Group

Process
group process

INTRODUCTION TO GROUP WORK

Overview
The broad purposes of a therapeutic group are:
to increase members’ knowledge of themselves and others
to help members clarify the changes they most want to make in their lives
to provide members with the tools they need to make these changes
to support their changes.
Types of Groups
Task Groups Psychoeducational Groups
The focus of these groups is on the It focuses on developing members’
application of group dynamics cognitive, affective, and behavioral
principles and processes to improve skills through a structured set of
practice and to foster accomplishment procedures within and across group
of identified work goals. meetings.
Both leaders and participants of task The goal is to provide members with
groups tend to want to get down to targeted education on a variety of
business quickly, but focusing psychological issues or informational
exclusively on the task at hand can deficits.
create problems for the group.

Psychotherapy Groups Counseling Groups

It helps individual group members It focuses on interpersonal process
remediate psychological problems and problem-solving strategies that
and interpersonal problems of living. stress conscious thoughts, feelings,
Group members often have acute or and behavior.
chronic mental or emotional problems Career, education, personal, social,
that evidence marked distress, and developmental concerns are
impairment in functioning, or both. frequently addressed.
The goal is to aid each individual in Helps participants resolve the usual,
reconstructing major personality yet often difficult, problems of living.
dimensions.

Brief Group Therapy

It refers to groups that are time limited, have a preset time for termination, have a
process orientation, and are professionally led.
In a time-limited group, clear ground rules are critical, and leaders provide structure
for the group process.
The current increased interest in the various applications of BGT is largely due to
the economic benefits of this approach to group work and to research evidence
pointing to the effectiveness and applicability of brief groups to a wide range of
client problems and diverse settings.

The Group Counselor as a Person

The leader’s ability to establish solid relationships with others in the group is
probably the most important skill in facilitating group process.
As a group leader, you bring your personal qualities, values, and life
experiences to every group.
In general, effective counselors have a high level of self-awareness and engage
in an ongoing process of self-reflection.
group process
Personal Characteristics of the Effective Group Leader
Courage
Courage is demonstrated through your willingness
to be vulnerable at times, admitting mistakes and imperfections and taking the
same risks you expect group members to take
to confront others but to stay present with them as you work out conflicts
to act on your beliefs and hunches
to be emotionally affected by others and to draw on your experiences to identify
with them
to examine your life
to be direct and honest with members in a caring and respectful way
Willingness to Model
One of the best ways to teach desired behaviors is by modeling them in the group.
Through your behaviors and the attitudes conveyed by them, you can create
group norms such as openness, seriousness of purpose, acceptance of others,
respect for a diversity of values, and the desirability of taking risks.
Presence
Presence involves being affected by others’ pain, struggles, and joys.
However, it also involves not becoming overwhelmed by a member’s pain.
Presence implies being fully attentive to what is going on in the moment.
To increase your ability to be present, spend some time alone before leading a
group and block out distractions as much as possible.
Goodwill, Genuineness, and Caring
Your main job in the group is to help members get what they are coming for, not to
get in their way.
Caring involves respecting, trusting, and valuing people.
Some members may be more difficult than others to care about, yet we hope
you will at least want to care.
Belief in Group Process
You need to believe in what you are doing and trust the therapeutic process in a
group.
It is often during the most difficult moments in group work that we are challenged to
both trust the process and our ability to help group members navigate the conflicts,
as well as other painful dynamics, that often arise in group work.
Openness
Openness means that you reveal enough of yourself to give the participants a
sense of who you are as a person.
It does not mean that you reveal every aspect of your personal life.
Your openness can foster a corresponding spirit of openness within the group.
It will enable members to become more open about their feelings and beliefs,
and it will lend fluidity to the group process.
Nondefensiveness in Coping with Criticism
Dealing frankly with criticism is related to openness.
Some of the criticism may be fair—and some of it may be an unfair expression of
jealousy, testing authority, or projection onto you of feelings for other people.
It is crucial for you to nondefensively explore with the group the feelings behind
the criticism.
Even if someone verbally abuses you as a leader, it is not therapeutic for you to
respond in a defensive manner.
Instead, model an effective and nonaggressive way of expressing your
thoughts and feelings.
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Becoming Aware of subtle Culture Issues

Many cultural mistakes that may harm members are unconscious and are not
deliberate on our part, so it is important that we increase our self-awareness and
challenge our worldview and values.
As group leaders, if we increase our awareness of our own prejudices and biases,
we stand a better chance of dealing effectively with prejudicial attitudes or remarks
made in a group.
Being able to identify with a client's pain
One basis for empathizing with clients is being open to the sources of pain in your
own life without becoming swept up by this pain.
Our willingness to engage in self-reflection can inspire our clients to explore
their personal concerns.
Personal Power
It is the dynamic and vital characteristic of leaders who know who they are and
what they want.
Self-confidence implies trusting in our competence while continuing to fine-tune
ourselves as people and professionals.
Stamina
You need physical and psychological stamina and the ability to withstand pressure
to remain vitalized throughout the course of a group.
Be aware of your own energy level and seek ways to replenish it.
Commitment to Self-Care
Self-care is a basis for utilizing your strengths, which can enable you to deal
effectively with the stresses of your work and prevent some of the risk factors
leading to burnout.
Staying alive both personally and professionally is not something that happens
automatically; it is the result of a commitment to acquiring habits of thinking and
action that promote wellness.
Self-Awareness
An awareness of self, including one’s identity, cultural perspective, power and
privilege, goals, motivations, needs, limitations, strengths, values, feelings, and
problems.
If you have a limited understanding of who you are, it is unlikely that you will be
able to facilitate any kind of awareness in clients.
Sense of Humor
Using spontaneous wit makes us more real to the members of our groups and
results in their being less intimidated by the power differential.
Although using humor usually evokes positive reactions, it can elicit negative
reactions from some clients.
Inventiveness
It is important to discover new ways of approaching a group by inventing
experiments that emerge from here-and-now interactions.
Personal Dedication and Commitment
If you believe in the value of group process, and if you have a vision of how groups
can empower individuals, you will be better able to ride out difficult times in a group.
If you have a guiding vision, you can use it to stay focused and on track with group
members when the interactions are troublesome.
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The Group Counselor as a Professional
It is essential that leaders possess the knowledge of how groups best function and
that they have the skills to intervene in timely and effective ways.
Active Listening
It involves absorbing the content, noting gestures and subtle changes in voice or
expression, and sensing underlying messages.
The skilled group leader is sensitive to the congruence (or lack of it) between
what a member is saying in words and what he or she is communicating
through body posture, gestures, mannerisms, and voice inflections.
Reflecting
It is the ability to convey the essence of what a person has communicated so the
person can see it.
Example:
Member: I really didn’t want to come to the group today. I’m bored, and I
don’t think we’ve gotten anyplace for weeks.
Leader: You sound discouraged about the possibility of not getting much
from this experience.
Clarifying
It involves focusing on key underlying issues and sorting out confusing and
conflicting feelings.
Example:
Member: I’m angry with my father, and I wish I didn’t have to see him
anymore. He hurts me so often. I feel guilty when I feel this way, because I
also love him and wish he would appreciate me.
Leader: You have feelings of love and anger, and somehow having both of
these feelings at once presents a problem for you.
Summarizing
When the group process becomes bogged down or fragmented, summarizing is
often helpful in deciding where to go next.
Example:
After several members have expressed an interest in working on a
particular personal problem, the leader might point out common elements
that connect these members.
A leader might say, “Before we close, I’d like each of us to make a brief
statement about his or her experience in the group today.”
Facilitating
The group leader can facilitate the group process by:
assisting members to openly express their fears and expectations
actively working to create a climate of safety and acceptance in which people
can trust one another and therefore engage in productive interchanges
providing encouragement and support as members explore highly personal
material or as they try new behavior
involving as many members as possible in the group interaction by inviting and
sometimes even challenging members to participate
working toward lessening the dependency on the leader by encouraging
members to speak directly to one another
encouraging open expression of conflict and controversy
helping members overcome barriers to direct communication.
These skills involve opening up clear communication among the members and
helping them increase their responsibility for the direction of their group.
Empathizing
An empathic group leader can sense the subjective world of the client.
The core of the skill of empathy lies in being able to openly grasp another’s
experiences and at the same time to maintain one’s separateness.
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Interpreting
Group leaders who are more directive are likely to make use of interpretation,
which entails offering possible explanations for certain behaviors or symptoms.
A group leader also may present an interpretation in the form of a hunch, which
encourages members to assess what they are hearing.
Example:
“Jeffrey, when a person in the group talks about something painful, I’ve
noticed that you usually intervene and become reassuring. This tends to
stop the person’s emotional experience and exploration. Do you have an
awareness of this, and what might that say about what is going on with
you?”
Questioning
If a member happens to be experiencing intense feelings, questioning is one way of
reducing the intensity.
Linking
A group leader who has an interactional focus—that is, one who stresses member-
to-member rather than leader-to-member communication—makes frequent use of
linking.
This skill calls on the insightfulness of the leader in finding ways of relating what
one person is doing or saying to the concerns of another person.
Example:
Katherine might be describing her feeling that she won’t be loved unless
she’s perfect. If Pamela has been heard to express a similar feeling, the
leader could ask Pamela and Katherine to talk with each other in the group
about their fears.
Confronting
It does take both caring and skill, however, to confront group members when their
behavior is disruptive of the group functioning or when there are discrepancies
between their verbal messages and their nonverbal messages.
In confronting a member, a leader should
specifically identify the behavior to be examined and avoid labeling the person
share how he or she feels about the person’s behavior
Example:
“Danny, rather than telling her that she should speak up, are you willing to
let her know how her silence affects you? Will you tell her why it is
important to you that she speaks?”
Leaders need to learn ways to confront both individual members and the group as
a whole
For example, if the group seems to be low in energy and characterized by
superficial discussions, the leader might encourage the members to talk about
what they see going on in the group for themselves and determine whether
they want to change what is happening.
Supporting
Supportive behavior can be therapeutic or counterproductive.
A common mistake is offering support before a participant has had an
opportunity to fully experience a conflict or some painful feelings.
Support is appropriate when people are facing a crisis, when they are facing
frightening experiences, when they attempt constructive changes and yet feel
uncertain about these changes, and when they are struggling to overcome old
patterns that are limiting.
Leaders should remember that too much support may send the message that
people are unable to support themselves.
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Blocking
Group leaders have the responsibility to block certain activities of group members,
such as questioning, probing, gossiping, invading another’s privacy, breaking
confidences, and so forth.
Blocking helps to establish group norms and is an important intervention,
particularly during the group’s initial stages.
Here are some examples of behaviors that need to be blocked:
Bombarding with other questions
Indirect communication
Storytelling
Breaking confidences
Assessing
Assessment includes the ability to appraise certain behavior problems and to
choose the appropriate intervention.
Leaders must be able to assess whether the member can be helped or harmed by
the group.
Modeling
One of the best ways for leaders to teach a desired behavior to members is to
model it for them.
If group leaders value risk-taking, openness, directness, sensitivity, honesty,
respect, and enthusiasm, they must demonstrate attitudes and behaviors congruent
with these values.
Suggesting
Leaders can offer suggestions aimed at helping members develop an alternative
course of thinking or action.
Suggestions can take a number of forms, such as giving information, asking
members to consider a specific homework assignment, asking members to create
their own experiments, and assisting members in looking at a circumstance from a
new vantage point.
There is a fine line between suggesting and prescribing; the skill is in using
suggestions to enhance an individual’s inclination and motivation toward making his
or her own decisions.
Initiating
When the leader takes an active role in providing direction to members, offers
some structure, and takes action when it is needed, the group is aided in staying
focused on its task.
Too much leader initiation can stifle the creativity of a group, and too little leader
initiation can lead to passivity on the part of the members.
Evaluating
After each group session, it is valuable for the leader to evaluate what happened,
both within individual members and within the whole group, and to think about what
interventions might be used next time with the group.
The leader has the role of teaching participants how to evaluate, so they can
appraise the movement and direction of their own group.
Once the group has evaluated a session or series of sessions, its members can
decide what, if any, changes need to be made.
Terminating
Group leaders need to learn when and how to terminate their work with both
individuals and groups.
They need to develop the ability to tell when a group session should end, when
an individual is ready to leave a group, and when a group has completed its
work, and they need to learn how to handle each of these types of termination.
group process
The Coleadership Model
The Basis of Coleadership
The choice of a coleader is a critical variable.
Careful selection of a coleader and time devoted to meeting together are
essential. If the two leaders are incompatible, their group is bound to be
negatively affected.

