomas Kane stylistics is the study of
linguistic choices the writer makes to express his/her thought
and feeling in an effective way.
9. Stylistics can be also defined as the study of the language
deviations or the choice of language outside of the range of
normal language.
10. Stylistics may be defined as the study of language use
according to the situation or the circumstances.
Stylistics looks at style from the following
perspectives:
1.Style as Choice-writer/poet makes certain choices of words
and expressions to describe situations or characters
2.Style as Deviation-writer/poet avoids the standard form of
writing and makes use of deviations to sound stylistically
significant.
3.Style as Situation-the situation is the context in which the
text comes to life( social, cultural, political or pragmatic)
4.Style as the Temporal Phenomenon-When the writer
wants to write a text, he/she has to consider the time
factor(plays an important role)
5.Style as Individual-Every individual is unique.
Why should we do stylistics?
 Are there advantages and disadvantages of the study
of stylistics.

To understand fully the world of Stylistics, find out its

origin and development.
Stylistics is one of the important tools to examine and
analyze a literary text. It is an interesting branch of
linguistics which studies the different styles of language.
There are, however some advantages and disadvantages
of the study of stylistics.
Advantages of the Study
1. Students at the advanced level are made aware of the social aspect of
language and language variation.
2. It helps students develop their analytical skills. The stylistic analysis of
a literary text helps them to arrive at an understanding from language
point of view. For instance, when the students are asked to do the stylistic
analysis of the poem „Daffodils‟, they are expected to study the diction,
the use of figures of speech, imagery and poetic devices related to sound
etc. Thus, the students‟ ability to interpret the text is enhanced.
3. It will help students use this analytical skill in the spoken and written
discourse.
4.Stylistics does not only help in analyzing the literary texts but it also
helps the students to use language effectively in written and oral
communication in various speech situation.
5. It helps students understand the power and solidarity relations. In
other words, stylistics would be an understanding of how conversational
turn-taking patterns in novels and plays can reflect power relations.
6. One can understand the figurative use of language including deviations
and the principles of foregrounding while studying the stylistics.
7. The goal of the stylistics is not only to describe the formal features of the
text, but it also takes into account the functional significance.
8. The readers of the texts are benefited by the study of stylistics with regard
to the rhyme, sound patterns, language variation, dialects and registers.
9. The students of literature will understand the point of view of the writer
in writing the texts.
10. The students become aware of the structures of language including
several kinds of ambiguities used in the text. Thus, stylistics does no only
enhance students’ power of understanding of the text, but it also helps them
increase their knowledge of the language use.
Disadvantages of the Study
1.The study of stylistics is limited to the phonological, morphological and
syntactic relations of the words and expressions. It cannot go beyond and
study the meaning.
2.It does not take into account the social or cultural meaning of the words
and expressions,
3. The contextual or the associative meaning does not form the study of
stylistics.
4.Pragmatic meaning of the utterances is not considered in stylistics.
5.This kind of study is limited to the structures of the language.
In the territory of literature language is used as a medium of communication between
the writer and reader.
The study of language of literature is the study of Style. Traditionally it dwells within
the territory of Literary Criticism.
Literature owes a good deal of power to the way language is used in the text. Most of
the writers including Plato, Aristotle, Wordsworth, Cardinal Newman, and T.S. Eliot
have taken great efforts to acquire Style. It is recorded of Plato that in one of his drafts of
Dialogues, found after his death, the first paragraph was written in seventy different
forms.
 The writers try to write well and the critics try to understand well.
Without a sense of Style, literature cannot be fully enjoyed.
 A work of literature is an artifact. Its beauty lies within its language. Let us take an
example of Onion. On the surface we do not sense much of its beauty. But if its petals are
opened one-by-one its internal as well as external structure is studied that becomes the
source of joy.
Similarly, the study of Style yields a peculiar joy in it.
Style is the key to the meaning and structure of the literary text.
The critic dwells intently upon each part, each line and each word and each context.
Literary language is a language in a context, words in relation to other words.
 Each word gives its quality to the work as a whole and each detail of the literary work
takes its quality from the whole work. Put out the light is an undistinguished sentence in
isolation, but not in Othello .It has exceptional seriousness in the play. To be or not to be
is also has an undistinguished sentence in isolation, but not in Hamlet .
One can understand and enjoy the beauty of literature through the study of Style.
Origin of Style:

The word „Style‟ is derived from the Latin „Stylus‟ meaning „stimulus‟ „instigate‟,
„stick‟. The word „Style‟, naturally, originally meant a „writing-implement ‟ appointed
object of bone or metal, for inscribing wax. But in the days of classical Latin the word
„stylus‟ was extended to mean, first, a man‟s „way of writing‟; and then, more
generally, his „way of expressing himself‟ in speech as well as in writing.
The beginning of Style-study:

The concept of style is an old one. Etymologically it goes back to the very beginnings of
literary thought in Europe. It appears in connection with Rhetoric rather than
poetic. It was regarded as part of the technique of persuasion, and therefore,
discussed largely under the head of Oratory. Plato, who lived in an age of Oratory,
studied and laid down a few principles of good speech in his Phaedrus. Aristotle too
deals with it in his Rhetoric. Quintilian wrote a treatise in twelve books dealing with the
art of Oratory. In his Institutio Oratorio he formulates a theory of style which applies to
the written and the spoken speech.
Various Approaches to Style:
Style is a very common word used in day-to-day life. We talk of walking style, hair style,
acting style etc. We think of it as the manner of doing something.
Similarly, Style in literature refers to the way in which language is used in a given text.
 In this kind of general interpretation, the word „Style‟ has a fairly uncontroversial
meaning.
1. Style as Dress of Thought Approach: This is one of the earliest approaches to
style and there are a host of definitions which subscribe to the traditional view that style
is „dress of thought‟. Thought is imagined as existing in some pre-verbal form, and it is
then „clothed‟ in language.
Traditional Rhetoric and Criticism made a separation between Matter and Manner, Content
and Form, what is said and the way of saying it. Dryden observes in his preface to Anus
Mirabilis: “So then the first happiness of the poet ‟s imagination is properly invention, or
finding of the thought; the second is fancy, of the variation, deriving or molding of that
thought, as the judgment represents it proper to the subject; the third is elocution, or the
art of clothing or adorning that thought so found and varied in apt, significant and sounding
words.”
On this theory it is easy to see what Style is. Language is the dress of thought, and
Style is the particular cut and fashion of the dress. This „Ornamental‟ theory of
Style has its justification. Even in Aristotle ‟s definition of tragedy “…………….. in language
embellished with each kind of artistic ornament;….. The chief aim of the literary writer was
to achieve the heart of the reader, and therefore, artistry of the writer was very much
valued. Even ornamentation of style was considered as an art by itself and a good writer was
advised to use Similes, Emphasis, Metaphor and other figures of speech to this end in view.
2. Style as Choice: This is a view frequently held by a large number of scholars who
think that Style is a matter of choice. They believe that every writer necessarily makes
choices of expression, and that it is in these choices, in his way of putting things, that Style
resides. They do not believe in the doctrine: one thought, one form. They premise different
forms, for an utterance which create particular effects. Language offers expensive choices
by way of vocabulary, syntax, sound systematic.
For instance a writer can use one among a number of expressions to mean „died‟. After
few days after John Smith‟s death his son Mark Smith wrote four different letters in order
to convey the incident. My beloved parent has joined the heavenly choir, he wrote to his
aunt. He wrote to an elderly acquaintance, my dear father has passed away. He sent a letter
to his officer stating my father has died. He informed one of his friends, ‟ my old man has
kicked the bucket. Each of the statements communicates the same fact that John Smith has
died. The words, which express the fact, are different in each case. The matter is the same
but the manner has changed. In other words each sentence is written in a different style.
3.Style is The Man Approach: It is based on the assumption that style reflects the
writer‟s personality. A Latin statement “stilusvirumarguit‟ states that: „Style
proclaims the man is‟. Style is personality clothed in words, character embodied in
speech. If hand-writing reveals character, style reveals much more. Longinus insisted,
„Height of style is the echo of a great personality”. All this may seem strangely remote
from modern ideas. But Buffon‟s definition of style in his Academy address in 1753
contributed to its vogue.
He said. “Style is the expression of the individual quality characteristic of the writer”.
This emphasis on the individual element of style is very important as everybody knows
that many writers, including a host of great ones, have arrived at the kind of
individuality that makes it possible for an experienced reader to identify their writings.
Hence we talk of Shakespeare‟s style, Milton‟s style, Dr. Johnson‟s style, Dickens ‟s
style, Eliot‟s style, Hemingway‟s style, to name a few who have their own stylistic
peculiarities.
4.Style as Deviation from Norms: It is our common experience that a literary work
deviates in some way from norms which we have learnt to expect in the medium used.
The literary writer‟s skill lies not in mechanically reproducing established patterns of
language in his work. A work of art must please and achieve the heart of the reader. The
writer deliberately departs from accepted norms and creates unique effects.
The Main Terms, Categories and Notions of Stylistics.
The word style is used in many senses that is why it has become a permanent source of
ambiguity. It may denote:
•The correspondence between thought and expression 
•An individual manner of making use of language 
•The set of rules how to write a composition – sometimes style is associated with very
simple notions like “style is the man himself (Buffon 18thc.)
“Style – is depth,” said Darbyshire in 1971 “A Grammar of Style”; “style is
deviation”- considered Enkvist in his book Linguistic Stylistics published in the Hague
in 1973. All these definitions deal somehow with the essence of style that is summed up
by the following observations: 
 Style is a quality of language which communicates precisely emotions or thoughts or a
system of them peculiar to the author  A true idiosyncrasy of style is the result of an
author’s success in compelling language to conform to his mode of experience
(Middleton Murry) 
Style is a contextually restricted linguistic variation (Enkvist) 
 Style is a selection of non-distinctive features of language(Bloomfield)  Style is
simply synonymous with form or expression(Benedetto Croce)
Summing up these numerous definitions we may single out the traits upon which most
of the scholars agree: 
Style – is a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another
Style is regarded as something that belongs exclusively to the plane of expression
and not to the plane of content
Expressive Means ( EM ) and Stylistic Devices ( SD ). Expressiveness and
Emotiveness.

In linguistics there are different terms to denote particular means by which the utterance
is made effective imparting some additional information: EMs, SDs, stylistic markers,
tropes, figures of speech etc. All of them are set against the so-called neutral means.
All language units bear some grammatical and lexical meanings and some of them have a
specific meaning to the previous one, which may be called stylistic. The reader perceives
neutral language means automatically – they are easily and quickly decodable – others
arrest the listener’s attention by peculiar use and he tries to solve this enigma. What is the
SD? How does it differ from EM? To answer this question it is first of all necessary to
enlighten the concept category of “expressiveness”.
Expressiveness – in etymological sense is a kind of intensification of the utterance (or a part of it).
It should not be confused with the category of emotiveness that reveals emotions of the writer or a
speaker – by not directly manifesting their emotions but by echoing real feelings, designed to awaken
co-experience on the part of the reader. Expressiveness is broader than emotiveness and cannot be
reduced to the latter, which is the part of expressiveness and occupies a predominant position in it.

