MEANING AND SIGNIFICANCE OF

HUMANITIES
Humanities - comes from a Latin word humanus, which
means ‘human, cultured and refined’.
At present, we know of humanities as a loosely
defined group of academic subjects united by a
commitment to studying aspects of the human
condition and a qualitative approach that
generally prevents a single paradigm from
coming to define any discipline. Unlike other
subjects, it is not a group of scientific or
technical subjects.
Academically, we refer to the humanities
as the study of arts – the visual arts such as
architecture, painting and sculpture;
music; dance; the theater or drama; and
literature. They are the branches of
learning concerned with the human
thought, feelings and relations.
Understanding the
Arts
Etymologically, art is derived from the Latin word “ars”,
meaning ability or skill. Art is from an Italian “artis”
defined as a human or skill.

Webster’s New Collegiate dictionary defines art as “The

conscious use of skill and creative imagination especially
in the production of aesthetics objects.”
Art according to writers and philosophers:

“Art is not, as the metaphysicians say, the manifestation of some

mysterious idea of beauty of God: it is not, as the aesthetical
physiologists say, a game in which man lets off his excess of stored-
up energy; it is not the expression of man’s emotions by external
signs; it is not the production of pleasing objects, above all, it is not
pleasure; but it is a means of unions among men, joining them
together in the same feelings, and indispensable for the life and
progress toward well-being of individuals and humanity.” Russian
novelist Leo Tolstoy
“Art teaches nothing, except the significance of life.” American writer Henry
Miller
“Art is higher type of knowledge than experience.” Greek philosopher Aristotle
“The object of art is to give life a shape.” French dramatist Jean Anouilh
“Art is science in the flesh.” French poet and playwright Jean Couteau
“All art is social,” because it is the result of a relationship between an artist and
his time.” Historian James Adams
“Art is the most intense mode of individualism that the world has known.” Irish
poet and playwright Oscar Wilde

“Art is a discovery and development of elementary principles of nature into

beautiful forms suitable for human use.” American architect, interior designer,
writer, and educator Frank Lloyd Wright
Assumptions about Art
1. Art is everywhere.
2. Art is not nature.
3. Art is imitating and creating.
4. Art perfects nature.
5. Art is universal.
6. Art is timeless
Art defines time.
While art defines time, time also
defines art. It identifies the artwork
that would “click” in a particular time
for the particular audience.
Art as Expression and Communication
Art has grown out of man’s need to express
himself. Expression is not limited to the
revelation of emotions alone. The personal and
social values of the artist and his penetrating
psychological insight into human reality are
also conveyed through arts.
Art and Experience
Three major kinds of experience are involved in the artistic
activity.
1. It starts as an experience which the artist wants to
communicate.
2. The act of expressing this experience –that of creating that art
object or form.
3. When the work is done, there is the artist’s gratifying
experience of having accomplished something significant.
Different form of arts:
1. Visual art- the art that we perceive through our eyes
= involve not only painting and sculpture but include such things
as clothes, household appliances, and the furnishing of our
homes, schools, churches and other buildings.
Aesthetics= refers to the forms and psychological forms of art
2. Music- an art of combining and regulating sounds of
varying pitch to produce compositions expressing various ideas
and emotions.
3. Dance – common to man even during the
earliest times.
= the most direct of the arts for it makes use of
the human body as its medium
= it springs from man’s love for expressive
gestures, his release of tension through rhythmic
movement
= heightens the pleasure of being, and at the same
time mirrors the life of the society
4. Drama- an important area of theatre
= a group of people act out the plot to get
across to the audience the idea the author is
trying to express
Significance of the Humanities
In summary, the humanities:

1. weave a beautiful tapestry of humanity

2. bring out a sense of awe and wonder
3. build on the framework of truth and
values
4. bring out the human spirit
5. bring tranquillity in times of crisis
6. are the guardians of movements and
schools
7. aim at goodness and peace
8. are the custodians and pioneers of the arts
9. face challenges of the cyber age
10. elevate man’s reverence for life and nature
11. are the keepers of the network of humanity
12. hold the greatest treasure of mankind
Rationale in studying the humanities
1. To practice the analytical thinking skills
needed to be a successful citizen and
professional
2. To improve oral and written
communication skills
3. To see the interconnectedness of the
different areas of knowledge and how they all
fit together through experience
4. To develop a global perspective by studying
cultures in different parts of the world
5. To support and strengthen the local arts
communities by recognizing the importance of
creativity
6. To assess values by comparing them with how
other people regard them in their respective societies
7. To deepen the source of wisdom by learning
how a person deals with failures and successes
THE 4 E’s OF LEARNING HUMANITIES

1. Exploration = this process usually

occurs during the first step in learning
2. Exposure = the students/individuals
enter an environment where there is access to
the needed medium or media.
3. Experience = the main learning process
= entails the full use of all human senses
= the most personal and intimate
4. Enjoyment = a kind of release and
discovery
= it wraps up all previous stages with self
-confidence attendant gaining peace and
happiness
THREE DOMAINS IN LEARNING HUMANITIES
1. Cognitive Learning
= refers to the acquisition of knowledge, facts and
information, principles, and ideas and to the
availability to reason and think critically
2. Psychomotor Learning
= is the relationship between cognitive
functions and physical movements such as
coordination, manipulation, dexterity,
grace, strength, speed, and action
3. Affective Learning

= known as attitudinal learning which

refers to the formation of good and
acceptable attitudes, judgments,
appreciation, and values through the
acquisition of knowledge
OTHER DISCIPLINES IN THE
STUDY OF THE HUMANITIES
1. SCIENCE
It is a systematized body of
knowledge that builds and organizes
thoughts in the form and explanations
and prediction that can be tested and
applied on a global scale.
2. COMMUNICATION
It refers to various means by which
individuals and entities relay information to
large segments of the population via mass
media to disseminate information, news,
and advertisements.
3. PSYCHOLOGY
It is the study of the mind and
behaviour. It is immediate goal is to
understand behaviour and mental
processes by researching and
establishing both general and scientific
cases.
4. SOCIOLOGY
It is the study of society; it primarily
deals with human social behaviour,
especially the origins, organization,
institutions in, and development of
human society.
5. ANTHROPOLOGY

It is the scientific study of the origin,

behaviour, and physical, social, and
cultural development of humans.
DIFFERENT VIEWS IN THE
STUDY OF SCIENCE AND THE
HUMANITIES
SCIENCE HUMANITIES

 Objective  Subjective
 Theories/hypothesis  Experience
 Experimental  Exploratory
 Analytical  Understanding
 Facts  Interpretation
 definitions  Description
 Empirical  Explanatory
 Judgment  Opinion-based
 quantitative  qualitative
THE SCOPE OF THE HUMANITIES
VISUAL ARTS
Those that we perceive with our
eyes