If you find the relationship with your coleader is not productive, consider the following:
Identify the specific characteristics or behaviors that bother you about your
coleader and examine why these are problematic for you.
Seek supervision and consultation to enable you to work through these
issues.
Communicate your feelings to your coleader in an open and nonjudgmental
way, and discuss what you each need to develop a more effective working
relationship.
Increase the amount of time you spend preparing for and debriefing group
sessions with your coleader.
If you, your coleader, or your supervisor determine that these conflicts are
likely to cause harm to the group members, consider changing coleaders.
A major factor in selecting a coleader involves mutual respect.
Two or more leaders working together will surely have their differences in
leadership style, and they will not always agree or share the same perceptions
or interpretations.
If there is mutual respect and trust between them, however, they will be able to
work cooperatively instead of competitively, and they will be secure enough to
be free of the constant need to prove themselves.

Advantages of Coleadership Model

The chance of burnout can be reduced by working with a coleader.
If intense emotions are being expressed by one or more members, one leader can
pay attention to those members while the other leader scans the room to note the
reactions of other members, who can later be invited to share their reactions.
Coleader peer supervision is clearly beneficial.
The coleader can be used as a sounding board, can check for objectivity, and
can offer useful feedback.
There is no problem of breaking confidentiality in such instances, for the
coleader was also present in the sessions.
When one of the leaders is affected by a group member to the degree that
countertransference is present.
If one of the leaders represents a position of power and privilege that may affect
members in a particular way, the other leader can help process this, especially if he
or she does not possess the same social status position.

Disadvantages of Coleadership Model

Problems can occur if coleaders rarely meet with each other.
The results are likely to be a lack of synchronization or even a tendency to work
at cross purposes instead of toward a common goal.
Competition and rivalry
Such a relationship between coleaders is bound to have a negative effect on
the group.
If coleaders do not have a relationship built on trust and respect or if they do not
value each other’s competence, they may not trust each other’s interventions.
One leader may side with members against the other leader.
Coleaders who are involved in an intimate relationship with each other can get into
some problematic situations if they attempt to use time in the session to deal with
their own relationship struggles.
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ETHICAL ISSUES IN GROUP COUNSELING

Ethical Issues in Group Membership
Informed Consent
Informed consent is a process of presenting basic information about a group to
potential group participants to assist them in deciding whether to enter the group
and how to participate in it.
This can be done at a level that is best comprehended by those who are being
considered for a group.
It is a good idea to explain that informed consent is an ongoing process rather than
a one-time event.
When individuals have adequate information, they are in a position to determine
whether they want to join a particular group.

Involuntary Membership
When group participation is mandatory, much effort needs to be directed toward
clearly and fully informing members of the nature and goals of the group,
procedures that will be used, the rights of members to decline certain activities, the
limitations of confidentiality, and ways active participation in the group may affect
their life outside the group.
Leading groups takes considerable skill and knowledge even when the group is
composed of participants who are highly motivated and who have chosen to be in
the group.
Leading groups composed of involuntary members makes the task even more
difficult and creates new dynamics to address in the group process.
Showing involuntary members how they could personally benefit from a group can
increase voluntary participation.
Sometimes members are reluctant to become involved because of
misinformation or stereotyped views about the nature of therapy.
A major factor of success in leading a group with involuntary participants involves
not allowing negative attitudes of some members to contaminate the entire group
experience.

Freedom to Withdraw from a Group

Adequate preparation and screening can reduce the risk of members leaving a
group prematurely.
Leaders must be clear about their policies pertaining to attendance, commitment to
remaining in a group for a predetermined number of sessions, and leaving a
particular session if members do not like what is going on in the group.
Although members have the right to leave a group, it is important that they inform
both the group leader and the members before making their final decision.
It is important to consider why members may want to leave a group.
Many times the behaviors we see members exhibiting in a group are indicative
of how they behave in their daily lives.
If a person leaves without careful consideration and explanation, the consequences
could be negative for the members remaining as well as for the departing member.
Some members may feel burdened with guilt and may blame themselves for
saying or doing “the wrong thing” and contributing to an individual’s decision to
quit.
And the person who leaves may have unexpressed and unresolved feelings
that could have been worked through with some discussion.
If the member is unable to explain this to the group and does not contact the
leader, the leader could take the initiative and contact the person to inquire about
his or her absence.
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Psychological Risks for Members
In a group setting, counselors take reasonable precautions to protect clients from
physical, emotional, or psychological trauma.
A minimal expectation is that group leaders discuss with members the advantages
and disadvantages of a given group, that they prepare the members to deal with
any problems that might grow out of the group experience, and that they be alert to
the fears and reservations members might have but are not expressing.
One way to minimize psychological risks in groups is to use a contract, in which the
leader species his or her responsibilities and the members specify their
commitment by stating what they are willing to explore and do in the group.

Confidentiality
In leading a group you must not only keep the confidences of members but also get
the members to keep one another’s confidences.
An ethical breach might involve a member disclosing personal information or details
about one’s personal history to someone not in the group.
EDUCATING MEMBERS ABOUT CONFIDENTIALITY
Group leaders are responsible for educating members about the importance and
advantages of keeping information pertaining to the group private
A full discussion of confidentiality is of paramount importance not only because it
respects the rights of group members to make autonomous choices, but also
because it can influence the overall group experience.
Even though it is the leader’s role to educate members about confidentiality and to
monitor safeguarding of disclosures, the members also have a responsibility in
respecting and safeguarding what others share in the group.
ETHICAL AND LEGAL DIMENSIONS OF CONFIDENTIALITY
Leaders have a responsibility to discuss any breaches with the group and to take
action if a member breaks confidentiality.
Generally, members do not violate confidentiality when they talk about what they
learned in group sessions. But they are likely to breach confidentiality when they
talk about how they acquired insights or how they interacted in a group.
Group practitioners should also mention to members any documentation or record-
keeping procedures that they may be required to keep that affect confidentiality.

