Chapter 4: Radiation Monitoring
Instruments
Objective:
To familiarize the student with instruments used for monitoring the
exposure from external radiation.
IAEA
International Atomic Energy Agency
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Radiation exposure to humans can be broadly classified as:
internal exposure
external exposure
This chapter only deals with monitoring of
external exposures.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.1 Slide 1
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of external exposure monitoring is
the measurement of:
Radiation levels in and around work areas
(needs an area monitor)
Levels around radiation therapy equipment or source
containers (needs an area monitor)
Dose equivalents received by individuals working with
radiation (needs a personal monitor).
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.1 Slide 2
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The results of external exposure monitoring is used:
to assess workplace conditions and individual exposures;
to ensure acceptably safe and satisfactory radiological
conditions in the workplace;
to keep records of monitoring over a long period of time,
for the purposes of regulation or as good practice.
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4.1 INTRODUCTION
Radiation monitoring instruments are distinguished into:
Area survey meters Personal dosimeters
(or area monitors) (or individual dosimeters)
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
All these instruments must be calibrated in terms of
appropriate quantities for radiation protection.
Two issues must be addressed:
Which quantities are used in radiation protection?
Which quantities are in particular appropriate for
• area monitoring ?
• individual monitoring ?
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
Recommendations regarding dosimetric quantities and
units in radiation protection dosimetry are set forth by the
International Commission on Radiation Units and
Measurements
(ICRU).
The recommendations on the practical application of these
quantities in radiation protection are established by the
International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP).
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
Brief introduction of radiation protection quantities:
The absorbed dose is the basic physical dosimetry
quantity.
However, it is not entirely satisfactory for radiation
protection purposes because the effectiveness in
damaging human tissue differs for different types of
ionizing radiation.
To account additionally also for biological effects of
radiation upon tissues, specific quantities were introduced
in radiation protection.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 2
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
The basic quantity in radiation protection is the
equivalent dose H
Its definition requires two steps:
the assessment of the organ dose DT
the introduction of radiation-weighting factors to account
for the biological effectiveness of the given radiation in
inducing health effects
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 3
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
1. Step: Definition of Organ dose DT
The organ dose is defined as the mean absorbed dose DT
("physical" dose) in a specified tissue or organ T of the
human body given by
1 T
DT
mT D dm
mT
mT
where
mT is the mass of the organ or tissue under consideration
εT is the total energy imparted by radiation to that tissue or
organ.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 4
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
2. Step: Introduction of radiation-weighting factors
The organ dose is multiplied by a radiation-weighting factor wR
to account for the biological effectiveness of the given
radiation in inducing health effects.
HT wR DT,R
where DT,R is the absorbed dose delivered by radiation type R
averaged over a tissue or organ T.
The resulting quantity is called the equivalent dose HT
Unit: J/kg or sievert (Sv)
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 5
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
Example of radiation-weighting factors:
for x rays, γ rays and electrons: wR = 1
for protons: wR = 5
for α particles: wR = 20
for neutrons, wR depends wR ranges from 5 to20
on the neutron energy
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 6
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Dosimetric quantities for radiation protection
The equivalent dose H is not directly measurable.
There are no laboratory standards to obtain traceable
calibration for the radiation monitors using this quantity.
Operational quantities have been
introduced that can be used for practical
measurements and serve as a substitute
for the quantity equivalent dose H
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 7
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.1 Appropriate quantities for radiation monitoring
The concept of operational quantities is:
They are based on dose equivalent at a point in the
human body (or in a phantom).
They relate to the type and energy of the radiation
existing at that point.
They can therefore be calculated on the basis of the
fluence at that point.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.1 Slide 8
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.2 Appropriate quantities for area monitoring
It is desirable to assess the quantity of equivalent dose
in a phantom approximating the human body.
The phantom selected for this purpose is the so-called
ICRU sphere.
The ICRU sphere, 30cm in diameter, is a tissue-equivalent
sphere.
Composition:
Oxygen 76.2% 30 cm
Carbon 11.1%
Hydrogen 10.1%
Nitrogen 2.6%.
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.2 Appropriate quantities for area monitoring
For area monitoring, two operational quantities have
been introduced, based on the ICRU sphere.