Expressiveness Emotiveness
Mr. Smith was an extremely unpleasant person Isn’t she cute!
Never will he go to that place again Fool that he was!
In rushed the soldis This goddam window won’t open!
It took us a very, very long time to forget This quickie tour did not satisfy our
Curiosity.
Expressive means are those phonetic, morphological, word-building, lexical,
phraseological, syntactical forms, which exist in language-as-a-system for the purpose of
logical or emotional intensification of the utterance.
Some of them are normalized in the language and labeled in the dictionaries as
intensifiers.
The most powerful expressive means are phonetic because the human voice can
indicate subtle nuances of meaning that no other means could convey. Such parameters
of speech as pitch, melody, stress, pausation, drawling out, whispering and sing-song
manner are studied by phonetics and “paralinguistics” – a new science analyzing
phonetic devices from the linguistic point of view.
Morphological EM are studied by grammar or morphological stylistics and include
stylistic possibilities of the categories of number, Historical Present, “shall” in the 2 or 3
person, demonstrative pronouns, verbals, etc. It should be noted that this branch of
stylistics is only at the initial stage of its development.
Word-building or (broader) lexical EM comprise a great many word-forms rendering
stylistic meaning with the help of different affixes: e.g. diminutive suffixes – dearie,
sonny, auntie, streamlet.
At the lexical level expressiveness can also be rendered by the words possessing inner
expressive charge - interjections, epithets, slang and vulgar, poetic or archaic words, set
phrases, idioms, catchwords, proverbs and sayings.
 Finally, at the syntactical level there are many constructions, which may reveal certain
degree of logical or emotional emphasis
In order to distinguish between an EM(Expressive Means) and a SD(Stylistic Device)
one should bear in mind that EMs are concrete facts of language.
 Stylistics studies EMs from a special angle, it Denotative meaning investigates the
modifications of meaning which various EM undergo when they are used in different
functional styles.
Stylistic device is a conscious and intentional intensification of some
typical structural and/or semantic property of a language unit (neutral or
expressive) promoted to a generalized status thus becoming a generative
model.
SD is an abstract mould into which any content may be poured. Most SDs display an
application of 2 meanings: the ordinary one (already established in language-as-a-
system) and a special – imposed on the unit by the author (or content), a meaning,
which appears in language-in-action.
Such usage of a language unit was characteristic of ancient Greek and Roman literature.
The birth of a SD is a natural process in the development of language media. Language
units, which are used with definite aims of communication, gradually begin to develop
new features resulting in their polyfunctionality.
Interrelations between EMs and SDs can be expressed in terms of the theory of
information. EMs have greater degree of predictability than SDs while the latter carry a
greater amount of information and require a certain effort to decode their meaning and
purport. SDs must be regarded as a special code, which has to be well known to the
reader to be deciphered easily.
Types of Meaning. Meaning and Sense. Meaning from a Stylistic Point of View
In speaking about EMs and SDs we have to resort to the notion of meaning so it is necessary to
give a clear definition for this concept.
 Likemany linguistic terms, meaning has been defined in quite a number of ways. At some
period in the development of descriptive linguistics meaning was excluded from the domain of
language science – it was considered an extra-linguistic category.
But later on this tendency has been justly ruled out. Instead came investigation of the
interrelations between meaning and concept, meaning and sign, meaning and referent.
The general tendency is to regard meaning as something stable at a given period of time. In
stylistics meaning is a category capable of acquiring new aspects imposed on the words by the
context. Such meanings are called contextual. It also deals with meaning that have fallen out of
use. In stylistics it is important to discriminate shades of meaning, its components called semes (
the smallest units of meaning).
Meaning can also be viewed in terms of information theory.
 A word renders primary (denotative) and additional (connotative) information that
is ascribed to it in different contexts.
The first kind of information only denotes a realia existing in an objective plane while
the second kind reflects the emotive plane of the word usage.
 If a word has only connotative meaning it is stylistically neutral: e.g. a child may be
called tenderly or teasingly monkey- face, honey bum, sugar plum, cookie while taken in
isolation or in another context the same words have absolutely different meaning.
Connotative meaning may be of 4 types:
1.Functional (reflecting the sphere of usage of the word)
2.Evaluative (positive, negative or neutral) Emotive plane
3.Emotive (rendering the attitude of the speaker)
4.Expressive (containing an image of pragmatic value)
Most of the words contain a combination of different meanings. The ability of a word to
comprise several meanings, that is to be polysemantic, becomes of crucial value for
stylistic studies. The multitude of meanings is not limited by those already fixed in the
dictionaries. Some meanings are in the process of becoming legitimate.
Summing up all that was said above we can state that stylistic meaning as distinguished
from lexical one, which is representing primary information, is based on the secondary
(additional) information.
 It denotes the features which are adherent (ascribed) to the object while lexical
meaning renders inherent features that cling to a word as a permanent part of it.
Lexical meaning is given explicitly while stylistic meaning is always implied.
Lexical meaning is relatively stable, and stylistic meaning is liable to change as it is
affected by extralinguistic factors.
Lexical meaning also differs from grammatical meaning that refers the mind to the relations
between words or to some forms of words or constructions bearing their structural functions in
the language-as-a system.
 In other words, grammatical meaning can also be called structural meaning. All the words
have grammatical meaning simply because they belong to some language and have their place in
it. Let us analyze the sentence:

e.g. I shall never go to that place again.