Here are some summary guidelines concerning confidentiality in groups:

Confidentiality is crucial to the success of a group, but the leader can do little
to guarantee that the policy on confidentiality will be respected by all
members. Leaders can only ensure confidentiality on their part, not on the
part of others in the group.
Group leaders must become familiar with the local and state laws that will
have an effect on their practice. This is especially true in cases involving child
molestation, neglect or abuse of older people and children, or incest.
Group leaders describe at the outset the roles and responsibilities of all
parties and the limits of confidentiality
Members should be told about the limits of confidentiality so they can
determine when, what, and how much personal information they will reveal in
group sessions.
Leaders have the responsibility of helping members, as well as parents or
guardians of minors, understand the importance of maintaining confidentiality
and for protecting the personal disclosures of other members.
It is a wise policy to ask participants to sign a contract in which they agree not
to discuss or write about what transpires in the sessions or talk about who
was present.
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The Role of the Leader's Values in the Group

"The focus of group process is on the client. Our clients, not us, live with the
consequences of the changes they make in a group."

Ethical Aspects of Working with Values

The purpose of the group is to help members clarify their beliefs and examine
options that are most congruent with their own value system.
Group counseling is not a forum in which leaders impose their value
perspectives on members, nor is it a forum for any of the members to impose
their values on others.
If you assume these members would be far better off by changing their values, you
are likely to do them a disservice (harm).

Dealing with Conflicts of Values

When you find yourself struggling with an ethical dilemma over a values conflict,
the best course to follow is to seek consultation in working through the situation so
the appropriate standard of care is provided.
If you are having difficulty maintaining objectivity regarding a certain value, consider
this your problem rather than the client’s problem.
Supervision or personal counseling can help you to understand why your
personal values are entering into your professional work in an inappropriate
way.
Leaders must be clear about their own values and remain objective when working
with values that are different from their own.
Ethical bracketing - the process of intentionally setting aside our personal values
to provide ethical and appropriate counseling

Diversity in Group Counseling

Values and Working with Diversity
Group workers practice with broad sensitivity to client differences including but
not limited to ethnic, gender, religious, sexual, psychological maturity, economic
class, family history, physical characteristics or limitations, and geographic location.
Group workers continuously seek information regarding the cultural issues of the
diverse population with whom they are working both by interaction with participants
and from using outside resources.
It is essential that leaders provide an environment in which the members believe
they are benefiting by participation in the group and that their learning is applicable
to their everyday living.

Social Justice Approach to Group Counseling

Social justice “is based on the idea that society gives individuals and groups fair
treatment and an equal share of benefits, resources, and opportunities”
As a microcosm (miniature) of society, groups provide a context for addressing
issues of power, privilege, discrimination, and oppression.
Group work often provides the potential to further a social justice agenda.
Group workers need to search for innovative ways of expanding their
competence in addressing social justice issues.
The main goal is for a group to provide a safe place for members to talk about
painful, harmful events and to experience opportunities for healing.
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Ethical Concerns in Using Group Techniques

Group techniques can be used to facilitate the movement of a group and to
deepen and intensify certain feelings.
It is extremely important for group leaders to have a clear rationale for using a
technique. This is an area in which theory can be a useful guide for practice.
Group leaders have a responsibility to exercise caution in using techniques,
especially if these methods are likely to result in the release of intense feelings.
It is important that the leader has had appropriate training to cope with the
powerful feelings that can be triggered by certain role-playing activities.
It is unwise to introduce techniques in a session when there is not enough time to
work through the feelings that might result, or in a setting where there is no privacy
or where the physical setup would make it harmful to employ certain techniques.
Adequate time needs to be allotted to closing each group session.
Group techniques are a means to an end, not an end in themselves.
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THEORIES AND TECHNIQUES OF GROUP COUNSELING

Psychodynamic Approaches
Psychoanalytic therapy is based largely
on insight, unconscious motivation, and
reconstruction of the personality.
Adlerian therapy focuses on meaning,
goals, purposeful behavior, conscious
action, belonging, and social interest.

Psychoanalytic Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
A primary goal is to make the unconscious conscious.
Rather than solving immediate problems, the goal is the restructuring of
personality.
Successful outcomes of psychoanalytic therapy result in significant modification of
an individual’s personality and character structure.
Therapeutic Relationship
Leaders characterized by objectivity, warm detachment, and relative anonymity to
those who favor a role that is likely to result in a collaborative relationship with
group members.
The contemporary formulation emphasizes the therapeutic alliance
Establishing a working relationship in which the therapist communicates caring,
interest, and involvement with members is now the preferred model.
Techniques
Two key features of psychodynamic group therapy are the ways transference and
countertransference play out in the context of the current group situation.
The group constellation lends itself to multiple transferences that provide for
reenacting past unfinished events, especially when other members stimulate
such intense feelings in an individual that he or she “sees” in them some
significant figure such as a father, mother, sibling, life partner, spouse, ex-lover,
or boss.
By interpreting and working through their transferences, participants become
increasingly aware of the ways in which past events interfere with their
ability to appraise and deal with reality in everyday life.
Countertransference can be viewed as the group therapist experiencing feelings
from the past that are reactivated by the group member in the present.
When group therapists study their own internal reactions and use them to
understand the members of their groups, countertransference can greatly
benefit the therapeutic work.

Adlerian Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
A key goal of an Adlerian group is fostering social interest, or
facilitating a sense of connectedness with others.
To accomplish this goal, an Adlerian leader creates a
democratic climate within the group.
Adlerians do not screen members for their groups
because this is viewed as being inconsistent with the spirit of
democracy and equality.
The members recognize that they are responsible for their
behavior. Adlerians are mainly concerned with challenging
clients’ mistaken notions and faulty assumptions.
Therapy provides encouragement and assists group members in
changing their cognitive perspectives and behavior.
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Therapeutic Relationships
Adlerians base their therapeutic relationship on cooperation, mutual trust,
respect, confidence, collaboration, and alignment of goals.
Adlerian group therapists strive to establish and maintain an egalitarian
therapeutic alliance and a person-to-person relationship with the members of
their groups.
Techniques
Adlerians can tap their creativity by applying techniques that they think are most
appropriate for each client.
Adlerian therapy has a psychoeducational focus, a present and future
orientation, and is a brief or time-limited approach.
Interpretation is a key technique of Adlerian group counselors and involves the
leader addressing members’ underlying motives for behaving the way they do in
the here and now.
Interpretations are open-ended presentations of clinical hunches that can be
explored in group sessions.
The aim is for members to acquire deeper awareness of their own role in
creating a problem, the ways in which they are maintaining the problem, and
what they can do to improve their life situation.
During the advanced stage of an Adlerian group (the reorientation stage), the
members are encouraged to take action based on what they have learned from
their group participation.
The group process enables members to see themselves as others do and to
recognize faulty self-concepts or mistaken goals that they are pursuing.
Change is facilitated by the emergence of hope.
During the action stage of an Adlerian group, members make new decisions and
their goals are modified.
To challenge self-limiting assumptions, members are encouraged to act as if
they were already the person they would like to be.
Adlerians often use this action-oriented technique as a way to facilitate
shifting one’s view of a situation, enabling members to reflect on how they
could be different.
Group members may be asked to “catch themselves” in the process of
repeating old patterns that have led to ineffective or self-defeating behavior,
such as having many reactions in a session, yet not expressing them verbally.
The technique of catching oneself involves helping individuals identify
signals associated with their problematic behavior or emotions.
Adlerians are flexible in adapting their interventions to each group member’s
unique life situation.

Experiential and Relationship-Oriented Approaches

Therapy is often viewed as a journey taken by counselor and client, a journey
that delves deeply into the world as perceived and experienced by the client.
The relationship-oriented approaches (sometimes known as experiential
approaches) are all based on the premise that the quality of the therapeutic
relationship is primary, with techniques being secondary.
With the experiential and relationship-oriented approaches, group leader are not
bound by a specific set of techniques.
They use techniques in the service of broadening the ways in which group
members live in their world. Techniques are tools to help the members
become aware of their choices and their potential for action.
With the experiential and relationship-oriented approaches, group leaders are not
bound by a specific set of techniques. They use techniques in the service of
broadening the ways in which group members live in their world. Techniques are
tools to help the members become aware of their choices and their potential for
action.
group process

Key concepts common to all experiential approaches

The quality of the leader-to-member encounter in the therapeutic situation is
the catalyst for positive change.
Emphasis is placed on the leader’s ability to establish a climate that fosters
authentic interchanges among the members.
The I/Thou relationship (a genuine person-to-person connection) enables
members to experience the safety necessary for risk-taking behavior.
Awareness emerges within the context of a genuine meeting between the
leader and the members, or within the context of authentic relating.
The group leader’s main role is to be present with members during the group
time. One way to increase this presence is through appropriate self-
disclosure by the leader.
Members can best be invited to behave authentically by a group leader
modeling authentic behavior.
A therapist’s attitudes and values are at least as critical as are his or her
knowledge, theory, or techniques.
A group leader who is not sensitively tuned in to his or her own reactions to the
members may become more a technician than a skilled facilitator.
The basic work in a group is done by the members. A leader’s job is to create a
climate in which members are likely to try out new ways of being.
Attending to feelings is a useful route to changing one’s thinking and behaving.