2 groups
1. Graphic (flat, or two-dimensional surface)
2. Plastic arts (three-dimensional)
A. The graphic Arts
Covers any form of visual artistic
representation, especially painting,
drawing, photography, and the like or in
which portrayals of forms and symbols
are recorded on a two-dimensional
surface.
1. Painting
The process of applying pigment to a
surface to secure effects involving
forms and colors
= oils, watercolours, tempera and
others are some of the media used in
painting
2. Drawing
The art of representing something by lines made on a
surface or the process of portraying an object, scene
or forms of decorative or symbolic meaning through
lines, shading, and textures in one or more colors
= media used include pencil, pen and ink, crayon,
brush, and charcoal.
3. Graphic Processes
= process for making multi-reproduction of graphic works.
= all processes involve the preparation of a master image of
the drawing or design on some durable material such as
wood, metal, or stone, from which printing is done.
= processes may be classified by the nature of the surface
from which the printing is done:
1. Raised ( relief)
2. Depressed (intaglio)
3. Flat ( surface or plane)
a. Relief printing
= the process whereby unwanted portions of
design are cut away on the master image.
= printed image is formed by the remaining
surface
= examples are linoleum cuts, woodcuts, and
wood engraving
b. Intaglio printing
= a method of printing from a plate on which incised lines,
which carry the ink, leave a raised impression
1. Dry point
= the artist draws directly on a metal plate with a sharp
needle and scratches lines, or grooves, into the metal
= for each print, ink is rubbed into the grooves and
unscratched surface is wiped clean
2. Etching
= the art or process of producing
drawings or designs on metal plates
covered with wax.
=the needle penetrates wax to the surface
of the plate, the palate is then dipped in
acid, which eats the lines into the metal
3. Engraving
= this is done on a metal plate with a cutting
tool called a barin, which leaves a V-shaped
trough.
= drawings or designs on the plate are entirely
composed of lines and/ or dots.
c. Surface Printing
= includes all processes in which printing is done from a flat (plane) surface
1. Lithography
=The art or process of printing from a flat stone or metal plate by a method
based on repulsion between grease and water.
= the design is put on the surface. The surface is then treated so that ink
adheres only to areas where drawing has been done; ink is then transferred
to the paper in printing
2. Silkscreen
= silk is stretched over a rectangular frame and unwanted portions in the
design are blocked out.
= pigment is forced through the clear areas.
3. Commercial art
= this includes designing of books, advertisements, signs,
posters, and other displays to promote sale or acceptance of
product service or idea.
4. Mechanical Processes
= these are developed by commercial printers for rapid, large
quantity reproduction of words and pictures in one or more
colors
5. Photography
= is a chemical-mechanical process by which images are
produced on sentisized surfaces by action of light
B. The Plastic Arts
= this includes all fields of visual arts in which materials are organized into
three-dimensional forms.
1. Architecture
The art of designing and constructing buildings and other types of
structures.
Varied materials include stone, concrete, brick, wood, steel, glass, and
plaster
Is often referred to as the “mother of the arts”
2. Landscape Architecture
Planning outdoor areas for human use and enjoyment, especially gardens,
parks, playgrounds, golf courses
Chief materials are plants, trees, shrubs, flowers, vines, and ground cover
3. City Planning
Refers to planning and arranging the physical aspects of a large
or small community
Structures and areas concerned with all phases of living and
working are attractively and efficiently organized and related
4. Interior Design
Used to designate design and arrangement of architectural
interiors for convenience and beauty
It includes backgrounds (walls, floors, ceilings) furnishings, and
accessories
Design of wallpapers, furniture, textiles for curtains and
upholstery are important fields of interior design
5. Sculpture
Refers to the design and construction of three-dimensional forms representing natural
objects or imaginary (sometimes abstract) shapes.
Sculptures of figures are called statues.
6. Craft
Refers to the designing and making of objects by hands for use or for pleasure
If these fields are mass-produced they are classed as industrial design
7. Industrial design
Refers to design of objects for machine production
Ex: design for automobiles and household appliances
8. Dress and costume Design
Covers the design of wearing apparel of all types-dresses, coats, suits, shoes, ties and
the like
9. Theater Design
The design of settings for dramatic production
LITERATURE
The art of combining spoken or written
words and their meanings into forms
which have artistic and emotional
appeal
1. Drama
A form of literature
2. Essay
Is non-fiction, expository (descriptive or
explanatory) writing ranging from informal,
personal topic to closely reasoned critical
treatments of important subjects
3. Prose fiction
Includes narratives (stories) created by the author, as
distinguished from true accounts
Comes from a Latin word which means “to form”, to
invent or to freign
Divided into novel, novelette, and short-story forms
A novel or a short story describes characters and
events which the author has invented
4. Poetry
A literature of highly expressive nature
using special forms and choice of words
and emotional images
Divided into narrative and lyric
MUSIC
The art of arranging sounds in
rhythmic succession and generally in
combination
Is both a creative and a performing
art
Common forms are song, march,
fugue, sonata, suite, concerto, and
symphony.
Three groups of musical compositions

1. Vocal Music
Compose primarily to be sung. The voice or voices are generally
accompanied by NERAL TYPES
one or more instruments.
2. Instrumental Music
FIVE GENERAL TYPES
1. Keyboard (piano, organ, etc)
2. Stringed (violin, cello, guitar, etc)
3. Wind (flute, clarinet, etc.)
4. Brass winds (trumpet, saxophone, etc)
5. Percussion (drums, xylophone)
3. Music combined with other arts
a. Opera
A dram set to music. It is mostly or entirely sung
with orchestral accompaniment. It is spectacularly
staged with accomplished singers, elaborate scenery
and costumes.
b. Operetta and musical comedy
Also a drama set to music but is light. Popular,
romantic, and often humorous or comic. Operettas
use spoken dialogue instead of recitative.
c. Oratorio and Cantata
Are sacred musical drama in concert form. These
are made up of recited parts (recitative), arias,
and choruses, with orchestral accompaniment.
No action, sets, and costumes are used. Oratories
are usually based on Biblical themes.
4. Other forms of arts
Are the ballet music and background
music for motion pictures.
DRAMA AND THEATER
A drama, or play, is a story re-created by
actors on a stage in front of an audience
TYPES OF DRAMA
1. Tragedy
One of literature’s greatest dramatic art forms. It is drama of
serious nature in which the central character comes to some
sad or disastrous end. All tragedies portray suffering
2. Melodrama
The emphasis is on action rather than on character. The action
is sensational or romantic and usually has a happy ending.
3. Comedy
Includes all plays with happy endings
a. Romantic comedy
A light, amusing tale of lovers in some
dilemma which is finally solved happily
b. Farce
A light, humorous play. The emphasis in a farce
is on jokes, humorous physical action,
ludicrous situations, and improbable characters.
c. Comedy of manners
Called “drawing room comedy”.
The characters are usually high-
society types, and situations have
little to do with real life. The
emphasis is dialogue
4. Miscellaneous
a. Tragicomedy
A drama blending tragic and comic elements but which ends
happily.
b. Miracle and mystery plays
Are dramatized stories from the Bible and of the lives of
saints.
c. Morality plays
Are those in which characters represent specific vices and
virtues.
d. Closet drama
A term used to designate plays written for reading rather than
for staging
e. Piano drama
Based on piano woks which revolve around the musical
pieces composed under the inspiration of a literary work.
This piano drama which is a recent innovation is combining
the interpretation of music with the recitation of poetry and
the literary source of the music.
DANCE
Involves the movement of the body and the feet in
rhythm

TYPES OF DANCE
1. Ethnologic
Includes folk dancing associated with national and cultural
groups.
2. Social or ballroom dances
These are popular types of dancing generally performed by
pairs. They include such forms as waltz, foxtrot, rhumba, and
tango.
3. Ballet
The formalized type of dance which originated in the royal courts of the Middle
Ages. Ballet dances may be either solo or concerted dances with mimetic actions
accompanied by music. These are generally built around a theme or story.
5. Modern
Sometimes called contemporary or interpretative dances. These dances represent
rebellion against the classical formalism of ballet: they emphasize personal
communication of moods and themes.
6. Musical Comedy
Refers to those dances performed by soloists, groups, choruses in theaters, night
clubs, motion pictures, and television. It combines various forms of ballet,
modern, tap, and acrobatics.
Methods of Presenting the Art Subjects
.
Realism
In art, this is the attempt to portray the subject as it is.
Even when the artist chooses a subject from nature, he selects,
changes and arranges details to express the idea he wants to
make clear.
Abstraction
This is used when the artist becomes so interested in one
phase of a scene or a situation that he does not show the
subject at all as an objective reality, but only his idea, or
his feeling about it.
Abstract subjects can also be presented in many ways like:
1. Distortion – It is when the subject is in misshapen condition, or the
regular shape is twisted out.
2. Elongation – It is when the subject is being lengthened, a protraction
or an extension.
3. Mangling – Seldom used way of presenting an abstract subject, but
there are few who show subject which is cut, lacerated, mutilated or
hacked with repeated blows.
4. Cubism – It stresses abstract form through the use of cones, cylinders,
or spheres.
5. Abstract Expressionism – is a style of abstract that is characterized by
great nerve, the use of large canvases, and a deliberate lack of
refinement in the application of the paint. Strong color, heavy impasto,
uneven brush strokes and rough textures are other typical
characteristics. It originated in New York City.
Symbolism
A symbol, in general, is a visible sign of
something invisible such as an idea or a quality. It can
be simply an emblem or sign like: % to represent
percent, a lion to represent courage, a lamb to represent
meekness. These well- known symbols arise from
conventional usage, association and general
relationship.
Fauvism
In fauvism, the artists don’t attempt to
express ethical, philosophical, or psychological
themes.
Dadaism
The name dada, a French word, means
hobby horse. Dadaists reacts to what they
believe are outgrown traditions in art, and the
evils they see in the society.
Futurism
Futurist painters wanted their works to
capture the speed and force of modern
industrial society. Futurism glorifies the
mechanical energy of modern life. Subjects
include automobiles, motorcycles, and railroad
trains which express the explosive vitality of
modern city.
Surrealism
Surrealism uses arts as a weapon against
evil and restrictions that surrealists see in
society. Unlike Dadaism, it tries to reveal a new
and higher reality than that of daily life.
Expressionism
Expressionism includes
emotional expressions that could be
described as violence or chaos,
pathos, morbidity and tragedy. It
sometimes portrays defeat.
Mediums of Visual Arts