These two quantities additionally refer
• to weakly penetrating radiation, or
• to strongly penetrating radiation
In practice, the term ‘weakly penetrating’ radiation usually
applies to
• photons below 15 keV, and
• to beta rays.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.2 Slide 2
4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.3 Ambient dose equivalent
Weakly and strongly penetrating radiation
The relevant depth in the ICRU sphere for strongly
penetrating radiation is d = 10 mm.
The relevant depths in the ICRU sphere for weakly
penetrating radiation are:
• d = 3.0 mm used for skin
• d = 0.07 mm used for eye lens
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.5 Appropriate quantities for radiation monitoring
The operational quantity for individual monitoring is the
personal dose equivalent Hp(d)
It is the equivalent dose in soft tissue below a specified point
on the body at an appropriate depth d.
The relevant depth for strongly penetrating radiation is
d = 10 mm.
The relevant depth for weakly penetrating radiation is:
• d = 3.0 mm used for skin
• d = 0.07 mm used for eye lens
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4.2 OPERATIONAL QUANTITIES FOR RADIATION
MONITORING
4.2.6 Summary of operational quantities
Area H*(d) and H'(d) are measured with survey meters of
monitoring which the reading is linked to the equivalent dose in
the ICRU sphere.
Ambient dose equivalent H*(d)
Directional dose equivalent H’(d, )
Individual Hp(d) is measured with a dosimeter which is worn at
monitoring the surface of the body and covered with the
appropriate layer of a tissue-equivalent material.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.2.6 Slide 2
4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
Radiation instruments used as survey monitors can be
distinguished into two groups of detectors:
Gas filled detectors: Solid state detectors:
ionization chambers scintillator
proportional counters Semiconductor detectors).
Geiger-Mueller (GM)
counters
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3 Slide 1
4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
Properties of gas-filled detectors:
Survey meters
come in different
shapes and sizes
depending upon
the specific
application.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.1 Ionization chambers
Build-up caps are required to improve detection
efficiency when measuring high- energy photon
radiation, and they should be removed when
measuring lower energy photons (10 - 100 keV) and
beta particles.
Beta-gamma survey meters have a thin end-window to
register weakly penetrating radiation.
The gamma efficiency of these detectors is only a few
percent (as determined by the wall absorption), while the
beta response is near 100% for beta particles entering
the detector.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.1 Slide 2
4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.2 Proportional counters
Proportional counters are
more sensitive than
ionization chambers.
Proportional counters are
suitable for measurements in
The amount of charge collected low intensity radiation fields.
from each interaction is
proportional to the amount of
energy deposited in the gas of
the counter by the interaction.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 2
4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.4 GM counters
In the GM region the
discharge spreads
throughout the volume of
the detector.
The pulse height
becomes independent of
the primary ionization or
the energy of the
interacting particles.
Gas-filled detectors cannot be operated at
voltages beyond this region because they
continuously discharge.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.4 GM counters
Disadvantage of GM counters:
GM detectors suffer from very long dead-times, ranging from
tens to hundreds of ms.
For this reason, GM counters are not used when accurate
measurements are required of count rates of more than a
few 100 counts per second.
A portable GM survey meter may become paralyzed in a
very high radiation field and yield a zero reading.
Therefore ionization chambers should be used in areas
where radiation rates are high.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.5 Commonly available features of area survey meters
“Low battery” visual indication.
Auto zeroing, auto ranging, auto back-illumination
facilities.
Variable response time and memory to store the data
values.
Option for both the ‘rate’ and the ‘integrate’ modes of
operation.
Analog or digital display, marked in conventional
(exposure/air-kerma) or recent “ambient dose equivalent”
or “personal dose equivalent” units.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.5 Commonly available features of area survey meters
Audio indication of radiation levels (through the ‘chirp’
rate).
Re-settable / non-re-settable alarm facility with adjustable
alarm levels.
Visual indication of radiation with flashing LEDs.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.6 Properties of area survey meters: Energy dependence
Survey meters are normally calibrated at one or more
beam qualities.
However, they are often used in situations where the
radiation field is complex or unknown.
The requirement on survey meters is:
They should have a low energy
dependence
over a wide energy range.
They should have a low energy dependence in particular
with respect to the operational quantities.
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.6 Properties of area survey meters: Energy dependence
Low energy dependence with respect to the operational
quantities.