Existential Approach
Therapeutic Goals
The principal goal of an existential group is to assist the participants in
recognizing and accepting the freedom they have to become the authors of
their own lives.
Group leaders encourage members to examine the ways in which they are
avoiding their freedom and the responsibility that accompanies it.
The existential group represents a microcosm of the world in which participants
live and function.
The central purpose of this kind of group is to enable members to discover
themselves as they are by sharing their existential concerns.
Therapeutic Relationship
The existential approach places primary emphasis on understanding members’
current experience.
Existential group therapists value being fully present and strive to create caring
relationships with the members of their groups.
Techniques
Existential group leaders are not bound by any prescribed procedures and can
use techniques from other therapy schools; however, their interventions are
guided by a philosophical framework about what it means to be human.

Person-Centered Approach
Therapeutic Goals
A major goal is to provide a climate of safety and
trust in the therapeutic setting so that the client, by
using the therapeutic relationship for self-
exploration, can become aware of blocks to growth.
Group members are trusted to identify personally
meaningful goals and to find their own way without
active and directive structuring from the group
leader.
group process

Therapeutic Relationship
The qualities of the facilitator that determine the relationship include the attitudes
of genuineness, nonpossessive warmth, accurate empathy, unconditional
acceptance of and respect for the client, caring, and the communication of those
attitudes to the client.
The primary function of the facilitator is to create an accepting and healing
climate in the group.
Person-centered therapy is best considered as a “way of being” rather than a
“way of doing.”
The group leader is called a facilitator, which reflects the importance of
interactions between group members and the leader’s ability to assist members in
expressing themselves.
Techniques
In newer versions of the person-centered approaches, group facilitators have
increased freedom to participate in the relationship, to share their reactions, to
confront clients in a caring way, and to be active in the therapeutic process.
Effective group facilitators need to be therapeutic people, and they also must have
the knowledge and skills required to assist members in reaching their personal
goals in a group.
Person-centered expressive arts therapy (Natalie Rogers) uses various artistic
forms—movement, drawing, painting, sculpting, music, writing, and improvisation
—toward the end of growth, healing, and self-discovery.

Gestalt Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
The primary goal of Gestalt therapy is attaining awareness and greater choice.
Awareness includes knowing the environment and knowing oneself, accepting
oneself, and being able to make contact.
Group members are helped to pay attention to their own awareness process so
that they can be responsible and can selectively and discriminatingly make
choices.
Therapeutic Relationship
The focus is not on the techniques employed by the therapist but on who the
therapist is as a person and the quality of the relationship.
Factors that are emphasized include the therapist’s presence, authentic
dialogue, gentleness, direct self-expression by the therapist, and a greater
trust in the client’s experiencing.
There are many different styles of practicing Gestalt therapy in a group, but all
styles share common elements: direct experiencing and experimenting and
attention to what and how and here and now.
Techniques
Gestalt group leaders think more in terms of experiments than techniques.
The basic work of therapy is done by the group members.
Group leaders do not force change on the members; rather, leaders create
experiments within a here-and-now framework of what is going on in the group.
Gestalt experiments take many forms: setting up a dialogue between a group
member and a significant person in his or her life; assuming the identity of a key
figure through role playing; reliving a painful event; exaggerating a gesture,
posture, or some nonverbal mannerism; or carrying on a dialogue between two
conflicting aspects within an individual.
Gestalt therapy is truly an integrative orientation in that it focuses on whatever is in
the individual’s awareness.
By paying attention to the verbal and nonverbal cues provided, a group leader
has a starting point for exploring the member’s world.
group process
Psychodrama
Psychodrama is primarily an action approach to group counseling in which clients
explore their problems through role playing, enacting situations using various
dramatic devices to gain insight, discover their own creativity, and develop
behavioral skills.
The scenes are played as if they were occurring in the here and now, even
though they might have their origins in a past event or an anticipated situation.
Significant events are enacted to help the members of the group get in contact
with unrecognized and unexpressed feelings, to provide a channel for the full
expression of these feelings and attitudes, and to broaden their role repertoire.
Therapeutic Goals
Key goals of psychodrama are to facilitate the release of pent-up feelings, to
provide insight, and to help group members develop new and more effective
behaviors.
In a group situation emotions tend to be released, which is the catharsis that
often accompanies the experiential aspect of therapy.
Simply rediscovering buried emotions will not bring about healing; these
feelings must be worked through for integration to occur.
Other goals of psychodrama include encouraging participants to live in the
present and to behave in more spontaneous ways. A main aim is to open up
unexplored possibilities for solving conflicts and for living more creatively.
Therapeutic Relationship
Although practitioners who employ psychodramatic methods assume an active
and directive role, these techniques are most effective when the group counselor
adopts a person-centered spirit.
Techniques
The active techniques, such as role playing, are useful for many different kinds of
groups.
These methods enable group members to directly experience their conflicts to
a much greater degree than is the case when members talk about themselves
in a storytelling manner.
The techniques of psychodrama encourage people to express themselves more
fully, explore both intrapsychic conflicts and interpersonal problems, get
constructive feedback on how they come across to others, reduce feelings of
isolation, and experiment with novel ways of approaching significant others in their
lives.
Role reversal - involves the group member taking on the part of another person.
Through role reversal, people are able to get outside of their own frame of
reference and enact a side of themselves they would rarely show to others.
Future projection - designed to help group members express and clarify
concerns they have about the future.
An anticipated event is brought into the present moment and acted out.
Members create a future time and place with selected people, bring this event
into the present, and get a new perspective on a problem.
Psychodrama works best with clinicians who are well grounded in professional
judgment and open to drawing methods from various approaches.

Cognitive Behavioral Approaches

A collaborative relationship between the group member and the therapist
The premise that psychological distress is largely a function of disturbances in
cognitive processes
A focus on changing cognitions to produce desired changes in affect and behavior
A present-focused model
A generally time-limited and educational treatment focusing on specic an
structured target problems
A model that relies on empirical validation of its concepts and techniques
group process
Behavior Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
The general goals of behavior therapy are to increase personal choice and to
create new conditions for learning.
An aim is to eliminate maladaptive behaviors and to replace them with more
constructive patterns.
The client and therapist collaboratively specify treatment goals in concrete,
measurable, and objective terms.
Goals must be clear, concrete, understood, and agreed on by the members
and the group leader.
Behavior therapists and group members alter goals throughout the therapeutic
process as needed.
Therapeutic Relationship
A good working relationship is an essential precondition for effective group therapy
to occur.
The group counselor’s role is to teach concrete skills through the provision of
instructions, modeling, and performance feedback.
Leaders tend to be active and directive and to function as consultants and
problem solvers.
Group members must be actively involved in the therapeutic process from
beginning to end, and they are expected to cooperate in carrying out therapeutic
activities, both in the sessions and outside of therapy.
Techniques
Assessment is done at the outset of group treatment to determine a treatment
plan.
The leader follows the progress of group members through the ongoing
collection of data before, during, and after all interventions.
Behavioral interventions are individually tailored to specific problems experienced
by different group members.
Any technique that can be demonstrated to change behavior may be incorporated
in a treatment plan.

Cognitive Therapy
Cognitive therapy assumes that people are prone to learning erroneous, self-
defeating thoughts but that they are capable of unlearning them.
People perpetuate their difficulties through the beliefs they hold and their self-
talk.
The cognitive group therapist is interested in helping members identify their
automatic thoughts and teaching them how to evaluate their thoughts in a
structured way.
Automatic thoughts are personalized notions that are triggered by particular
stimuli that lead to emotional responses.
The group leader assists members in forming hypotheses and testing their
assumptions, which is known as collaborative empiricism.
The group leader works collaboratively with members to examine the evidence
for certain beliefs, test the validity of these beliefs, and look for more adaptive
ways of thinking.
Therapeutic Goals
The goal of cognitive behavior therapy is to change the way clients think by
identifying their automatic thoughts and begin to introduce the idea of
cognitive restructuring.
Members learn practical ways to identify their underlying faulty beliefs, to critically
evaluate these beliefs, and to replace them with constructive beliefs.
group process

Therapeutic Relationship
Group leaders combine empathy and sensitivity with technical competence in
establishing their relationship with members.
Group leaders must have a cognitive conceptualization of cases, be creative and
active, be able to engage clients through a process of Socratic questioning, and
be knowledgeable and skilled in the use of cognitive and behavioral strategies.
Cognitive practitioners are continuously active and deliberately interactive with
group members, helping them frame their conclusions in the form of testable
hypotheses.
Techniques
Cognitive therapy in groups emphasizes a Socratic dialogue and helping group
members discover their misconceptions for themselves.
After group members have gained insight into how their unrealistically
negative thoughts are affecting them, they are trained to test these inaccurate
thoughts against reality by examining and weighing the evidence for and
against them.
Through this process of guided discovery, the group leader functions as a
catalyst and guide who helps the members understand the connection
between their thinking and the ways they feel and act.
The leader teaches group members how to be their own therapist.
Cognitive behavioral practitioners function as teachers; group members
acquire a wide range of skills to use in dealing with the problems of living.
Homework is often used in cognitive therapy, which is tailored to the member’s
specific problems and arises out of the collaborative therapeutic relationship.

Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT)

Therapeutic Goals
The goals of REBT are to eliminate a self-defeating outlook
on life, to reduce unhealthy emotional responses, and to
acquire a more rational and tolerant philosophy.
REBT offers group members practical ways to identify their
underlying faulty beliefs, to critically evaluate these beliefs,
and to replace them with constructive beliefs.
Participants in a group learn how to substitute preferences for
demands.
Therapeutic Relationship
REBT practitioners strive to unconditionally accept the
members of their groups and to teach them to
unconditionally accept others and themselves.
Group leaders do not blame or condemn members; rather, they
teach members how to avoid rating and condemning
themselves.
REBT practitioners accept their clients as imperfect beings who
can be helped using a variety of techniques.
Techniques
Techniques are designed to induce clients to critically
examine their present beliefs and behavior.
REBT focuses on specific techniques for changing a group
member’s self-defeating thoughts in concrete situations.
Coping Self-Statements - Group members are taught how
faulty beliefs can be countered by rational, coping self-
statements.
Example: “I can still accept myself even though I am
imperfect.”
In REBT groups, faulty thinking is confronted.
group process
Choice Theory/Reality Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
The overall goal of this approach is to help people find better ways to meet their
needs for survival, love and belonging, power, freedom, and fun.
Changes in behavior tend to result in the satisfaction of basic needs.
Much of the work in a group centers around members exploring the degree to
which they are meeting their needs and determining better ways of meeting their
needs and the needs of others in their lives.
Therapeutic Relationship
Both involvement with and concern for group members are demonstrated by
the leader throughout the life of a group.
The group leader avoids criticism, refuses to accept members’ excuses for
not following through with agreed-upon plans, and does not easily give up on
members.
The leader assists members in the continual process of evaluating the
effectiveness and appropriateness of their current behavior.
Techniques
The group leader assists members in making plans to change those behaviors
that they determine are not working for them.
WDEP Model
W = wants: exploring wants, needs, and perceptions.
D = direction and doing: focusing on what clients are doing and the direction
this is taking them.
E = evaluation: challenging clients to make an evaluation of their total
behavior.
P = planning and commitment: assisting clients in formulating realistic plans
and making a commitment to carry them out.
Action plan is an essential part of the process of a reality therapy group.
Carrying out plans enables people to gain effective control over their lives.

Postmodern Approaches
Postmodern perspectives are marked by acceptance of plurality and the notion
that individuals create their own reality.
The postmodern approaches have in common the basic assumption that we
generate stories to make sense of ourselves and our world.

Solution-Focused Brief Therapy

Therapeutic Goals
The solution-focused model emphasizes the role of participants establishing
their own goals and preferences.
Much of what the group process is about involves members thinking about their
future and what they want to be different in their lives.
Leaders concentrate on clear, specific, observable, small, realistic, achievable
changes that may lead to additional positive outcomes.
Therapeutic Relationship
SFBT is a collaborative venture; the group therapist strives to carry out therapy
with an individual, rather than doing therapy on an individual.
Instead of aiming to make change happen, the leader attempts to create an
atmosphere of understanding and acceptance that allows individuals to tap their
resources for making constructive changes.
Solution-focused counseling is designed to be brief, the leader has the task of
keeping group members on a solution track rather than a problem track.
If members concentrate on talking about their problems, it is difficult for them
to move in a positive direction.
group process

Techniques
Solution-focused therapists use a range of techniques including pretherapy
change, exception questions, the miracle question, scaling questions, homework,
and summary feedback.
Techniques focus on the future and how best to solve problems rather than on
understanding the cause of problems.
Pretherapy Change - “What have you done since you called for an appointment
that has made a difference in your problem?”
Questioning - solution-focused group leaders use questions as a way to better
understand a group member’s experience rather than simply to gather information.
Open-ended questions can enhance solutions by providing space for
members to be heard and to reflect on future possibilities.
Exception questions - direct group members to those times in their lives when
their problems did not exist.
Example:
“What was different about yesterday when you felt less depressed?”
“What will it take to keep depression at bay more often?”
Miracle Question - allows members of a group to describe life without the
problem.
Example: “If a miracle happened and the problem you have disappeared
overnight, how would you know it was solved, and what would be different?”
Scaling questions require group members to specify improvement on a particular
dimension on a scale of zero to 10.
Example: “On a scale of zero to 10, with zero being how you felt when you first
came to this group and 10 being how you feel the day after your miracle
occurs and your problem is gone, how would you rate your anxiety right now?”
Summary Feedback - solution-focused practitioners typically allow time in each
group session for sharing feedback with one another.

Narrative Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
Narrative therapists invite group members to describe their experience in fresh
language, which tends to open new vistas of what is possible.
It involves identifying how societal standards and expectations are internalized by
people in ways that constrain and narrow the kind of life they are capable of living.
The member is asked to find evidence to support a new view of being competent
enough to escape the dominance of a problem and is encouraged to consider
what kind of future could be expected from the competent person who is
emerging.
Therapeutic Relationship
In the narrative approach, the therapist seeks to understand the lived experience
of each of the group participants.
Members then work with the therapist to co-construct enlivening alternative
stories.
Techniques
Narrative therapy’s most distinctive feature is captured by the statement, “The
person is not the problem, the problem is the problem.”
Externalizing Conversations - aimed at separating the problem from the
person’s identity.
Members learn that they are not cemented to their problem-saturated stories
and can develop alternative and more constructive stories.
As narrative therapists listen to clients’ stories, they pay attention to details that
give evidence of clients’ competence in taking a stand against an oppressive
problem.
In the practice of narrative therapy, there is no recipe, no set agenda, and no
formula to follow that will ensure a desired outcome.
group process
Motivational Interviewing
Motivational interviewing (MI) is rooted in the philosophy of person-centered
therapy, but with a “twist.”
Unlike the nondirective and unstructured person-centered approach, MI is
deliberately directive, yet it stays within the client’s frame of reference.
Therapeutic Goals
The major goals of motivational interviewing are to explore an individual’s
ambivalence, to minimize this ambivalence, and to build intrinsic motivation.
MI is built on the premise that people who seek therapy are often ambivalent
about change and that motivation tends to ebb and flow during the course of
therapy.
By understanding both sides of a member’s ambivalence regarding change,
group counselors begin to work with this ambivalence rather than working
against the client’s struggles.
MI can be a significant factor in helping clients commit to the therapy process,
which improves client involvement, adherence, and retention in cognitive
behavioral and other action-oriented therapies.
Therapeutic Relationship
Practitioners emphasize the relational context of therapy, known as the “MI
spirit.”
The group leader establishes collaborative partnerships with members and
draws on their ideas and resources rather than assuming a role as the expert.
All choices ultimately rest with the members, not the leader.
Techniques
MI group leaders encourage members to decide whether they want to make
certain changes.
If members decide to change, group leaders ask what kinds of changes will
occur and when they will occur.

Feminist Therapy
Therapeutic Goals
The major goal of feminist therapy is empowerment; members of a group strive
for a sense of self-acceptance, self-confidence, self-esteem, joy, and self-
actualization.
Other therapy goals include enhancing the quality of interpersonal relationships,
assisting both women and men to make decisions regarding role performances,
and helping group members to come to an understanding of the influence of
cultural, social, and political systems on their current situation.
Therapeutic Relationship
Feminist therapists work in an egalitarian manner and use empowerment
strategies that are tailored to each client.
They aim to empower clients to live according to their own values and to
rely on an internal (rather than external or societal) locus of control in
determining what is right for them.
The group leader and members take active and equal roles, working together to
determine goals that members will pursue in a group.
Feminist therapists share common ground with Adlerian therapists in their
emphasis on social equality and social interest.
Like person-centered therapists, feminist therapists convey their genuineness and
strive for mutual empathy between client and therapist.
A common denominator of both feminist and other postmodern approaches is the
assumption that each member is an expert on his or her own life.
group process

Techniques
Feminist therapy does not prescribe any particular set of interventions; rather,
feminist group therapists tailor interventions to members’ strengths.
Gender-role analysis explores the impact of gender-role expectations on the
individual’s psychological well-being and draws upon this information to make
decisions about modifying gender-role behaviors.
Power analysis refers to methods aimed at helping individuals understand how
unequal access to power and resources can influence personal realities.
Social action - as clients become more grounded in their understanding of
feminism, therapists may suggest that clients become involved in activities such
as volunteering at a community mental health center, lobbying lawmakers, or
providing community education about gender issues.
group process

FORMING A GROUP
Developing a Proposal for a Group
Guidelines for Forming a Proposal
1. Rationale. Do you have a clear and convincing rationale for your group, and can you
present data to support your rationale? Are you able to answer questions that might
be raised about the need for this group?
2. Objectives. Can you clearly state what you most want to attain and how you will go
about doing so? Are your objectives specific, measurable, and attainable within the
specified time?
3. Practical considerations. Is the membership defined? Are meeting times, frequency
of meetings, and duration of the group reasonable? Is the physical location of the
group easily accessible to all members?
4. Procedures. Have you selected specific procedures to meet the stated objectives?
Are these procedures appropriate and realistic for the given population?
5. Evaluation. Does your proposal contain strategies for evaluating how well the stated
objectives were met? Are your evaluation methods objective, practical, and relevant?