Medium – refers to the materials which are

used by an artist. It is the means which he
communicates his ideas. Many mediums
have been used in creating different works
of art. Medium is very essential to art.
Painting- is the art of creating meaningful
effects on a flat surface by the use of
pigments. In painting, different mediums are
used. Each medium exerts a pronounced effect
on the finished product, is capable of varied
treatment and determines its own stroke. The
materials of the painter are pigments
Different mediums in painting:
Oil – In oil paintings, the pigments are mixed in oil. The surface
used is usually canvas although other surfaces like wood, paper
and metal may be used. The most familiar type of painting is done
with oils on canvas. Pigments mixed with oil provide a medium
that gives richness in the opacity of light and depth of shadow.
Pigments can come from many sources: minerals, vegetable
matter, coal tars, and other chemical combinations. There are two
methods of painting in oil: the direct and indirect method. In
direct method, the paints are opaque and are applied to the surface
just as they are to look in the finished product. In indirect method,
the paint is applied in many thin layers of transparent color.
Tempera – A mixture of ground pigments and
an albuminous or colloidal vehicle, either egg,
gum or glue. The special characteristic of
tempera is its being an emulsion. An emulsion is
a watery, milk-like mixture of oily and watery
consistency. It dries readily with the evaporation
of water.
Watercolor – In watercolor, the pigments are mixed
with water and applied to fine, white paper. The
colors are applied in very thin layers. In pure
watercolor painting, all the light comes from the
ground. Paper is the most commonly used ground.
Opaque watercolor is called gouache. It is made by
grinding opaque colors with water and mixing the
product with a preparation of gum by adding Chinese
white to transparent water colors.
Pastel – Pastel color possesses only surfaces of
light, gives no glazed effect and most closely
resembles to dry pigment. The pigment is bound
so as to form a crayon which is applied directly
to the surface, usually a paper. As support for
pastel painting paper, pasteboard or canvas is
used.
Fresco – The most popular type of painting is
fresco. The colors are mixed with water and
applied to fresh plaster which absorbs color.
Since the pigment has been incorporated with
plaster, it last until the wall is destroyed. In
Italian, fresco means fresh and is used to
designate the process of painting in fresh wet
plaster.
Acrylic – The newest medium and one
that is used widely by painters today.
These are synthetic paints using acrylic
emulsion as binder. They combine the
transparency and quick- drying qualities of
watercolor and are flexible as oil. They are
completely insoluble when dry and can be
used almost on any surface.
Some Famous Filipino Painters:

Fernando Amorsolo – He was a portraitist and a

painter of rural Philippine landscapes. In all his
paintings, his nationalistic fervor was evident. He
developed the backlighting technique that brilliantly
depicted the luminous golden glow of the sun’s rays
on subject. This technique became his trademark and
his greatest contribution to Philippine Painting.
Fabian dela Rosa – He was noted for being an
outstanding painter of women’s portrait. He
was also best remembered for painting
landscapes and everyday scenes with women
depicted as simple yet regal in doing daily
activities such as weaving, chatting, going to
church, planting rice in the fields and washing
clothes.
Carlos ‘’Botong’’ Francisco – He single-handedly
brought back the art of mural painting in the
Philippines. He was in the forefront of modernist art in
the country. He was best known for his historical epics.
One of his favourite subjects is fisherfolks. His greatest
works include The Blood Compact, First Mass at
Limasawa, The Martyrdom of Rizal, and the
Invasion of Limahong.
Jose Joya – He was a Filipino abstract painter.
He pioneered abstract expressionism in the
Philippines. His canvases were characterized
by dynamic spontaneity and quick gestures of
action painting. Known as an abstract
expressionist, he adapted the values of kinetic
energy and spontaneity in painting.
Ang Kiukok – He first attained prominence in
the Philippine Arts scene in the 1960s. He fused
influences from cubism, surrealism, and
expressionism. Some clarified his style as
figurative expressionism. He favoured subjects
as fighting cocks, rabid dogs and people
enraptured by rage or bound in chairs.
Juan Luna – His masterpiece, Spoliarium,
won first prize at the National Exposition of
Fine Arts in Madrid. His other masterpieces
are the Death of Cleopatra and the Blood
Compact.
Vicente Manansala – A Philippine cubist painter
and illustrator. His canvases were described as
masterpieces that brought the cultures of the barrio
and city together. His Madonna of the Slums is a
portrayal of a mother and child from the countryside
who became urban shanty residents once in the city.
His other famous works are Jeepney and Stations of
the Cross.
Hernando R. Ocampo – He was credited for a
new mode of abstraction that exemplifies
Philippines flora and fauna and portrays
sunshine, stars and rains. Using movement and
bold colors, H.R Ocampo utilized fantasy and
science fiction as the basis for his works.
Damian Domingo – He was active in
the early part of the 19th century as
painter of miniature portraits and
religious images. He was known for his
miniature portraits of ivory and oil
portraits on canvas.
Mauro Malang Santos – He is a self- taught painter
who began his career as a comic strip illustrator. He
paints freely and unencumbered in gouache and oil
pastel, on large or small canvases and on paper. He was
a well awarded artist. Among the awards he received
are: TOYM (Ten Outstanding Young Men) 1963,
Gawad CCP, Artist of the Year(Society of
Philippines Illustrators and Cartoonists) and
Patnubay ng Sining at Kalinangan from the City of
Manila.
Benedicto ‘Bencab’ Cabrera ­– He is a
pioneer among Filipino painters. His
skilful and soulful depiction of social
issues, most especially those most
relevant to Filipinos, is believed by
many to be foundation of his success.
Sculpture – In choosing a subject for sculpture, the most
important thing to consider is the material. The substances
available for sculpture are limitless. Some of the earliest
sculptures were made of bone or wood. There are two major
sculpture processes used: subtractive and additive. The
carving of stone and wood is an example of subtractive
process. The construction of a figure by putting together bits
of clay, or by wielding together parts of metal is an example
of the additive process. Sculpture in general may be divided
into two types: relief and free-standing. Relief sculptures
refer to figures which are attached to a ground while a free-
standing figure can be seen from all sides.
Different mediums in Sculptures:
Stone and Bronze – The media most
commonly used for sculpture are stone and
metal. Stone is durable, resistant to the
elements, fire and other hazards. On the other
hand, it is heavy and breaks easily. Marble is
the most beautiful of stones. Of the metals, the
most commonly used traditionally was bronze.
Wood – The advantage of wood is
that it is cheap, readily available, and
easy to cut. It also polishes well and
has a smooth shiny surface and
beautiful color.
Ivory – Unlike wooden sculpture, a large
number of old ivory statues have survived
to the present time. The survival is due to
the intrinsic value of the material. Ivory
lends itself to technical mastery. It is also
popular to ordinary craftspeople. Many
statues of saints in Philippine churches and
homes have heads and arms made of ivory.
Terra Cotta. Very few materials are as responsive to
a sculptor’s hand and tools as is plastic clay. It yields
to even the slightest pressure and can be worked and
re-worked until the artist has achieved what he wants
to do. Unfired clay is fragile material and sculpture in
this medium would have a short life. For more
durable work in clay, the sculpture can fire the
original in a kiln.
The result is usually referred to as terra cotta, which
literally means “cooked earth”. It is a moderately
coarse clay product fired at comparatively low
temperature. It is usually painted and coated with
heavy glaze. Terra cotta breaks and chips easily. It is
not a strong material and it cannot stand great strain
or weight. Terra cotta nevertheless is a beautiful and
versatile medium.
Other materials – The list of materials available to
the modern sculpture has become longer. The metals
aluminium, chromium, and steel, plastic, chemically
treated clay and stone for casting in liquid form are
now being used. Plastic is less expensive for use as a
casting material than metals and less fragile in many
ways. The beauty of plastic and its lightness makes it
preferable to other materials.
ELEMENTS OF
THE VISUAL
ARTS
ELEMENTS OF THE VISUAL ARTS