The words never, go, place, again have both lexical and grammatical meaning while I , shall, that
– only grammatical.
For stylistics it is also important to differentiate between logical, emotive and nominal meaning.
Logical meaning (synonymously called referential or direct) is the precise naming of a feature,
an idea, a phenomenon or an object. As this kind of meaning is liable to change we can speak of
primary and secondary logical meanings.
All the meanings fixed by the dictionaries comprise what is called the semantic structure of a
word.
Accidental meanings are transitory depending on the context and cannot be considered
components of it. Every word possesses enormous potential for generating new meanings. In this
regard it is especially important to analyze emotive meaning which also materializes the concept
of a word but it has reference to the feelings and emotions of a speaker towards the thing. It
names the object by evaluating it.

e.g. I feel so darned lonely

The words like darned, fabulous, terrifying, stunning, swell, smart possess an inherent
emotive connotation while others acquire emotive meaning only in a definite context,
which is therefore called contextual emotive meaning.
 Some classes of words – interjections, exclamations, and swearwords – are direct
bearers of emotive meaning.
Interjections have even lost completely their logical meaning: e.g. alas, oh, ah, pooh,
darn, gosh.
Nominal meaning steps in when we deal with the words serving the purpose of singling
out one definite and singular object of a whole class of similar objects. These words are
classified by grammarians as proper nouns as different from common nouns.
To distinguish nominal meaning from logical one the former is designated by a capital
letter.
Studying the conventional character of lexical meaning we approach the problem of a
sign.
The science that deals with the general theory of signs is called semiotics. By sign we
understand one material object capable of denoting another object or idea.
 A system of interrelated and interdependent signs is called a code. Thus, we speak of a
language code, which consists of different signs – lexical, phonetic, morphological,
syntactical and stylistic.
Words are the units of language that can be compared to signs in that they are
materialized manifestations of ideas, things, phenomena, events, actions, and properties
having the form of either a chain of vowel and consonant sounds or a chain of graphical
symbols.
Functional Styles and Varieties of a Language
Functional style (FS) may be defined as a system of interrelated language means which
serves a definite aim of communication. FSs appear mainly in the literary standard of a
language as the product of its development. FSs are sometimes called registers or
discourses.In the English literary standard we distinguish:

•the language of belles-lettres

•the language of publicistic literature 
•the language of press/media 
•the language of scientific prose 
•the language of official documents
Linguistic vs stylistic context, other types of context.
A linguistic context is the encirclement of a language unit by other language units in speech. Such
encirclement makes the meaning of the unit clear and unambiguous. It is especially important in
case with polysemantic words.
Types of linguistic context:
Microcontext is the context of a single utterance (sentence).
Macrocontext is the context of a paragraph in a text.
Megacontext is the context of a book chapter, a story or the whole book.
Stylistic context – unity of stylistic element and its surroundings.
Micropoetic – the context limited by a complete sentence.
Macropoetic – the context of paragraph or the whole text.
An extralingual (situational) context is formed by extralingual con-ditions in which
communication takes place. Besides making the meaning of words well-defined, a
situational context allows the speaker to economize on speech efforts and to avoid
situationally redundant language signs. The com-mands of a surgeon in an operating
room, such as "scalpel", "pincers" or "tampon", are understood by his assistants correctly
and without any addi-tional explanations about what kind of tampon is needed.
Extralingual context can be physical or abstract and can significantly affect the
communication Such surroundings form a physical context. A dialogue between
colleagues can be affected by the nature of their relationship. That is, one may be of
higher status than the other. Such nature forms an abstract context. Historical accounts
are more easily understood when evoked in the context of their own time. Such context
is called temporal or chronological. There would be a psychologi-cally advantageous
context within which to tell one's spouse about that dent-ed bumper on the new car.
Such context may be called psychological.
EM and SD.
Expressive means – is a marked member of stylistic opposition which has an invariant
meaning in language.
-language
-paradigmatic relations
-stylistic meaning is not contextually bound
Expressive means of a language are those phonetic, lexical, morphological and
syntactic units and forms which make speech emphatic.
Expressive means introduce connotational (stylistic, non-denotative) meanings into
utterances.
Phonetic expressive means include pitch, melody, stresses, pauses, whispering, singing,
and other ways of using human voice.
 Morphological expressive means are emotionally coloured suffixes of diminutive
nature: -y (-ie), -let (sonny auntie, girlies).
To lexical expressive means belong words, possessing connotations, such as epithets,
poetic and archaic words, slangy words, vulgarisms, and interjections.
A chain of expressive synonymic words always contains at least one neutral synonym.
For ex-le, the neutral word money has the following stylistically coloured equivalents:
ackers (slang), cly (jargon), cole (jargon), gelt (jargon), moo (amer. slang), etc.
A chain of expressive synonyms used in a single utterance creates the effect of climax
(gradation).
To syntactic expressive means belong emphatic syntactic constructions. Such
constructions stand in opposition to their neutral equivalents. The neutral sentence
"John went away" may be replaced by the following expressive variants: "Away went
John" (stylistic inversion), "John did go away" (use of the emphatic verb "to do"), "John
went away, he did" (emphatic confirmation pattern), "It was John who went away" ("It is
he who does it" pattern).
Stylistic devices (tropes, figures of speech) unlike expressive means are not language
phenomena.
They are formed in speech and most of them do not exist out of context. According to
principles of their formation, stylistic devices are grouped into phonetic, lexico-semantic
and syntactic types.
Basically, all stylistic devices are the result of revaluation of neutral words, word-
combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation makes language units obtain
connotations and stylistic value.
A stylistic device is the subject matter of stylistic semasiology.
Foregrounding: the evolution of the notion, major types.
Foregrounding is - a stylistic device that includes the principles of formal textual organization
that focus the reader’s attention on some certain fragments of the message
A stylistic device that draws attention to itself by defamilarization from everyday speech.
The term is borrowed from art criticism which distinguishes between the foreground and the
background of a painting.
2 ways of producing foregrounding:
- parallelism: unexpected regularity, “more of the same”
- deviation: unexpected irregularity
These are relative concepts, because something can only be unexpectedly regular or irregular
within a particular context.
Types of foregrounding:
1.Convergence: combination or accumulation of stylistic devices promoting the same
idea (e.g. “and heaved, and heaved, still unrestingly heaved the black sea, as its vast tides
were a conscience” – simile, repetition, inversion)
2.Coupling: semantically relevant appearance of equivalent elements in equivalent
position. Coupling is based on the affinity of elements that occupy similar positions
throughout the text.
The affinity may be different in nature: phonetic, structural, semantic.
•Phonetic affinity is provided by the phonetic stylistic devices (alliteration, assonance,
paronomasia), as well as such prosodic features as rhyme, rhythm and meter.
•Syntactical affinity is achieved by all kinds of parallelism and syntactical repetition –
anadiplosis, anaphora, framing, chiasmus, epiphora, etc.
•Semantic coupling is demonstrated by the use of synonyms and antonyms, both direct
and contextual, root repetition, paraphrase, sustained metaphor, semantic fields,
recurrence of images, connotations or symbols.
3.Defeated expectancy: some element of the text receives prominence due to an interruption in
the pattern of predictability. (e.g. “Miss Fairfax, ever since I met you I have admired you more
than any girl … I have met … since I met you.” (O. Wilde)
Module 2
Literary Prose and Drama Stylistics