Attracting and Screening Members

Announcing a Group and Recruiting Group Members
Prospective members should have access to relevant information about the group
(preferably in writing), such as the following:
A professional disclosure statement
A statement of the goals and purposes of the group
Policies related to entering and exiting the group
Expectations for group participation, including voluntary and involuntary
membership
Policies and procedures governing mandated groups (where relevant)
Confidentiality and exceptions to condentiality
Leader’s theoretical orientation that includes possible interventions
The qualifications of the leader to lead a particular group
Role expectations of members and leader(s)
The rights and responsibilities of both group members and the group leader
Documentation procedures and disclosure of information to others
Implications of out-of-group contact or involvement among members
Procedures for consultation between group leader(s) and group member(s)
Education, training, and qualifications of the group leader
The logistics of a group including fees, cancellation policies, and methods of
communication with the leaders outside of group
A realistic statement of what services can and cannot be provided within a
particular group structure
Potential impact of group participation
The potential risks and benefits of participating in a group

Screening and Selection Procedures

When selection of group members is appropriate, Group Workers identify group
members whose needs and goals are compatible with the goals of the group”
The goal of screening is to prevent potential harm to clients.
For some types of groups, screening is based on whether potential members
have a specific problem area that is in alignment with the general objectives
of the group.
When selecting members of your group, it may be appropriate to consider
diversity issues.
You may want to put together a group of individuals who share common
experiences but also are different in a number of respects.
group process
The type of group should determine the kind of members accepted.
Preliminary Screening Sessions
Group applicants are to be encouraged, at their private sessions, to interview the
group leader or coleaders.
They can be invited to ask questions concerning the procedures, basic
purposes, and any other aspect of the group.
This questioning is important as a means not only of getting information but
also of developing a feeling of confidence in the group leader or coleaders,
which is necessary if productive work is to take place.
Given enough information about the group, a member can make a more
informed decision about whether to join.
A leader needs to develop a system for assessing the likelihood that a candidate
will benefit from a group experience.
Factors that must be taken into consideration are the level of training of the
leader, the proposed makeup of the group, the setting, and the basic nature of
the group.
In some cases it may not be possible to conduct individual interviews, and
alternatives will have to be used.
Even if you are not able to select members for your group, you can make at
least brief individual contact to prepare them.
In “open groups,” whose membership changes when some individuals leave and
new ones are added, it is a good practice to meet individually with incoming
members so you can orient them.
If you cannot screen members for your group, you could still have a successful
group.
However, you will need to provide some form of orientation so members
understand what the group is about and how to best participate in it.
Assessing and Choosing Members
As a group leader, you are expected to make the ultimate decision to include or
exclude certain clients.
If we do not accept people, we tell them how the group might not be
appropriate for them.

Practical Considerations in Forming a Group

GROUP COMPOSITION
In general, for a specific target population with given needs, a group composed
entirely of members of that population is more appropriate than a heterogeneous
group.
This similarity of the members can lead to a great degree of cohesion, which in
turn allows for an open and intense exploration of their life crises.
GROUP SIZE
It depends on several factors: age of clients, experience of the leader, type of
group, and problems to be explored.
For instance,
a group composed of elementary school children might be kept to 3 or 4
a group of adolescents might be made up of 6 to 8 people
As many as 20 to 30 children in developmental group guidance classes
A weekly ongoing group of adults, about 8 people may be ideal
FREQUENCY AND DURATION OF MEETINGS
With children and adolescents, it may be better to meet more frequently and for a
shorter period to suit their attention span.
For groups of relatively well-functioning adults, a 2-hour weekly session might be
preferable.
For an inpatient group composed of lower functioning members, it is desirable to
meet on a daily basis for 45 minutes.
For higher-functioning inpatient groups, it is a good practice to meet several
times a week, but these groups might be scheduled for 90 minutes.
group process

LENGTH OF A GROUP
For most groups a termination date can be announced at the outset, so members
will have a clear idea of the time limits under which they are working.
PLACE FOR GROUP MEETINGS
Many places will do, but privacy is essential.
Members must be assured that they will not be overheard by people in
adjoining rooms.
OPEN VERSUS CLOSED GROUPS
Open groups are characterized by changing membership.
As certain members leave, new members are admitted, and the group
continues.
In conducting an open group, it is good to remind all the members that this may
be the only time they have with one another.
Advantage(s):
an increased opportunity for members to interact with a greater variety of
people.
Disadvantage(s):
rapid changing of members can result in a lack of cohesion, particularly if
too many clients leave or too many new ones are introduced at once.
Closed groups typically have some time limitation, with the group meeting for a
predetermined number of sessions.
Generally, members are expected to remain in the group until it ends, and new
members are not added.

The Uses of a Pregroup Meeting

Orientation and Preparation
Pregroup session provides an excellent way to prepare members an to get them
acquainted with one another.
This session also provides the members with more information to help them
decide whether they are willing to commit themselves to what would be
expected of them.
At this initial session, or at the pregroup meeting, the leader explores the members’
expectations, clarifies the goals and objectives of the group, imparts some
information about group process, and answers members’ questions.

Clarifying Leader and Member Expectations

The pregroup session is the appropriate time to encourage members to express
the expectations they are bringing with them to the group.

Goals of Pregroup Preparation

Demystifying the therapeutic process is central in preparing members for a group.
As a leader, during the screening and pregroup meetings it is important to
clarify what needs can or cannot be met within the group.

Establishing Basic Ground Rules

The pregroup session is the appropriate place to establish some procedures that
will facilitate group process.
Discussion of ground rules is necessary.
Leaders must be aware of and discuss with members any additional ground rules
and policies particular to the setting in which they are working.
group process

INITIAL STAGE OF A GROUP

Group Characteristics at the Initial Stage
SOME EARLY CONCERNS
It is common during the initial phase of a group that members may appear rather
hesitant to get involved.
Most members are uncertain about group norms and expected behavior, and there
may be moments of silence and awkwardness.
The group leader’s task is to be aware of the tentative nature of explorations during
these early sessions and to treat critical comments nondefensively and with
acceptance.
INITIAL HESITATION AND CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Group practitioners need to be aware that hesitation to participate in a group
may be more the result of cultural background than of an uncooperative
attitude.
Group leaders can encourage members to say something about what makes their
participation difficult.
Rather than ignoring members, the leader can invite members to explore how
they can best benefit from the group experience.
In your role as a group leader you can minimize reluctance on the part of members
by inviting a discussion of how they could participate in the group in a way that
does not violate their cultural norms and values.
IDENTIFYING AND EXPLORING COMMON FEARS OF GROUP MEMBERS
A good way for you to start dealing with members’ fears is by listening to them and
encouraging full expression of their concerns.
Talking with one other person, and then merging with others, is far less threatening
to most participants than talking to the entire group.
HIDDEN AGENDAS
Hidden Agenda - an issue that is not openly acknowledged and discussed and
may not even be in the members’ conscious awareness.
When there are unspoken reactions (by one member, several members, or the
entire group), a common set of features emerges: trust is low, interpersonal
tensions emerge, people are guarded and unwilling to take risks, the leader seems
to be working harder than the members, and there is a vague feeling that
something just does not make sense.
Groups do not progress unless hidden agendas are uncovered and discussed.
This process often requires patience from the leader and a willingness to
continually check with members to find out if they are saying what they need to
say.
One of the best ways to facilitate the exploration of a potential hidden agenda in a
group is for you to reflect on your own experience as a member of a group.
ADDRESS CONFLICT EARLY
Conflict that arises early in a group must be adequately dealt with, or it is likely to
inhibit the cohesion of the group.
When conflict first occurs, members are keenly aware of and observe a
leader’s actions. The leader must respond to and, whenever possible, facilitate
a resolution of the conflict so the group can progress.
SELF-FOCUS VERSUS FOCUS ON OTHERS
During the initial phase of a group, the leader’s primary task is to get group
members to focus on themselves.
When members focus on others as a way to avoid self-exploration, the
leadership task is to enable them to focus on their own reactions.
group process

HERE-AND-NOW FOCUS VERSUS THERE-AND-THEN FOCUS

Paying attention to here-and-now interactions is of the utmost value, for the way
members behave in the present context of the group is reflective of how they
interact with others outside the group.
TRUST VERSUS MISTRUST
If a basic sense of trust is not established at the outset of a group, problems are
likely to arise later.
Trust entails a sense of safety, but it does not necessarily entail being comfortable.