LINE
Line is an important element at the disposal of every
artist. Through the lines of lines of a painting or sculpture, the
artist can make us know what the work is about. He uses lines to
represent figures and forms.
Lines always have direction. They are always moving.
Lines, as used in any work of art, may either be straight or
curved.
Man usually lies prone when asleep or when at rest and stands
erect when in action. He stands stiff and straight when resistant or
stern, and relaxes when in a playful mood and the lines of his
body fall into easy curves. When one is in motion, he bends
forward; when he encounters an opposing force, he braces against
it. The greater the opposing force, the sharper will be the angle of
his body and the straighter will be the line.
a. Horizontal lines are lines of response and serenity. They express ideas of
calmness and quiescence. Horizontal lines are found in reclining persons, in
landscapes, calm bodies of water and in the distant meeting of the earth and
sky in what is commonly called horizon.
b. Vertical lines are line poised for action. They are poised, balanced, forceful,
and dynamic. Vertical lines seen in a person standing straight, a tall tree,
statues of saints, and heroes give an impression of dignity. Vertical lines also
tend to express as well as arouse emotions of exaltation and inquietude and this
evident is monumental architecture. The Gothic cathedrals express sentiments
of inquietude and exaltation that possessed the soul of Northern Europe in the
later middle Ages.
c. Diagonal lines suggest action and movement. They give
animation to any composition in which they appear. Almost every
object in action assumes a diagonal line. A running person makes
a diagonal line with his body and legs. The degree of action is
shown by the angle of the diagonal.
d. Curved lines suggest grace, movement, flexibility, joyousness,
and grace. They are never harsh or stern since they are formed by
a gradual change in direction. They tend to impart these qualities
to any work where they are used.
Lines may also be classifies into three groups: lines which follow
or repeat one another, lines which contrast with one another, and
transitional lines which modify or soften the effect of others.
Repetition occurs when two or more lines are drawn
within a corner following the lines of the corner. Lines that are in
opposition to each other form a contrast. When a curved line cuts
across a corner form an opposition line to another, it forms a
transition line. Transitional lines modify sharpness of vertical and
horizontal lines giving a harmonizing effect.
COLOR
Delight in color is a universal human characteristic. Color is a
property of light. When light goes out, color goes with it.
The white light of the sun contains all the colors of the
spectrum; violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red. These
colors are so blended that they yield no sensation of color. When a beam
of light passes through a prism, the different rays of colors are separated
so that we are able to see and identify them. When light strikes a
surface, some of the color rays are absorbed while others are reflected.
Others pass through, especially when the object is transparent. Most
surfaces absorb all the color rays except those which yield a single
color sensation and therefore appear to be of that color. a blue dress
absorbs all the color rays except the red ray which is reflected. The
color of an object therefore is determined by the rays which are
reflected to the eyes of the beholder. Objects that appear to be black
absorb practically all the color rays equally. Gray is due to the partial
reflection of the color rays. White, gray, and black have no color
quality. They are called the neutral colors.
Color has three dimensions or attributes: hue, value, and intensity.
• Hue is the dimension of color that gives color its name. When
we say the flower is yellow, we are naming its hue. Color
names such as red, yellow, green, and violet indicate the color
characteristic called hue.
Primary hues---Blue, Red, and Yellow
Secondary hues--- orange, green, and violet
Intermediate colors--- yellow-orange, red-orange
Warm and Cool Colors
Colors may either be warm or cool. Red, orange, and yellow are the warm hues.
They are associated with objects like the sun, fire, and other sources of heat. They tend to
impart warmth to any composition in which they are used. They are conspicuous, cheerful,
and stimulating, vivacious, joyous, and exciting. They are called ADVANCING COLORS
because they have an effect of advancing or coming toward you. The cool colors are those
where blue predominates like green, blue-green, blue, blue-violet. They cause surfaces
covered with them to appear recede. They suggest distance. They are calm, sober, restful, and
inconspicuous.
Red, the color of fire and blood, is the warmest, most vigorous and most exciting
of the colors. Yellow, the color of light, is the most brilliant, cheerful, and exultant of the
colors. Blue the color of the sky and of deep and still water is the coolest and the most
tranquil of the colors.
Color Harmonies
There are two kinds of color harmonies: related color harmonies and
the contrasted color harmonies.
Related color harmonies may either be monochromatic or adjacent.
Monochromatic harmony is made up of several tones of one hue, like for
instance orange, tan, brown, and other tones from the orange family.
Monochromatic harmonies are the simplest and easiest to use. Different tones
of the same hue all have something in common, so it is easy for them to agree.
In adjacent or neighboring harmony, two or three neighboring hues of
the color circle are used together. For example, tones of green, yellow, and
orange can produce a delightful harmony. They have something in common
because there is yellow in green and in orange.
Contrasted color harmonies are colors which lie directly opposite each other
in the color circle are called complementary colors. Red, green, orange, and
blue, violet, and yellow are complementary colors. They contrast with each
other strongly; therefore, they are more difficult to use harmoniously than the
related color combinations. However, when they are properly harmonized, they
give very beautiful effects.
Value- refers to the lightness or darkness of a color.
Tints- values above the normal (ex. Pink is a tint of red)
Shades- values below the normal (ex. Maroon is a shade of red)
Intensity- refers to the brightness or darkness of color. IT gives color
strength. Intensity differences may be described as full intensity,
two-third intensity, two-thirds neutral, and neutral.
Psychology of Colors
One important thing that an artist has to remember is that colors
are known to have varied psychological and emotional
connotations.
Black- death and gloom
White- purity and innocence
Blue- color of heaven
Red- blood
Orange- helps a person be assertive
Green- color of nature that promotes the feeling of
well-being
TEXTURE
Texture is the element that deals more directly with the sense of
touch. It has to do with the characteristic of surfaces which can be
rough or smooth, fine or coarse, shiny or dull, plane or irregular.
Texture is best appreciated when an object is felt with the hands.
In architecture, the different feel of wood, concrete, and metal,
determines the texture of the building. In painting, texture is used
to represent skin, clothes, jewelry, furniture, and others.
Perspective
Perspective deals with the effect of distance upon the appearance
of objects, by means of which the eye judges spatial relationships.