At the end of module 2, you are expected to:

1.present a review of prose and drama that focuses on the characteristics

of each genre;
2.come up with a survey of prose authors/dramatists and their unique
styles and purposes of writing;
3.review critical literary views and theories and match them to known
authors;
4.plan,write and present one’s stylistic analysis of prose/drama texts
which are suitable for English literature learners; and
5.reflect on a learning experience.
Unit 2 – Literary Prose and Drama Stylistics
Review of Prose and Drama Genres
Characteristics of Prose and Drama
-Characters and Characterization
-Setting and Conflict
-Point of View
-Plot
-Theme
-Prose and Dramatic Technique
Survey of Prose Authors/ Dramatists and their Unique Styles
Review of Critical Literary Views and Theories
Stylistic Analysis of Prose
KNOWLEDGE ACTIVATORS:
Recall titles of prose and drama that you have read.List them
down and be able to say something about these literary genres.Use the
given table for your answers.
Titles of Prose Description Titles of Drama Description
Comprehension Check/Tasks:

A.Create an graphic organizer that will present a review of prose and drama. Make sure
to bring out the characteristics of each genre.Be guided with the given rubric.

Graphic Organizer Rubric

Content
Utility Needs Improvement 1
pt.
Good3 ptsGood Great5 pts.Great

Presentation
B.Choosing the most appropriate organizer, provide a survey of prose authors
/dramatists and their unique styles and purposes of writing such texts.
C.Using another graphic organizer, present a review of critical literary views and
theories. See to it that the theories and views match to known authors.Be guided with
the given graphic organizer rubric.
D.Plan, write and present a Stylistic analysis of a chosen prose/drama text on style,
genre, characteristics, other stylistic elements, and its suitability for English
literature learners.
Prose /Drama Stylistic Analysis
Introduction(Includes author’s/dramatist’s name, prose or drama for which
she/he is best known, awards (if any), other notable info... as well as the title of
prose/drama you analyzed (in quotes or italicized).Below is the rubric for your
analysis.10 points
Analysis(Author’s/Dramatist’s writing style is fully analyzed in terms of
genre,characteristics, other stylistic elements and its suitability for English
literature learners.) 40 points
Evidence(Each point of analysis of author’s/dramatist’s writing style is
supported by evidence drawn from one or more of her/his works.)20 points
Grammar(Mastery of writing conventions contributes to the effect of the
response of the reader.)20 points
Length(Full two pages using the following format: MS word, Arial or
Georgia,font size 12, single space, 1-inch margin on all sides.)10 points
Total Points=100
Reflection
Reflect on the learning that you gained from this lesson by
completing the given chart.
What were your misconceptions about What new or additional learning have
the topic prior to taking up this lesson? you gained from this lesson in terms of
skills, content, and attitude?

I thought… I learned that…

Prose Genres

Literature is often classified according to genre. In general, however, we can say that the most
common genres of prose are the short story, the novella, and the novel.

1.The Short Story

The short story is especially elusive because it cannot be defined only in terms of length. There are
long short-stories (longer than the average novella) and very short ones—not more than a few
paragraphs.
The ancestors of the short story include myth, legend, the parable, fairy stories, fables, anecdotes, the
exemplum, the essay, and character studies. Some early examples include such Biblical material as
"Cain and Abel", "The Prodigal Son", and "The Good Samaritan" — the so-called Bible Stories. The
whole of the Book of Ruth has been viewed by some as the first short story. Others view the individual
tales in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Bocaccio's Decameron as short stories, even though they are
in poetic form. Detachable episodes in longer works often amount to short stories; episodes in Don
Quixote, much of Dickens, and the individual sections in Gulliver's Travels might serve as examples.
Early pioneers (Sir Walter Scott, Washington Irving, Hoffmann, Hawthorne) set the stage
for Poe — who is regarded as the originator of the modern short story. Poe excelled in the
detective story, the Gothic spine-chiller, and a kind of early science fiction tale. He was
influenced by the German Romanticists and their Gothic stories, but he became the early
and major influence in the nineteenth century.
Toward the end of the 19th century a group of American writers made a considerable name
for themselves. In fact, many critics consider the short story to be a peculiarly American
genre.
The short story also has a continued interest in human relationships, and seems to have an
almost universal appeal: unlike poetry, for example, short stories are read by every class of
persons.
Definition
Edgar Allan Poe presented some ideas about the short story, by which he meant:
a prose narrative requiring anything from half an hour to one or two hours in its
"perusal";
a story that concentrates on a unique or single effect;
a story in which the totality of effect is the main objective.
There have been revisions to this definition, but many modern students of the short story
still agree on two characteristics:
1.is short, usually a good deal less than ten thousand words and seldom more than thirty-
five thousand or so; in other words: economy.
2.2.it is, nevertheless, a story rather than a part of a story—a complete work with a
discoverable unity comparable to that found in other forms; in other words: unity.
Economy
Economy constrains the author to confine the pattern of happenings by giving a detailed
account of one episode or a part of what would be a complete action in a novel — the
beginning, middle, or end — rather than all three.
The author limits the number of characters introduced, often portraying only one
character, or a small group. Even leading characters are not likely to be given a large
number of traits.
Settings, too, in contrast to the novel, are limited in number.
As a rule, the brevity of the short story brings a similar limitation upon its tone and
meanings. The short story writer is likely to voice only one attitude. Whereas a novelist
may give the work multiple meanings, the short story writer is likely to develop simpler
and fewer meanings.
Unity
A short story still must be a complete whole, fused according to some principles. As a reader you must
see what the nature is of the whole work and how each element contributes to the final achievement.
To discover whether the work is unified, and if so, how — or, if not, why not — what the nature of the
unity is, and how it is achieved, there are three questions:
1.What is the effect of the story upon you, the reader? This is Poe's question. What is memorable about
the story? What did it give you: an idea, an attitude, an insight into life or character, an emotion, what?
Then consider how, exactly, that particular effect was produced by that specific story and the manner of
its telling.
2.What is the apparent intention of the author, and how does that intention influence her handling of
details and elements? Intentions might include stories of action, of character, of setting, of idea, of
emotional effect.
3.What is the unique content of the story itself, and how does its form contribute to the presentation of
this unique content? What happens? To whom? Where? Why? How?
For these questions, note how the handling of the details helps provide the answers: character,
happenings, settings, language, tone, symbols of meaning.