Creating Trust: Leader and Member Roles

ATTITUDES AND ACTIONS LEADING TO TRUST

Attending and Listening

Careful attending to the verbal and nonverbal messages of others is necessary for
trust to occur.
If genuine listening and understanding are absent, there is no basis for connection
between members.
Both leaders and members may demonstrate a lack of attending in different ways:
not listening to the speaker because you are thinking of what to say next
asking many closed questions that probe for irrelevant and detailed information
doing too much talking and not enough listening
giving advice too quickly instead of encouraging the speaker to explore a
struggle
paying attention only to what people say explicitly and thus missing what they
express nonverbally
engaging in selective listening (hearing only what you want to hear)
failing to ask people to give voice to what their body is experiencing

Understanding Nonverbal Behavior

People often express themselves more honestly nonverbally than they do verbally.
Although these gestures may seem fairly easy to interpret, leaders should not too
quickly offer an interpretation.

Empathy
Empathy is the ability to tune in to what others are subjectively experiencing and to
see the world through their eyes.

Genuineness
Genuineness implies congruence between a person’s inner experience and what
he or she projects externally.
Genuineness means that we do not pretend to be accepting when internally we are
not feeling accepting, we do not rely on behaviors that are aimed at winning
approval, and we avoid hiding behind our professional role.

Self-disclosure
We can invite members to make themselves known by revealing our own thoughts
and feelings related to what is going on within the group.
If we avoid hiding, we will encourage the rest of the group to be open about their
concerns.

Respect
Respect is shown by what the leader and the members actually do, not simply by
what they say.
Attitudes and actions that demonstrate respect include avoiding critical
judgments, avoiding labeling, looking beyond self-imposed or other-imposed
labels, expressing warmth and support that is honestly felt, being genuine and
risking, and recognizing the rights of others to be different.
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Caring Confrontation
A confrontation can be an act of caring that takes the form of an invitation for
members to examine some discrepancy between what they are saying and what
they are doing or between what they are saying and some nonverbal cues they are
manifesting.
Maintaining Trust
Trust ebbs and flows, and new levels of trust must be established as the group
progresses toward a deeper level of intimacy.

Group Process Concepts at the Initial Stage

Group Process - involves the stages groups tend to go through, each
characterized by certain feelings and behaviors.
Group Norms
The shared beliefs about expected behaviors aimed at making groups function
effectively.
It is helpful to have clearly-stated and well-defined expectations for group
members.
Implicit norms - may develop because of preconceived ideas about what takes
place in a group.
Implicit norms may develop because of modeling by the leader.
If a leader uses hostile and abrasive language, members are more likely to
adopt this pattern of speech in their group interactions, even though the
leader has never encouraged people to talk in such a manner.
Explicit norms - standards of behavior.
Group norms need to be followed throughout the life of a group.
If members are struggling to abide by group norms, it may be useful to discuss this
as a group and to evaluate how those norms were established and modeled.
Group Cohesion
A sense of togetherness, or community, within a group, and it begins to take shape
during the initial stage.
Genuine cohesion typically comes after groups have struggled with conflict, have
shared pain, and have committed themselves to taking significant risks.
Enhancing Group Cohesion
Leaders can model meaningful sharing by sharing their own reactions to what is
occurring within the group and encouraging members to take similar risks.
Members can be encouraged to disclose their ideas, feelings, and reactions to what
occurs within their group.
Group goals and individual goals can be jointly determined by the group members
and the leader.
Cohesion can be increased by inviting all members to become active participants.
Encouraging feedback and sharing, and by searching for ways to involve as many
members as possible in group interactions.
Group leaders can increase the value of a group to its members by dealing with
matters that interest group members, by showing respect for members, and by
providing a supportive atmosphere.
group process

TRANSITION STAGE OF A GROUP

Group Characteristics at the Transition Stage
ESTABLISHING TRUST
Establishing trust is a central task of the initial phase in the evolution of a group,
but members may still be wondering if the group is a safe place for them
during the transition phase.
When trust is high, members are actively involved in the activities in the group:
making themselves known to others in personal ways, taking risks both in the
group and out of group, focusing on themselves and not on others, actively
working in the group on meaningful personal issues, disclosing persistent
feelings such as lack of trust, and supporting and challenging others in the
group.
When trust is lacking, members are still checking out what is happening in the
room, yet they may be doing so quietly, which makes it difficult to explore what
is occurring within the group.
DEFESIVENESS AND RELUCTANT BEHAVIOR
Members will not begin intensive work unless there is a climate of safety.
Resistance can be viewed as behavior that keeps us from exploring personal
conflicts or painful feelings.
Respecting a member’s defensiveness means the leader does not chastise a
reluctant person but explores the source of his or her hesitation.
Resistance is a natural part of the therapeutic process and can lead to
productive exploration in the group; it needs to be acknowledged, talked about,
and understood.
COMMON FEARS AND ANXIETIES EXPERIENCED BY MEMBERS
Fear of Disclosure
It helps to reinforce emphatically to members that they can make themselves
known to others and at the same time retain their privacy.
It is the choice of members to determine what and how much they share.
When they recognize that they control what they choose to tell others about
themselves, participants tend to be less fearful of self-disclosure.
Fear of Being Exposed and Vulnerable
It is important for the leader to help members express their past experiences
while also inviting them to have a new and perhaps healthier experience with
being vulnerable in the group.
Fear of Rejection
Fear of Being Misunderstood or Judged
This can be especially difficult for members who have experienced oppression
or discrimination in various forms.
Fear of Being Challenged or Singled Out
By helping these members see that they are cheating themselves and others
of potentially rich encounters by remaining invisible, leaders may help fearful
members begin to take steps toward making themselves seen.
Fear of Losing Control
STRUGGLES WITH CONTROL
Participants’ main anxieties in the transition phase relate to having too much or
too little responsibility.
To deal constructively with these issues, members must bring them to the
surface and talk about them.
The leader’s task is to help members understand that their struggle to maintain
control may be a way of protecting themselves from doing more in-depth work.
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CONFLICT
Conflict can be expected in all relationships; it is frequently the avoidance of
conflict that is problematic.
Unexplored conflict is typically expressed in defensive behavior, indirectness,
and a general lack of trust.
A primary task of leaders is to teach members the value of working through
conflicts in a constructive way.
CONFRONTATION
It is essential that group members see that confrontation is a basic part of the
group process, as it is of most every healthy relationship.
Confrontation is NOT
tearing others down
hitting others with negative feedback and then retreating
being hostile with the aim of hurting others
telling others what is basically wrong with them
assaulting others’ integrity.
Confrontation is invitation for participants to look at some aspect of their
interpersonal style or their lives to determine if they want to make changes.
CHALLENGES TO THE GROUP LEADER
Although leaders may be challenged throughout a group, they are more often
confronted both personally and professionally during the transition stage.
Leaders need to examine what is being said so they can differentiate between a
challenge and an attack.
If leaders are overly sensitive to criticism and have fragile egos, they are more
likely to take such interchanges personally, which limits their effectiveness as well
as the groups’ ability to establish trust and openness with each other.
LEADER'S REACTIONS TO DEFENSIVE BEHAVIORS
One of the most powerful ways to intervene when a leader is experiencing intense
feelings over what he/she perceive as defensiveness is to deal with his/her own
feelings and possible defensive reactions to the situation.

Group Characteristics at the Transition Stage

SILENCE AND LACK OF PARTICIPATION
Group leaders need to explore the meaning of silence with the members.
When members say that they are uncomfortable verbally participating, we have
no way of knowing how they are affected by what is going on during the
sessions. They may be triggered by other members' explorations, and if they
do not talk about this, then being in the group can be counterproductive for
them and the group.
Group leaders need to avoid consistently calling on a silent person, for in this
way the member is relieved of the responsibility of initiating interactions.
This can lead to resentment on the part of both the member who is silent and
the rest of the group, as well as frustration on the part of the leader.
It is important that members not feel chastised for their silence but instead be
invited to participate.
It may be helpful to explore whether the member has other avenues of self-
expression, such as art, poetry, or music.
Another way of encouraging quiet members to participate is to watch for their
nonverbal reactions to what others are saying.
You can comment on what you are observing and use this as a way to bring
them in.
It is often useful to invite members to explore what their silence means.
group process

MONOPOLISTIC BEHAVIOR
The member who monopolizes often claims to identify with others but takes others’
statements as openings for detailed stories about his or her own life.
This person prevents others from getting their share of group time.
These monopolizing members may talk a lot, but the end result is similar to that
of silent members: they reveal very little about themselves.
It is essential that the monopolizing person be respectfully challenged to look at the
effects of such behavior on the group.
Many times our most challenging members have become the people we most
treasure.
STORYTELLING
The group leader’s task is to help members move beyond simply telling irrelevant
stories and teach them to express themselves in personal and concrete ways.
Leaders need to be able to distinguish between storytelling that is healing and
meaningful to members and counterproductive storytelling.
One way to enliven members’ presentations of self is to ask them to write their
stories as a homework assignment and then only share in the group what it was
like to have done this assignment.
QUESTIONING
Some members develop a style of relating that involves questioning others, and
they intervene at inappropriate times in unhelpful ways.
Teaching members how to share themselves through statements rather than
questioning is most effective when done in a timely, appropriate, and sensitive
manner as these behaviors or interactions occur in the session.
GIVING ADVICE
Advice giving has the tendency to interrupt the expression of thoughts and feelings
and to increase dependency.
It is more helpful for members to share their own struggles than to provide ready-
made solutions.
DEPENDENCY
Group members who are excessively dependent typically look either to the group
leader or to the other members to direct them and take care of them.
OFFERING PSEUDOSUPPORT
There is a real difference between offering pseudosupport and behavior that is a
genuine expression of care, concern, and empathy.
When there is real caring, the interests of the members who are experiencing
the pain are given paramount importance.
The release of pain is often the necessary first step toward healing.
HOSTILE BEHAVIOR
Hostility can take the form of caustic remarks, jokes, sarcasm, and other passive-
aggressive tactics.
If hostile behavior is not confronted in a group, it can hold the group members and
the group process hostage.
One way to deal with the person who behaves in a hostile way is to request that he
or she listen without responding while the group members tell how they are being
affected by that individual.
ACTING SUPERIOR
They may be moralistic and and ways to judge or criticize others for their behavior.
They are unable to identify any pressing problems in their lives.
Participants freeze up, for they are more hesitant to expose their weaknesses to
someone who projects an image of being perfect.
group process