Linear Perspective- Perspective deals with the effect of distance

upon the appearance of distance by means of converging lines
Foreshortening is the representation of objects or parts of
the body as smaller from the point of view of the observer.
Aerial perspective- representation of relative distances of objects
by gradations of tone and color.
Space
In painting as in architecture, space is of
great importance.
Form
Form applies to the overall design of a work
of art. It describes the structure or shape of
an object. All the visual arts are concerned
with form.
Volume
The term volume refers to the amount of
space occupied in three dimensions. It
therefore refers to solidity or thickness.
ORGANIZATION IN
THE VISUAL ARTS
Principles of Design
The organization of the various elements of the visual arts
is governed by different principles of design. Through these
principles, the artist can form more beautiful and interesting color
harmonies and more beautiful combinations of shapes, textures,
and lines. Design makes it easier for an artist to express his ideas
in such a way that the observer becomes interested in his work. It
also makes objects in our environment more comprehensible. The
design of an art oBject makes it possible for an observer to tell its
function.
Harmony
Harmony is essential to beauty. In the
visual arts, it is achieved by establishing a
pleasing relationship between the various
elements.
Balance
If all parts are equally distributed around a central point,
we achieve balance. If weights are equally distributed on each
side of a center or fulcrum, as in a see-saw, we have balance.
Balance gives a feeling of stability and rest.
We see examples of balance in nature. Balance is also
presented in a well-arranged room, in flower arrangements, and in
the costumes of people. Balance makes an object or room not
only interesting but also pleasant to look at. It may either be
formal or informal.
• Formal balance/Symmetrical Balance- achieved by making
both sides exactly alike
• Informal balance/ Asymmetrical balance- Sometimes called
occult balance which is more difficult to achieve than formal
balance, however, the results are more interesting. It is
achieved when objects of unequal weights or unequal
attractions are placed at the correct distances from the center as
when a large object with a stronger attraction is placed near the
center while the smaller object or one with less striking
attraction is moved farther out from the center.
Proportion
Proportion is determined by a comparison of the
size of different parts of an object or of an arrangement.
Harmonious proportion is achieved when one part of an
object does not seem too big or too small for the other
parts. Objects which are “out of proportion” are not
pleasing to look at.
Rhythm
In the visual arts, rhythm is achieved by the
regular or harmonious recurrence of lines, forms, and
colors. Rhythm is organized movement, a beat, a
repetition. Through the repetition of lines or forms, a
pattern is produced which the eye follows as it moves
from the right to the left. A series of units repeated one
after another also produces rhythmic movements.
Emphasis
Whenever we look at a room, some parts easily
catch our attention and interest while other parts are not
noticed at all. This quality of design is called emphasis
or subordination. Emphasis is produced by the design or
form that catches our attention while the rest are
subordinated.
ORGANIZATION IN
ARCHITECTURE
Egyptian Architecture (4000-2280 B.C.E.)
Art in ancient Egypt continued strangely unchanged
through the various phases of foreign influence from Assyria,
Persia, Greece, and Rome. The close connection between
religious rites and architecture is everywhere manifested. The
religious rites of the Egyptians were traditional, virtually
unchangeable, and mysterious, and these traits are reproduced in
the architecture, both in tombs and temples.
Egyptian monumental architecture, which is essentially a
columnar and trabeated style, is expressed mainly in pyramids
and temples.
The desire for permanence appropriate in a tomb, was
expressed by the extremely stable shape, by the static mass, and
perhaps by the size, which is also testified to the Pharaoh’s power.
The same desire to build for eternity was evident in the tombs of
the nobles called mastabas, solid block-like masses of rough
masonry sketched in cut stone.
Mesopotamian Architecture (6th Century B.C.E.)
Mesopotamian architecture is evident in its
palaces and temples. The distinguishing characteristic is
the Ziggurat, or tower, built at successive levels, with
ramps leading from one platform to the next. Because of
the use of brick, Assyrians developed the arch and its
multiple, the canopy.
Greek Architecture (1100-100 B.C.E.)
As was the Egyptian temple, Greek Architecture in its
most characteristic form is found in the temple, a low building of
post-and-lintel construction. In this type of construction, two
upright pieces or posts are surmounted by a horizontal piece, the
lintel, long enough to reach from one to another. A typical
example of post-and-lintel construction is found in the ruins of
the Temple of Apollo at old Corinth.
There are three types of Greek Architecture, Doric Ionic, and Corinthian. The
Doric is seen in the temple of Apollo at old Corinth, and in the Parthenon, one of the
greatest temples ever built. The Doric column has no base; the bottom of the column
rests on the top step. , and in the Parthenon, one of the greatest temples ever built. The
Doric column has no base; the bottom of the column rests on the top step. The Doric
order can be identified by the low cushion-like shape of part of its capital. The frieze is
divided into triglyphs and metopes.
The Ionic column is taller and more slender than the Doric. It has a base, and
the capital is ornamented with scrolls on each side. Unlike the Doric order, the frieze is
continuous instead of being divided.
The Corinthian column, with base and shaft resembling the Ionic, tended to
become much more slender. The distinctive feature is the capital, which is much deeper
than the Ionic.
Roman Architecture (1000 B.C.E.-C.E., 4000)
The Romans adopted the Columnar and trabeated style of
the Greeks and developed also the arch and vault from the
beginnings made by the Etruscans. The combined use of column,
beam, and arch is the keynote to the Roman style in the earliest
stages. The Romans developed the Stone Arch of the Etruscans.
Another characteristic of the Roman Architecture is the
flat round dome that covers the entire building, as in the
Pantheon.
Byzantine Architecture (C.E. 200-1453)
Byzantine takes its name from Byzantium, which is later
called Constantinople, and now called Instanbul. Byzantine
architecture is characterized by a great central dome which had
always been a traditional feature in the East. One of the
characteristic features of Byzantine churches was that the forms
of the vaults and domes were visible externally, undisguised by
any timbered roof; thus in the Byzantine style, the exterior closely
corresponds with the interior.
Western Architecture in the Middle Ages (C.E. 400-1500)
Western Architecture passed through three stages of
development during the middle ages. These are the Early
Christian, Romanesque, and Gothic. These three styles developed
one out of another: The Romanesque was an outgrowth of the
early Christian, and the Gothic, of the Romanesque.
Western styles follow the general type of Roman Basilica,
a long, rectangular building divided by pillars into a central nave
and aisles.
Early Christian Architecture (C.E. 400-700)
The early Christian Basilica has grown in part from the
Roman house where the earliest Christians met for worship, and
in part from pagan basilicas.
In the classic temples, the emphasis lay on the exterior; in
the Christian church, on the inside. A second form of building,
known as the central type, was designed around a central vertical
axis instead of a longitudinal one.
Romanesque Architecture (11th and 12th Centuries)
Romanesque architecture is an extension and development
of the Early Christian Basilica exemplified by S. Apollinare in
Classe. Where the Early Christian style is structurally light, with a
simple lightweight, flat wooden roof, the Romanesque has very
heavy walls with small window openings and heavy stone arched
and vaulted roof inside. In this style, it resembles the Roman
style- hence the name Romanesque (“Roman-ish”).
In the Romanesque Cathedral, several small windows
were combined in a compound arch; in the Gothic, this process
was continued until the arches appeared only as stone tracery. In
the Romanesque church, the façade sometimes has one doorway,
sometimes three. The Gothic façade regularly had three
doorways. Each was made with multiple orders, like the
Romanesque, though the arch, ofcourse, was pointed.
The Gothic style in architecture is known primarily for its
cathedrals and churches. There are also mane beautiful palaces,
especially in Venice.
Renaissance Architecture (15th and 16th Centuries)
In Renaissance Architecture, the cathedral or
temple is no longer the typical building; secular
architecture comes to the fore, as in Roman times. The
designers go their ideas from Greece and Rome, but they
used these ideas freely, according to their own tastes, in
a way that it was original.
Baroque Architecture (1600-1750)
Baroque architecture flourished in the 17th century and in
the opening years of the 18th century. It is characterized primarily
as a period of elaborate sculptural ornamentation. The
architectural framework remained close to that of the renaissance
although often it was far more spacious, but had a profusion of
carved decoration . Columns and entablateurs were decorated
with garlands of flowers and fruits, shells, and waves.
They often have domes or cupolas, and they may or may
not have spires.
The 19th Century Architecture
The 19th century is known as a period of eclecticism.
Eclecticism in architecture implifies freedom on the part of the
architect or client to choose among the styles of the past that
seems to him most appropriate.
By the middle of the 19th century, both the Greek and
Gothic revivals were spent, to be replaced by a bewildering
variety of styles. Italian villas and Swiss chalets jostled Victorian
Gothic churches and Victorian classic post offices.
Beginning in about 1890, eclecticism changed its flavor.
Modern Architecture
Modern architecture is an attempt to interpret one’s
purpose through building in style independent of fix symmetries.
New materials came to be utilized- prestressed steel in tension,
high-pressure concrete, glass block, wood, metal, chromium,
plastic, copper, cork, steel, gypsum lumber, real and artificial
stone, all varieties of synthetic and compressed materials, and the
versatile plywood.
Philippine Architecture
The Philippines had shown knowledge and expertise in all
the arts. In this country, along Roxas Boulevard, Ayala, and
Escolta, one can see that architecture in the Philippines has come
up with the times. The old St. Augustine church, the University of
Sto. Thomas, San Sebastian Church, and some parts of the
Intramuros, reflect not only the living proofs of antiquity of
architecture in this country but also trace back the influence of
Europe on this particular art at a time when most of the civilized
countries in the world regarded the Far east as Pagan and
primitive.
Writers noted that the massive buttresses of the
church, as in the Ilocos Norte’s paoay Church are
reminiscent of the builder’s struggle with earthquakes
and that this church became the epitome of earthquake-
resistant churches.
The cultural center of the Philippines, which was
designed by Architect Leandro Locsin, is the womb and
bosom of the development of the Arts in the Philippines.
History of Philippine Architecture
Architecture in the Philippines is the result of various
influences. It developed from pre-colonial influences, the Spanish
colonial period, American Commonwealth period, and the
contemporary times.
The Philippine architectural landscape is evident among
the small traditional huts made of wood, bamboo, nipa, grass, and
other native materials. It is seen also among the massive Spanish
churches, converts and fortifications with their heavy style and in
the American mission style architecture. It is also seen today in
the contemporary modern concrete structure of the cities.
The bahay kubo is a typical traditional house found in the
Philippines. During the 19th century, wealthy Filipinos built
homes with solid stone foundations or brick walls. A deviation of
the bahay kubo is the bahay na bato. In the Cordillera mountains,
the houses are more secured. The Maranao houses designed for
royalty are built with much ornamentation and elaborate details.
Houses in Batanes, because of the weather, are built solidly on all
sides and covered with thick thatch roofing to withstand the
typhoons that frequently affect the area.
The arrival of the Spaniards in 1571 brough the Antillian
Architecture. Some of the best colonial churches are in Ilocos
Region, Laguna, Batangas, Panay, Cebu, and Bohol. Convents,
belfries, and walled forecourts are built near the churches.
Structures that were developed during the Spanish period includes
schools and hospitals like the University of Sto. Thomas, Colegio
San Juan De Letran and the Hospital de San Juan de Dios.
When the Americans came in 1898, new architectural
structures were introduced. Government houses built during that
period resembled Greek or Roman temples.
By the mid-1920s, Philippine Architecture showed the
Art deco. The Metropolitan Theatre along Plaza
Arroceros is a good example.
In the 1970s, a new form of Philippine
Architecture emerged with the filipinization of
architecture.
Japanese Architecture
Like the Egyptians, the close connection between religious rites of the
Japanese is merely traditional and the traits are reproduced in the architecture,
both in tombs and temples.
A juto (longevity tower) is a kind of mausoleum in ancient times
erected during one’s lifetime to celebrate his own or another’s longevity.
Hideyoshi Toyotomi built the Tensuiji Temple in the courtyard of Daitokuji
temple in Kyoto to pray for his mother while she was seriously ill. Grateful for
her subsequent successful recovery, he constructed a juto at Tensuiji in 1452.
There are many buildings in Kyoto which are thought to be remains
of Toyotomi’s jurakudai or Fushimi Castle, but only a few have been identified
as actually built by him.
ELEMENTS OF
LITERATURE AND
COMBINED ARTS
A writer should bear these objectives in mind:
1. To strive in raising the level of the
reader’s humanity and
2. To accomplish the purpose of making
one a better person, giving him a
high sense of value.
The important elements of literature are:
1. Emotional appeal
2. Intellectual appeal
3. Humanistic Value