The energy dependence is driven the calibration
factor NH*(10)
Example:
H *(10) NH *(10) M
with
NH *(10) hH *(10) N
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.6 Properties of area survey meters: Dose equivalent range
Survey meters may cover a dose equivalent range
from:
1 nSv/h 1 Sv/h
but the typical range in use is:
1 µSv/h 1 Sv/h
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4.3 AREA SURVEY METERS
4.3.6 Properties of area survey meters: Long term stability
The survey meters have to be calibrated in a standards
dosimetry laboratory with the frequency prescribed by the
regulatory requirements of the country, typically once
every three years.
The survey meters also need calibration immediately
after repairs or immediately on detecting any sudden
change in response.
The long term stability of the survey meters must be
checked at regular intervals using a long half-life source
in a reproducible geometry.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.3.2 Slide 13
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
Individual monitoring is the measurement of radiation doses
received by individuals working with radiation.
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
Individual monitoring is used for those who regularly
work in controlled areas or those who work full time
in supervised areas:
to have their doses monitored on a regular basis;
to verify the effectiveness of radiation control practices in
the workplace;
for detecting changes in radiation levels in the workplace;
to provide information in case of accidental exposures.
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
The most widely used individual monitoring systems are
based on:
TLD dosimetry Film dosimetry
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
Self-reading pocket dosimeters
and electronic personal
dosimeters are direct reading
dosimeters and show both the
instantaneous dose rate and B: mikroscope
the accumulated dose at any I: ionisization
chamber
point in time.
F: quartz
filament
Setup of a simple pocked dosimeter
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4 Slide 5
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.1 Film badge
A film badge is a special
emulsion photographic film
in a light-tight wrapper
enclosed in a case or
holder with windows with
appropriate filters.
The badge holder creates a
distinctive pattern on the
film indicating the type and
energy of the radiation
received.
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.1 Film badge
The film is a non-tissue
equivalent radiation detector.
The film has not the response
of a tissue-equivalent material.
A filter system is therefore
required to adjust the
energy response.
One filter is adequate for
photons of energy above
100 keV.
A multiple filter system is used for lower energy
photons.
IAEA Review of Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students - 4.4.1 Slide 2
4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.1 Film badge
Evaluation: Cumulative doses from beta, x, gamma,
and thermal neutron radiation are
evaluated by:
Production of calibration films;
(exposed to known doses of well defined radiation of
different types);
Measuring the optical density of the film under different
filters;
Comparing the optical density with the calibration films.
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.2 Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badge
A TLD badge consists
of a set of TLD chips
Filters
enclosed in a plastic
holder with filters.
The most frequently
used TLD materials
(also referred to as
phosphors) are:
• LiF:Ti,Mg
• CaSO4:Dy
• CaF2:Mn.
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.2 Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) badge
Because of the small size of
TLDs, they are convenient for
monitoring doses to parts of the
body
(e.g., eyes, arm or wrist, or
fingers)
using special type of dosimeters,
including extremity dosimeters.
finger ring dosimeter
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.3 Direct reading personal monitors
In addition to passive dosimetry badges, direct reading
personal dosimeters are widely used:
• to provide direct read-out of the dose at any time,
• for tracking the doses received in day-to-day activities
• in special operations (e.g., source loading survey, handling of
any radiation incidents or emergencies).
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.5 Direct reading personal monitors
Self-reading pocket dosimeter
resembles a pen and consists of
an ionization chamber that acts as
B: mikroscope
a capacitor.
The capacitor is fully charged. The
quartz filament is pushed away
(similar to the old charge meter in
I: ionisization
physics) and reads zero before chamber
use.
On exposure to radiation the
ionization produced in the chamber F: quartz
discharges the capacitor and the filament
exposure (or air-kerma) is directly
proportional to the discharge that
can be directly read against light
through a built-in eyepiece.
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4.4 INDIVIDUAL MONITORING
4.4.6 Calibration
For calibration, the dosimeters should be irradiated on
standardized phantoms that provide approximation of the
backscatter conditions of the human body.
Three types of phantoms are recommended:
• slab phantom to represent human torso,
• pillar phantom for wrist or ankle dosimeters
• rod phantom for finger dosimeters.
The standard phantoms are composed of ICRU tissue.
The International Standards Organization (ISO)
recommends special water phantoms (referred to as ISO
slab phantoms), although in practice PMMA phantoms
are used with the appropriate corrections.
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