2. The Novella
This was originally a kind of short story, as it is a kind of narrative in prose. It differs from the
short story as well as the novel in length—being a kind of middle distance—but more importantly
in substance.
The general characteristics of the novella show this difference:
1.unlike the short story, it has a kind of epic quality;
2.unlike the novel, it is restricted to a single event, situation or conflict;
3.it concentrates on the single event and shows it as a kind of conflict;
4.the event ought to have an unexpected turning point so that the conclusion surprises
even while it is the logical outcome;
5.it may contain a concrete symbol which is the steady point at the heart of the narrative.
The Novel
The word itself is derived from the Italian novella, "a tale, a piece of news", which is now
applied to a wide variety of writing. The common element of all definitions and all sub-
genres is that it is an extended piece of prose fiction. What does "extended" mean?
The length of novels varies greatly, and the debate over whether a novel is not a novel but a
long short story, or a novella, is almost pointless. What is important is the elements of the
work and how they stand up to analysis.
The novel must be a form of story, or prose narrative, containing characters, action
(happenings), and, perhaps, a plot. In fact, it is difficult to imagine a story without characters
or plot. If there is no 'plot' (a unified program of action with a beginning, a middle, and an
end; with conflict, complications, resolutions, etc.) as readers we would probably create one.
The subject matter of the novel is difficult to classify. The novel is a kind of "grab bag" of
literature. No other literary form has proved so versatile, so adaptable to an almost
infinite variety of topics and themes. Few genres have attracted so many aspiring writers.
Different genres of drama

1.Comedy in the contemporary meaning of the term, is

any discourse or work generally intended to be humorous
or to amuse by inducing laughter, especially in theatre,
television, film and stand-up comedy.
Its tone is light and it mostly has a happy ending. The
classic conception of comedy came from the Ancient Greek
theatre, where comedy first emerged as a form of drama.
2.Tragedy is the genre of theatre were the main character sacrafises his or herself for a
loved one or as a mark. Good examples of this is Hamlet or Romio and Julliet both of
which are famous play write William Shakespeare.
Is a type of drama in which the protagonist or hero is brought down by his/her flaws.
Murders, deaths, insanity, and pain are among the most common ideas in tragedies.
Main characters usually have some kind of weakness or defect that causes their downfall.
3.Tragicomedy
Tragicomedy is a special kind of drama that combines the features of tragedy and comedy.
This means that such play may be sad but will have a happy ending, or it may be serious with
some elements of humour emerging throughout the whole play.
Unlike comedy and tragedy, tragicomedy emerged a bit later, in the times of the Roman
Empire. Roman dramatist Plautus was the first to write a tragicomedy and to use the term.
In his play Amphitryon, he used the lightheartedness of comedy but chose gods and kings as
the main characters. This was quite revolutionary of him.
Before Plautus, there were strict rules about writing drama, it was either comedy or tragedy.
These genres were never mixed.
Plautus was the first to note that in our daily lives, we have features of both tragedy and
comedy.
4.Melodrama
Melodrama is the last one of the four types of drama. It is a kind of drama in which
everything is hyperbolized. Usually, themes depicted in melodramas are simple and
without any unpredictable plot twists. There are quite a lot of stereotypes in such dramas.
However, the main point of a melodrama is not to tell a story but to awaken feelings in the
audience. Melodramas are mostly love stories with beautiful heroines, charming heroes,
and scary villains.
5.Horror is a film genre seeking to elicit a negative emotional reaction from viewers by
playing on the audience's primal fears.Horror films often deal with the viewer's
nightmares, hidden fears, revulsions and terror of the unknown. Plots within the horror
genre often involve the intrusion of an evil force, event, or personage, commonly of
supernatural origin, into the everyday world.
6. Romance film can be defined as a genre wherein the plot revolves around the love
between two characters. This genre usually has a theme that explores an issue within
love, including but not limited to: love at first sight, forbidden love, love triangles, and
sacrificial love. The tone of Romance film can vary greatly. Whether the end is happy or
tragic, Romance film aims to evoke strong emotions in the audience.
7. Fantasy is a genre of fiction that commonly uses magic and other supernatural
phenomena as a primary plot element, theme, or setting. Many works within the genre
take place in imaginary worlds where magic and magical creatures are common.
Musicals set out to entertain through a mixture of:
Catchy music in a popular style
Solo songs, duets, choruses and ensembles
Orchestra or band accompaniment
Spoken dialogue
Dance sequences, stage spectacles and magnificent costumes.
What is the difference between drama and prose?
Prose refers to written or spoken language that is not in poetic form, whether
in rhythm, rhyme, or structure.
Drama is a performing art in which actors use dialogue and actions to tell a
story or convey a message to a viewing audience. In most cases, dramatic
works are written down so that the performers can memorize and rehearse the
lines before performing them live. The written form of a drama takes the
structure of a script.
While prose is written in paragraph form, dramatic scripts are written as lines
of dialogue, with the speaker's name clearly designated before each line.
Thus, when one reads the script of a drama instead of seeing it performed, one misses out
on a great deal of description that would explain the characters' movements and
expressions.
Prose allows the author, depending on the chosen point of view, to describe inner
thoughts and feelings of characters.
Drama requires that characters' thoughts either be spoken aloud or portrayed via body
language and movement.
Another factor to consider when differentiating between drama and prose is that dramatic
scripts can be written in either prose or verse or in a combination. William Shakespeare
wrote much of his drama in iambic pentameter. However, he often alternated between
prose and poetry in his plays, with the lines of lower-class characters written in prose and
those of upper-class characters written in poetry. A scene that contained great import
might use more obvious rhyme and meter, while a less significant scene would be written in
more prosaic language.
Main Difference
The main difference between Prose and Drama is that the Prose is a form of language
which applies ordinary grammatical structure and natural flow of speech and Drama is a
artwork intended for performance, formal type of literature.
Prose is a form or technique of language that exhibits a natural flow of speech and
grammatical structure. Novels, textbooks and newspaper articles are all examples of prose.