•Emotional Appeal is attained when the reader is emotionally touched by any

literary work.
•Intellectual Appeal both adds knowledge and information and remind the
reader of what he has forgotten.
•Humanistic value can be attained when a literary work makes the reader an
improved person with a better outlook in life and with clear understanding of
his/her inner self.
Classification of Literature
Escape literature is written for entertainment purposes,
that is, to help us pass the time in an agreeable manner. It takes us
away from the real world and enables us to temporarily forget our
troubles. It has for its object only pleasure.
Interpretative literature is written to broaden or sharpen
our awareness in life. It takes us through imagination, deeper into
the real world and enables us to understand our troubles. It has for
its object pleasure and understanding.
Uses of Literature
1. Moralizing literature
To present moral value for the reader to understand and appreciate;
the moral may be directly or indirectly stated.
2. Propaganda literature
Found not only in history books and advertising and marketing books
but also in some booms describing one’s personal success and achievements in
life.
3. Psychological continuum of the individual-therapeutic value
Could be looked on as a sophisticated modern elaboration of the idea
of catharsis- an emotional relief experienced by the reader thereby helping him
recover from a previous pent-up emotion.
ELEMENTS OF POETRY
1. Denotation or Connotation
Denotation is the actual meaning of a word derived
from the dictionary. The word “home” for instance, by
denotation means where one lives. Connotation is related or
allied meanings of a word. The same word “home” suggests
warmth, comfort, security, love, and other meanings that are
associated with its denotative meaning.
2. Imagery
Representation of sense experience through language.
3. Figurative Language
The most commonly used and the most important of the figurative
language are the simile and the metaphor. Both simile and metaphor are
used as means of comparing things that are essentially unlike.
4. Rhythm and Meter
Our appreciation of rhythm and meter is rooted even deeper in us
than our love for musical repetition. It is related to the beats of our hearts
and the intake and outflow of air from our lungs. Rhythm is a part of our
lives as there is rhythm in the way we talk, the way we swim and other
similar activities. Meter, in language, is the accents that are so arranged as
to occur at apparently equal intervals of time. Metrical language is called
verse.
5. Meaning and Idea
The meaning of a poem is the experience it expresses.
Here, we can distinguish between the “total meaning” of a poem
and its “prose meaning.” The total meaning is the idea in a poem
which is only a part of the total experience it communicates.
Prose meaning doesn’t have to be an idea itself. It may be a story,
a description, a statement of emotion, a presentation of human
character or a combination of these.
ELEMENTS OF THE SHORT STORY
1. Plot
It is the sequence of incidents or events of which a story is
composed. It might consist merely of a sequence of related
actions. Plot in a short story means arrangement of action. The
action refers to an imagined event or happening or to a series of
such events.
2. Character
Reading for character is more difficult than reading for a
plot, for a character is much more complex, varied, and
ambiguous.
3. Theme
It is the controlling idea or the central insight in a
literary work. It is the unifying generalization about life
stated or implied by the story.
The equivalent of the theme in literature and
combined arts is the subject in painting, sculpture, and
music.
4. Symbol and Irony
A literary symbol is something that means more than what it is. It is an object,
a person, a situation, an action or some other item that has literal meaning in the story
but suggests or represents other meanings as well.
Irony is a term with a range of meanings, all of them involving some sort of
discrepancy or incongruity. It is a contrast in which one term of the contrast in some
way mocks the other term. According to Perrine, there are three kinds of irony:
a. Verbal Irony is a figure of speech in which the opposite is said
from what is intended. The discrepancy is what is said and what is meant.
b. Dramatic Irony is the contrast between what a character says and what the
reader knows to be true.
c. Irony of situation is the discrepancy between appearance and reality,
between expectation and fulfillment, or between what is said and what

would seem appropriate.

5. Language and Style
Language refers to the idiom used and how it is
used. Style, on the other hand, is a term which may refer
to the precise use of language, both literary and
figuratively; it may refer to the total working out of the
short story, taking all the other elements (character, plot,
theme, setting) into consideration.
ELEMENTS OF THE ESSAY
An essay is simply defined as a literary composition on a
particular subject. It usually short and it expresses the author’s personal
thoughts, feelings, experiences or observations on phase of life that has
interested him. Biography, history, travel, art, nature, personal life, and
criticisms are among the innumerable subjects in the field of choice of
an essayist. Essay writers are usually people who have plenty of time
for reflection.
The essay can be roughly grouped as formal or informal. It is
considered informal when the essay is light, humorous, and
entertaining; and formal when the essay is heavy, informative, and
intellectually stimulating.
When reading an essay, the following elements should be
considered:
1. The issue introduced
-This reflects the actual purpose of the writer.
2. The writer’s viewpoint and thought
-The final stand of the author, whether he is for or
against the issue he has discussed.
3. The relevance of the issue to the life of the reader
-This refers to the reader’s perception,
responsiveness, and enjoyment of the theme.
ELEMENTS OF THE NOVEL
The novel is particularly applicable to a long work of
prose fiction dealing with characters, situations, and scenes that
represent those of real life and setting and action in the form of a
plot.

1. Setting
Covers the time, the place, and the background. It
involves not only geography but also the entire climate of beliefs,
habits, and values of a particular region and historical period.
2. Plot
Skeleton and framework which gives shape and
proportion to the novel. It can also de describes the story
itself, the actual events or happenings in the novel, the most
important substance which concerns human activity and the
changes which occur from the beginning to the end of the
story. The conflict is an important element of the plot.
3. Theme
This is compared to the subject of a painting. It is the
universal truth found in novel, the main idea or topic.
4. Characters
They are the moving spirit of the novel. They do not
only act but also manifest the moral, emotional, and
intellectual qualities endowed to them by the author.
Characters involve two qualities: morality and
personality. Character is the first sense, morality, has
the older status as a technical concept n literary
criticism.
THE ELEMENTS OF DRAMA
Drama, like prose fiction, utilizes plot and character,
develops a theme, arouses emotion or appeals to humor, and
may be either escapist or interpretative in its dealings with
life. Like poetry, it may draw upon all the resources of
language, including verse. Much drama is poetry, but drama
has one characteristic peculiar to itself. It is written primarily
to be performed, not read. It normally presents its action 10
through actors, 2) on a stage, 30) before an audience.
1. Plot
It is the term sometimes used to mean a summary of a
play’s story. It is concerned with what happens in the story. More
properly, it seems to be the overall structure of a play.
2. Character
Must be shaped to fit the needs of the plot, and all parts of
the characterization must fit together.
3. Thought
In dramatic structure, thoughts include the ideas and
emotions implied by the overall meaning of the play, sometimes
the theme.
4. Language (Dialogue)
A means of expressing the character and the thoughts
dramatically. Language in the theatre refers to the dramatic
dialogue which may be in prose or verse. Prose dialogue may be
naturalistic or rhetorical. Naturalistic dialogue is the actual way
people talk, while the rhetorical dialogue is popularly described
as high flown, florid, and oratorical. Verse dialogue makes use of
the conventions of poetry for the purpose of drama.
5. Theme
It is what the story means. It is a conviction of the real
world we live in, and it may stated in several ways.
6. Climax/Denouement
The climax is the scene or incident that is the fruition of
the accumulated suspense, and that stirs the most intense feelings
or emotions. It can also be described as the turning point of the
story.
Denouement is the working out of the plot, following the
climax. In this final part of the play, usually brief but sometimes a
full act, the playwright brings the conflict to an end and explains
how and why everything turns out the way it did.
7. Music and Spectacle
Aside from “background music”, there is music of speech and
movement. Spectacle means emotions, whatever these emotions are. In
the theatre, the element of a spectacle heightens the atmosphere,
whether of vitality or terror or sorrow.
8. Costume and Make-up
Every costume should be comfortable and securely put together
so that the performer does not have to worry about it once it is on.
The make-up crew should be allowed plenty of time to their
work after each actor is dressed. Everything in the make-up box should
have its own place and be covered.
9. Scenery and Lighting
The scenery may be simple, for it is supposed only to
suggest the scene. The imagination of the audience will
complete the picture.
Proper lighting can add a great deal to the realism of the
play. Consider brightness, color, and direction in lighting the
play.
Stage lighting is always electrical, and only the assigned
and responsible persons should touch the electrical equipment.
IMPORTANCE OF READING LITERARY WORKS
Literary works of art like poetry, stories, novels,
and plays are worth reading for they are not only entertain
us or give pleasure. From some of the characters of the
stories or novels, we learn moral values that can improve
our life. Reading literary works can help us acquire
knowledge and information particularly the individual’s
progress and achievement, thus serving as inspiration.
THE DRAMA

Drama, which is believed to have its origin in the art of

dance, is found in some form in almost every society, primitive
and civilized, and has served a variety of functions in the
community. At its best, it is a reflection of many phases of life.
We learn that the past, as shown on the board of the theater, is
not concerned only with kings and great personages, but with
peasants and mechanics, saints and sinners, and rich and poor as
well; that is not the exclusive province of fine writers but also of
inspired clowns and strolling mummers.
What is Drama?
The abridged Oxford Dictionary defines Drama as a
composition in prose or in verse, adapted to be acted and is
represented with accompanying gesture, costume, and scenery,
as in real life.
Drama in ancient Greek meant something that is acted
out, or lived through. It is essentially social and involves
contact, communication, and negotiation of meaning.
Drama is a social encounter in a special place and in a
special time. The actors and the spectators move between real
time and imaginary time, from existential reality to dramatic
reality.
A world-Wide Show (A Dramatic Entertainment)
Miss Saigon, which was produced by Cameron
Mackintosh of England whose company received a Queen’s
award for Export Achievement was staged in the Cultural
Center of the Philippines in March 2001. The title Miss
Saigon was conceived by Alain-Boublil, a lyricist and
Claude-Michel Shonberg who wrote the musical score.
As to casting, the producers needed Asian voices
that could sing Western music. This world-wide search took
them to 10 countries including the Philippines where they
found the majority of their original London cast. It is here
that Miss Lea Salonga of the Philippines became the first
star of the show.
Development of Drama