Drama is the specific mode of fiction represented in performance: a play, opera, mime,
ballet, etc, performed in a theatre, or on radio or television. Considered as a genre of
poetry.
Prose
The ordinary language of men in speaking or writing; language not cast in poetical
measure or rhythm; - contra distinguished from verse, or metrical composition.
Language, particularly written language, not intended as poetry.
Language which evinces little imagination or animation; dull and commonplace
discourse.
A hymn with no regular meter, sometimes introduced into the Mass.
To write or repeat in a dull, tedious, or prosy way.
Drama
A composition, normally in prose, telling a story and intended to be represented by actors
impersonating the characters and speaking the dialogue
the literary genre of works intended for the theater
a dramatic work intended for performance by actors on a stage;
a play for theatre, radio, or television
plays as a genre or style of literature
10 Important Literary Devices in Prose: Examples & Analysis
Any writer looking to master the art of storytelling will want to learn the literary devices in
prose.
1. Parallelism (Parallel Plots)
Parallelism refers to the plotting of events that are similarly constructed but altogether
separate.
Are you familiar with the phrase “history often repeats itself”? If so, then you’re already
familiar with parallelism. Parallelism refers to the plotting of events that are similarly
constructed but altogether separate. Sometimes these parallels develop on accident, but
they are powerful tools for highlighting important events and themes.
A surprising example of parallelism comes in the form of the Harry Potter series. As an
infant, Harry is almost killed by Voldemort but is protected by his mother’s love.
Eighteen years later, Harry must die in order to defeat Voldemort, thus shouldering the
burden of love himself.
What does this parallelism do for the story? Certainly, that’s open to interpretation.
Perhaps it draws attention to the incompleteness of love without action: to defeat
Voldemort (who personifies hatred), Harry can’t just be loved, he has to act on love—by
sacrificing his own life, no less.
2. Foil Characters
A foil refers to any two characters who are “opposites” of each other. These oppositions are
often conceptual in nature: one character may be even-keeled and mild, like Benvolio
in Romeo & Juliet, while another character may be quick-tempered and pugnacious, like
Tybalt.
What do foil characters accomplish? In Romeo & Juliet, Benvolio and Tybalt are basically
Romeo’s devil and angel. Benvolio discourages Romeo from fighting, as it would surely end
in his own death and separation from Juliet, whereas Tybalt encourages fighting out of
family loyalty.
Of course, foils can also be the protagonist and antagonist, especially if they are character
opposites. A reader would be hard-pressed to find similarities between Harry Potter and
Voldemort (except for their shared soul). If you can think of other embodiments of good
versus evil, they are most assuredly foils as well.
3. Diction
You’ll often hear that “diction” is just a fancy term for “word choice.” While this is true,
it’s also reductive, and it doesn’t capture the full importance of select words in your
story. Diction is one of the most important literary devices in prose, as every prose
writer will use it.
Diction is best demonstrated through analyzing a passage of prose, so to see diction in
action, let’s take apart the closing paragraphs of The Great Gatsby.
4. Mood
The mood of a story or passage refers to the overall emotional tone it invokes. When writers
craft a mood in their work, they’re heightening the experience of their story by putting you in
the characters’shoes. Since mood requires using the right words throughout a scene, mood
can be considered an extended form of diction.
The writer cultivates mood by making consistent language choices throughout a passage of
the story. Take, for example, the cliché “it was a dark and stormy night.” That phrase wasn’t
clichéd when it was first written; in fact, it did a great job of opening Edward Bulwer-Lytton’s
novel Paul Clifford. The narrator’s dark, bleak description of the weather brings the reader
into the bleary, tumultuous life of its protagonist, building a mood in both setting and story..
5. Foreshadowing
A foreshadow refers to any time the writer hints towards later events in the story.
Foreshadowing is a powerful literary device in fiction, drawing readers ever-closer to the story’s
climax. A foreshadow refers to any time the writer hints towards later events in the story, often
underscoring the story’s suspense and conflict.
Sometimes foreshadowing is obvious, and sometimes you don’t notice it until rereading the
story.For example, the foreshadowing in Harry Potter makes it fairly obvious that Harry will
have to die. Once the idea of horcruxes, or “split souls,” was introduced in the books, it was only
a matter of time before readers connected these horcruxes to the psychic connection Harry
shared with Voldemort. His mission—to die and be reincarnated—becomes fairly obvious as the
heptalogy comes to a close.
6. In Media Res
In Media Res refers to writing a story starting from the middle
From the Latin “In the middle of things,” In Media Res is one of the literary devices in
prose chiefly concerned with plot. In Media Res refers to writing a story starting from the
middle; by throwing the reader into the center of events, the reader’s interest piques, and
the storytelling bounces between flashback and present day.
Both fiction and nonfiction writers can use In Media Res, provided it makes sense to do
so. For example, Margaret Atwood’s A Handmaid’s Tale begins in the middle of a
dystopian society. Atwood leads us through the society’s establishment and the narrator’s
capture, but all of this is in flashback, because the focus is on navigating the narrator’s
escape from this evil world.
7. Dramatic Irony
Dramatic irony is a literary device in prose in which the audience understands more about
the situation than the story’s characters do. This is an especially important literary device in
fiction, as it often motivates the reader to keep reading.
We often see dramatic irony in stories which involve multiple points-of-view. For example,
the audience knows that Juliet is still alive, but when Romeo discovers her seemingly dead
body, he kills himself in grief. How ironic, then, for Juliet to wake up to her lover’s passing,
only to kill herself in equal grief. By using dramatic irony in the story, Shakespeare points
towards the haphazardness of young love.
8. Vignette
A vignette is a passage of prose that’s primarily descriptive, rather than plot-
driven.Vignettes throw the reader into the scene and emotion, often building the mood of
the story and developing the character’s lens. They are largely poetic passages with little
plot advancement, but the flourishes of a well-written vignette can highlight your writing
style and the story’s emotions.
They don’t advance the plot, but they push the reader into the story’s mood. Additionally,
the prose style itself is emotive and poetic, examining the nuances of life’s existential
questions.
9. Flashback
A flashback refers to any interruption in the story where the narration goes back in time.
The reader may need information from previous events in order to understand the
present-day story, and flashbacks drop the reader into the scene itself.
Flashbacks are often used in stories that begin In Media Res, such as The Handmaid’s
Tale. While the main plot of the story focuses on the narrator’s struggles against Gilead,
this narration frequently alternates with explanations for how Gilead established itself.
The reader gets to see the bombing of Congress, the forced immigration of POC, and the
environmental/fertility crisis which gives context for Gilead’s fearmongering. We also
experience the narrator’s separation from her daughter and husband, supplying readers
with the story’s highly emotive world.
10. Soliloquy
Soliloquy comes from the Latin for self (sol) and talking (loquy), and self-talking describes a
soliloquy perfectly. A soliloquy is a long speech with no audience in the story. Soliloquies are
synonymous with monologues, though a soliloquy is usually a brief passage in a chapter, and often
much more poetic.
Shakespeare’s plays abound with soliloquies. Here’s an example, pulled from Scene II Act II
of Romeo and Juliet.
But soft, what light through yonder window breaks?
It is the East, and Juliet is the sun.
Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon,
Who is already sick and pale with grief
That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she.
Romeo isn’t talking to anyone in particular, but no matter: his soliloquy is rife with
emotion and metaphor, and one can’t help but blush when he expresses how his love for
Juliet makes her like the sun to him.
As a literary device in prose, soliloquy offers insight into the characters’ emotions.
Soliloquy doesn’t have to be in dialogue, it can also take the form of private thoughts,
but a soliloquy must be an extended conversation with oneself that exposes the
character’s own feelings and ideas.
All Time Best Prose Writers
Dramatic Techniques in Shakespeare
Famous Authors and Their Writing Styles
Literary Theory
LEARNING OUTCOMES:

At the end of module 3, you are expected to:

1.review poetry genres, language, devices/techniques, and meaning in the light of stylistic
study;
2.discuss a survey of poetry authors, their unique styles and purposes of writing such
poems ;
3.write and present a stylistic analysis of poetry texts which are suitable for learners of
English Literature ; and
4.reflect on a learning experience.
Unit 3 – Literary Poetry Stylistics

Poetic Forms and Genres

Survey of Poetry Authors and their Unique Styles
Language of Poetry
Rhythm, Meter, and Beat
Types of Feet
Poetic Techniques
Poetic Meaning
KNOWLEDGE ACTIVATOR:

What is your favorite poem and who is the author?

Why do you consider it as your favorite?

Cite some of its poetic language that you like the most.
Comprehension Check/Tasks:

To illustrate your skill for stylistic analysis, do the following tasks:

A.Analyze poems/songs in accordance to forms, genres, and characteristics of poetry.
B.Cite examples of rhythm, meter, types of feet, poetic techniques, and meaning in chosen
poems/songs.
C, Share a survey of poets and their works-matching authors and their works to language
tasks, themes, styles, and devices.
D.Plan, write and present a Stylistic analysis of a chosen poem/song on style , and its
suitability to English literature learners.
Poetry Stylistic Analysis

Introduction(Includes poet’s name, poems for which she/he is best known, awards (if any), other notable
info... as well as the title of poems/songs you analyzed (in quotes or italicized).Below is the rubric for your
analysis.10 points
Analysis(Poet’s writing style is fully analyzed in terms of genre,characteristics, other stylistic elements and
its suitability for English literature learners.) 40 points
Evidence(Each point of analysis of poet’s writing style is supported by evidence drawn from one or more of
her/his works.)20 points
Grammar(Mastery of writing conventions contributes to the effect of the response of the reader.)20 points
Length(Full two pages using the following format: MS word, Arial or Georgia,font size 12, single space, 1-
inch margin on all sides.)10 points
Total Points=100
INTEGRATION (Reflection)
Reflect on the learning that you gained from this lesson by
completing the given chart.
What were your misconceptions about the topic prior What new or additional learning have you gained from
to taking up this lesson? this lesson in terms of skills, content, and attitude?

I thought… I learned that…