Ancient Drama
Among the Egyptians of about 2000 B.C.E., drama existed
in religious ceremonies for the worship of Osiris. There are
some evidences of drama in the Book of Job and in the song
of Solomon, where occasionally there appear of tragedy and
comedy, originated in Greece in the festivals of Dionysus in
the fifth and sixth centuries B.C.E., where poetry, a
dithyrambic ode with song and dance, was presented by a
leader and a chorus.
. Medieval Drama
There was a gradual development of the three kinds of
medieval play. First, the mystery play was based on the Holy
Scriptures. In France, but not in England, it is to be
distinguished from the miracle play, which dealt with the life
of a saint or a miracle of the Virgin. In England, both these
forms were termed miracles. Second was the morality play,
where the chief characters represented abstract qualities
such as vice, humanity, or death, and the tone was generally
philosophical. The moralities contained humor.
As plays were moved into the churchyard, then into
the streets and marketplaces, and finally came under
the control of guilds, elements of humor and
realism began to creep into the drama. One of the
first comic characters was the devil. From this
development emerged the third kind of medieval
drama which is the secular drama dealing with
everyday characters such as lawyers, the student,
and the young wife.
3. Renaissance Drama
With the rediscovery of classical literature during this period,
the Greek and Roman dramatists were imitated first in Italy
and later, with the spread of humanism, in France, in Germany,
and England. Other state performances, particularly the sports
spectacles, were meaningless, but the commedia dell’ arte was
original and lifelike. It was an unwritten, impromptu drama,
produced on platforms or streets by strolling players. Masks
and costumes, conventionalized with time, told the audience
what to expect of the characters, all of whom were popular
types, used again and again.
4. Drama of the 17th, 18th, and 18th Centuries
In England, the casual casual charm that characterized Elizabeth
drama died out under the Puritan regime and did not return until
near the end of the 18th century. The theaters, closed during the
civil war and the Commonwealth period, reopened under
Charles I to produce the sophisticated, witty, and coarse
commodities of William Wycherly, George Farguhar, and
others, and the bombastic, spectacular, and heroic tragedies of
John Dryden, and as the Stuart reign ended, English comedy
became maudlin and sentimental, and tragedy became stiff and
dull. In the middle of the 18th century, the theatre was briefly
revived by the comedy of manners of Oliver Goldsmith and
Richard Sheridan.
French drama emerged in the 17th century, from medieval and
religious influences, with the classical tragedies of Pierre
Corneille and Jean Racine and the superb comedies of
Moliere. German drama came to maturity much more slowly
than Roman and English dramas. Before the middle of the
18th century, the only palyright of note was Hans Sanchs, who
wrote formal tragedies and popular carnival plays. Although
English players introduced Marlowe and Shakespeare to
Germany at the end of the 16th century, theatrical performance
soon degenerated into improvised farce, featuring certain
shock characters, without however, the merits of the
commedia dell’ arte.
5. Modern Drama
Credit should be given to Ibsen, a Norweigan dramatist, for the
development of the modern drama. Ibsen’s influence on
modern drama was immense. The production of his work
throughout Europe stimulated a great burst of dramatic activity
everywhere. The last two decades of the 19th century witnessed
a great variety of trends. There was a brief revival of romance
in France; expressionism appeared in Germany after the World
War I; comedy was rejuvenated in England and in the United
States.
Oriental Drama
Understanding the Oriental drama, the Japanese, the
Cinese, and the Filipino drama, in particular, will help us
appreciate Asian heritage, culture, and civilization more.
This is a culture or civilization not far from those established
by Rome, Greece, or other countries.
Like Western drama, the drama of Asia originated as
an elaboration of liturgical practices. In general it the
concept of sangita (or sammita), the threefold art of music,
dance, and poetry, fused into single artistic entity.
Philippine Drama
Before the Spanish period, the early forms of the Philippine ere the
duplo and karagatan. The duplo was a poetical debate held by trained men
and women in the ninth night, the last night bof the mourning period for the
dead. The male participants, bellacos, are the heads of the game. The
karagatan was also a poetical debate like the duplo, but its participants were
amateurs. Both the duplo and the karagatan were held min homes. The
themes was all about a ring that fell into the sea.
The first recorded drama was staged in Cebu way back in 1598. It is
a comedia written by Viente Puche and was performed in honorof Msgr. Pedro
de Agurto, Cebu’s first bishop. Eleven years later, in 1609, another stage play
portraying the life of Santa Barbara was staged in Bicol.
Three kinds of plays became popular among the masses
during the Spanish era. They were Cenakulo, the Moro-moro,
and the Zarzuela. The ati-atihan and the Moriones emerged
as street dramas.
1. Cenakulo
A very heavy drama shown in relation to the life sacrifices
and death of Jesus Christ. It is like a passion play presented
and celebrated during the month of May or April, depending
upon the exact date of the Holy week. There are two kinds of
presentations: the abala (oral) and the kantada (song).
2. Moro-moro
It is a cloak-and-dagger play depicting the wars between the
Christians and the Muslims, with the Christians always
winning on the side. The first Moro-moro was writtenby Fr.
Jeronimo Perez and was staged in Manila in 1637, to
commemorate Governor General Consuera’s victory over
the Muslims of Mindanao. Since then, it has become the
favorite play of the people, especially during the town
fiestas.
3. Zarzuela
It is a melodrama with songs and dances that have a three-in-
one act play. It is intended to make the mass feeling towards
of love, fear, grief, sorrow, or any emotional reactions
sublime. It sometimes shows the political and social
conditions of our country. The musical part of zarzuela has
given much opportunity for creativity and appreciation of the
audience until the revolt in Cavite in the year 1872. It is
played by 20 to 25 proffesional zarzula artists (actors,
actresses, and extras.)
4. Moriones
The morion festival is a Lenten ritual that is colorful as it is
unique. It is celebrated every holy week in Marinduque, an
island at the southern end of Luzon, particularly in the towns of
Boac, GAsan, and Mogpog.
Morion means mask or visor, which is the top part of the
medieval Roman armor covering the face. It is this mask carved
from dapdap wood that is the focal point of the Moriones
celebration.
5. Ati-atihan
The ati-atihan is a pagan ritual which has become an annual
affair that the natives look forward to with great expectation.
Undoubtedly, it is the most extravagant fiesta in the Philippines
celebrated In Kalibo, Aklan, every Third Sunday of January in
honor of the infant Jesus. Its origin has been lost in antiquity.
One of the charms of the custom, is that, its practice remains
after the practical reasons for its performance have been
forgotten. However, all agree that the Ati-atihan derived its
name from Atis, the aboriginal Negritos of the are in the
Visayas.
The Modern Philippine Drama
The modern Philippine drama/stage play was
rejuvenated upon the establishment of the Repertory
Philippines in June 1967 which was founded by
Zeneida “Bibot” Amador and Baby Barredo. In this
years of existence, Repertory Philippines has become
the country’s leading theatre company, keeping abreast
of new materials and demanding outstanding
performance from its extraordinary talents.
Japanese Drama
The traditional forms of Japanese drama are the Noh, the Joruri, and the
Kabuki.
1. Noh plays
These are the oldest of the three traditional forms of the Japanese drama. They
developed during the 1300s from the dances performed at religious shrines. The
Noh Theater reached its present form in the 1600s and has remained practically
unchanged.
2. Joruri play
It is a puppet drama. It enjoyed great popularity between 1650-1730, but is now
restricted to the Bunraku Theater, Osaka where scenes from famous plays are
performed in drama. This drama involves puppet manipulation to a higher level
involving complicated skills.
3. Kabuki Drama
The most popular form of Japanese drama. It
originated at the end of the 16 th century.
Although it incorporates some of the highly
stylized dances and the stationary unrealistic
poses of the Noh Theater, Kabuki developed
a much freer, more extravagant type of
entertainment.
CHINESE DRAMA
The history of traditional drama in China, like that of most
dramas, goes back to the earliest rituals connected with sacrifices
performed with song and dance by the “Wu”, and a very ancient
pantomime said to originate from a symbolical dance in honor of
the victory of Wu Wang, founder of the Chou Dynasty, over the
then known harvest empire of China. Dancing and singing always
accompanied celebrations at harvest and in connection with war
and peace.
There are three types of Chinese Plays, namely, the Vun
Pan Shi, the Sin Pan Shi and the Vun Min Shi.
1. Vun Pan Shi
The oldest form of Chinese play: it has patriotism and filial devotion for
its subjects. Music and action unite play upon the emotions of the
audience.
2. Sin Pan Shi
It presents civil and military conditions. The difference between Vun Pan
Shi and the Sin Pan Shi is not the libretto, but in the manner of singing
certain roles and in the tradition of acting. The dictionary defines
liberatto as a musical work not intended for the stage.
3. Vun Min Shi
This is also known as the “modern play”. Colloquial dialects are allowed
in the Vun Min Shi instead of Mandarin, the dialect of Peking, which is
the accepted speech of the stage as well as of the nation.
THE CINEMA
The cinema or motion picture is one of
the most popular form of art and
entertainment in the Philippines. Every week,
millions of people go to the movies. Many
more watch movies on television. In addition,
TV networks use picture techniques to film
many of the programs that appear on
television each week.
Brief History of the Philippine Cinema
In 1926, Hollywood silent pictures were shown in the Philippine.
In 1927, the Silos brothers made The Three Tramps, a short
comedy, where Miami Salvador , Manuel Silos and Enrique Espinosa played
the principal roles.
In 1929, Carlos Vander Tolosa wrote and directed Collegian Love,
which was produced by Angel Garchitorena under Araw Movies. The stars
were Naty Fernandez and Gregorio Fernandez. (Salumbides, V.1952).
In 1933, Jose Nepomuceno started making Tagalog talkies with
American technicians and some cameras brought from Hollywood by Harris
and Taft. Other talking pictures of Jose Nepomuceno followed. His
productions were better but there was room for improvement
World War II and Philippine Movies
The outbreak of the Second World War
temporarily paralyzed the Philippine movie industry.
The Japanese imposed censorship on American and
Tagalog pictures before they could be exhibited , and
established Eiga Heikusa, central exchange for all
pictures. They introduced Japanese pictures with
subtitles in English, but most of the pictures were
propaganda for the co-prosperity idea of the Japanese
(Salumbides,1982).
Present Movie Development
From the period of Liberation up to the present, the
local movies have been struggling hard but gradually
improving. Despite this condition, there are some local
producers who are creating quality pictures. The slow pace of
development of the Philippine movies could be attributed to
some factors like:
1. The limited market for local movies
2. Lack of capital or funding
3. Inadequate facilities or equipment.
In spite of these intervening factors, Philippine movies
can compete with other Asian movies with regard to quality of
production.
Elements of Philippine Motion Pictures
1. Music and Musical Director
Music has been indispensable in motion pictures since
the very beginning. During the era of silent movies, every
cinema house employed musicians who played music that
suited he tempo and varying moods of the scene as they were
projected on the screen while others used phonograph records
for economy.
The musical director, who was in charge of the music ,
composed new songs and wrote their orchestration, prepared
bacjground music, created musical scores, and supervised all
recording and re-recording.
2. Make-up, Coiffeur and Costumes
Make-up consists of the sticky substances which are
applied on the face of the actors before facing the camera. The
make-up of the leading lady should be lighter than that of the
leading man as well as the supporting players. The make-up
artist should know what to do and apply in every type of screen
personality.
The hair of the actress should suit the part she plays in
the picture.
Before , actors were required to furnish their own attire.
However, if they did not have a particular attire or suit which the
script required, the producer supplied them at its own expense.
3. Acting and the Stars
Acting is the art of portraying or impersonating a
character. A performer should forget his own personality and
live in the life of the character he is portraying.
The imitation must be complete and perfect. The
costumes, hair, make-up, body movement, mannerisms and
way of speaking, the expression of the eyes and other parts of
the face, the gesture of the hand, etc. are the factors that help
the performers in perfecting the role he is portraying.
4. Color in the Movies
The latest innovation in cinematography is color. Color
in local movies was attempted in 1941 by LVN Pictures Inc. in
Ibong Adarna.
5. Set and Art Directors
Beautiful setting gives beauty to the picture and pleases
the eye. Art directors should know the natural setting ad build
artificial sets. They should get the inspiration from liberal
procedures disappoint the stingy ones.
MUSIC AND DANCE

THE MEDIUMS OF MUSIC

Like literature, music is an art that deals with sound. In
literature, all sounds are produced by the human voice. In music,
however, the human voice is but one of a number of possible
instruments. Different listeners may have different and even
opposed associations upon hearing the same musical sounds. It is
helpful for the listener to have some understanding of the various
musical instruments most frequently used in our culture and of the
kind of sounds they produced.
A musical instrument is a mechanism that is able to generate
musical vibrations and launch them into the air. These various
musical instruments are the means by which the composer
communicates to the listener; they are his medium of
expression. Like any artist, the composer must choose his
medium for any given composition according to the
requirement of his or her artistic conception.
Before turning to the different mediums of music, it is
important to know the four properties of musical sound and
what the term range denotes as we are going to meet them in
the course of the discussion of the different instruments.
THE PROPERTIES OF MUSICAL SOUND

Musical sounds have four properties, namely: pitch, duration, volume

and color (timbre).
Pitch. All musical sounds have pitch. By pitch, we mean the location of a tone
in the musical scale in relation to high or low. It therefore refers to the highness
or lowness of tone. All sounds are caused by vibration. The musical note and
noise are both caused by something vibrating (moving to and fro) but sounds of
definite pitch are created by regular or periodic vibrations. The vibrations of a
musical sound are regular. The sound produced by speaking results from
irregular vibrations and is thus, not of definite pitch while that produced by
singing results from regular vibrations and is thus definite in pitch.
There are many different pitches, ranging from very high to very
low. Pitch is determined by the rate of vibration which to a large
extent depends on the length of the vibrating body. Other
conditions being equal, the shorter a string or column of air, the
more rapidly it vibrates and the higher the pitch. The longer a
string or column of air, the fewer the vibrations per second and the
lower the pitch. The width, thickness, density, and tension of the
vibrating body also affect the outcome.
2. Duration. This property of sound depends on the length of
time over which vibration is maintained. Tones are not only high
or low but also short and long.
3. Volume. The term refers to force or percussive effects as a
result of which the tone strikes us as being loud or soft. Forte
means loud; piano means soft.
4. Timbre of tone color. This is the individual quality of the
sound produced by other instruments. This depends on how the
instrument accentuates the over –tones within the sound wave. It
is influenced by a number of factors such as the size, shape, and
the proportions of the instrument, the material of which it is
made, and the manner in which the vibration is set up.