SOCIALIZING
Some types of out-of-group relationships can be problematic and impede group
cohesion.
This is especially true when participants form subgroups and talk about group
matters but are unwilling to share what they talked about in the group sessions.
When meetings outside of the sessions hamper group progress, it is crucial that
this situation be openly examined by the group.
You can ask the members if they are genuinely committed to developing the
kind of group that will function effectively.
INTELLECTUALIZING
When intellectualizing is used as a defense against experiencing feelings,
however, it may become problematic in a person’s life and in his or her functioning
in a group.
MEMBERS BECOMING ASSISTANT LEADERS
Instead of paying attention to how they may be affected in the group, they shift the
focus to others by making interventions and assuming a counselor’s role.
Members who take refuge in adopting such a role are deprived of the opportunity
to work on the problems that brought them to the group in the first place.
They can be challenged to evaluate whether what they are doing will get them
what they ultimately want.

Coleader Issued at the Transition Stage

NEGATIVE REACTIONS TOWARD ONE LEADER
If members direct a challenge or express negative reactions toward a coleader, it is
important to avoid either taking sides with your colleague in attacking clients or
siding with the members in ganging up against the coleader.
Instead, nondefensively (and as objectively as possible) continue your leadership
by facilitating a constructive exploration of the situation.
CHALLENGES TO BOTH LEADERS
In such a case, difficulties can develop if one of you responds defensively while the
other is willing to deal with this confrontation from the members.
Ideally, both leaders should talk about the confrontation objectively.
As much as possible, matters that pertain to what is happening during sessions
should be discussed with the entire group.
DEALING WITH PROBLEM BEHAVIORS
It is a mistake to dwell almost exclusively on strategies for “curing” problem
members while ignoring your own personal reactions to such problematic
behaviors.
DEALING WITH COUNTERTRANSFERENCE
When this situation occurs, the coleader can be therapeutic for both the member
and the leader who is not being helpful.
The colleague can intervene during the session itself as well as exploring these
countertransference reactions with the other leader outside the session.
Coleaders who are willing to be objective and honest with each other can have a
positive impact through this process of mutual confrontation.
group process

WORKING STAGE OF A GROUP

Tasks of the Working Stage
Group Norms and Behavior
During the working stage, group norms that were formed in earlier stages are
further developed and solidified.
Members are more aware of facilitative behaviors, and unspoken norms become
more explicit.
At this time the following group behaviors tend to be manifested:
Members are provided with both support and challenge; they are reinforced for
making behavioral changes both inside and outside of the sessions.
The leader employs a variety of therapeutic interventions designed for further
self-exploration and that lead to experimentation with new behavior.
Members increasingly interact with one another in more direct ways; there is
less dependence on the leader for direction and less eye contact directed
toward the leader as members talk.
If interpersonal conflicts emerge within the group, they become the basis of
discussion and tend to be worked through. Members discover how they deal
with conflict in everyday situations by paying attention to how they interact with
one another in the group.
A healing capacity develops within the group as members increasingly
experience acceptance of who they are. There is less need to put up facades
as members learn that they are respected for showing deeper facets of
themselves.

Contrast Between a Working Group and a Nonworking Group

WORKING GROUP NONWORKING GROUP

Members trust other members and Mistrust is evidenced by an

the leaders, or at least they openly undercurrent of unexpressed hostility.
express any lack of trust. Members withhold themselves,
There is a willingness to take risks by refusing to express feelings and
sharing meaningful here-and-now thoughts.
reactions.

Goals are clear and specific and are Goals are fuzzy, abstract, and
determined jointly by the members general.
and the leader. Members have unclear personal
There is a willingness to direct group goals or no goals at all.
behavior toward realizing these goals.

Most members feel a sense of Many members feel excluded or

inclusion, and excluded members are cannot identify with other members.
invited to become more active. Cliques are formed that tend to lead
Communication among most to fragmentation.
members is open and involves There is fear of expressing feelings of
accurate expression of what is being being left out.
experienced. There is a tendency to form
subgroups and alliances.

There is a focus on the here and now, People tend to focus on others and
and participants talk directly to one not on themselves, and storytelling is
another about what they are typical.
experiencing. Members are unwilling to deal with
their reactions to one another.
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Members lean on the leaders for all
People feel free to bring themselves direction.
into the work of others. There are power conflicts among
They do not wait for permission from members as well as between
the leader. members and the leader.

There is a willingness to risk Participants hold back, and disclosure

disclosing threatening material; is at a minimum.
people become known.

Cohesion is high; there is a close Fragmentation exists; members feel

emotional bond among members distant from one another.
based on sharing universal human There is a lack of caring or empathy.
experiences. Members do not encourage one
Members identify with one another another to engage in new and risky
and are willing to risk new and behavior, so familiar ways of being
experimental behavior because of the are rigidly maintained.
closeness and support for new ways
of being.

Conflict among members or with the Conflicts or negative reactions are

leader is recognized, discussed, and ignored, denied, or avoided.
most often resolved.

Members accept responsibility for Members blame others for their

deciding what action they will take to personal difficulties and are not willing
solve their problems. to take action to change.

Feedback is given freely and What little feedback is given is

accepted without defensiveness. rejected defensively.
There is a willingness to seriously Feedback is given without care or
reflect on the accuracy of the compassion.
feedback.

Members feel hopeful; they feel that Members feel despairing, helpless,
constructive change is possible—that trapped, and victimized.
people can become what they want to
become.

Confrontation occurs in such a way Confrontation is done in a hostile,

that the confronter shares his or her attacking way; the confronted one
reactions to the person being feels judged and rejected.
confronted. At times the members gang up on a
Confrontation is accepted as a member, using this person as a
challenge to examine one’s behavior scapegoat.
and not as an uncaring attack.

Communication is clear and direct. Communication is unclear and

There is a minimum of judgments and indirect.
a maximum of respectful discourse.

Group members use one another as Members are interested mostly in

resources and show interest in one themselves.
another.

Members feel good about themselves Members do not appreciate

and others. themselves or others.
They feel a sense of power with one
another.
group process
There is an awareness of group Indifference or lack of awareness of
process, and members know what what is going on within the group is
makes the group function effectively. common, and group dynamics are
rarely discussed.

Issues of diversity, power, and Conformity is prized, and individual

privilege are addressed; there is a and cultural differences are devalued.
respect for individual and cultural Members are disrespectful to those
differences. who are different from themselves
and defensive when discussing
issues of power and privilege.

Group norms are developed Norms are imposed by the leader

cooperatively by the members and without the input of members.
the leader. These norms may not be clear.
Norms are clear and are designed to
help the members attain their goals.

There is an emphasis on combining The group reinforces the expression

the feeling and thinking functions. of feelings, but with little emphasis on
Catharsis and expression of feeling integrating insights with emotional
occur, but so does thinking about the expression.
meaning of various emotional
experiences.

Group members use out-of-group Group members think about group

time to work on problems raised in activity very little when they are
the group. outside the group.

DEEPENING TRUST DURING THE WORKING STAGE

When a group does appear to regress, the most critical intervention is for the
leader to describe what is happening and to get members to put to words what
they are observing, thinking, and feeling.
CHOICES TO BE MADE DURING THE WORKING STAGE
Disclosure vs Anonymity
If the group process is to work effectively, members need to share meaningful
dimensions of themselves, for it is through self-disclosure that others come to
know them.
Authenticity vs Guardedness
Genuine intimacy is not possible when people remain unknown or when they
feel compelled to guard their true feelings.
Spontaneity vs Control
Spontaneity can be fostered indirectly by helping clients feel that it is all right to
say and do many of the things they have been preventing themselves from
saying or doing.
Acceptance vs Rejection
Members are likely to find that they reject themselves more often than others
reject them.
As group members begin to recognize their own role and responsibility in the
creation of an accepting or rejecting climate, they come to understand that their
own behavior helps to determine whether they as individuals will be accepted
or rejected.
Unity vs Fragmentation
A unified group comes from working with members’ meaningful, painful realities
as well as from intimately sharing humorous and joyous moments.
HOMEWORK DURING THE WORKING STAGE
Homework maximizes what is learned in the group and translates this learning to
many different situations in daily life.
If members are willing to create homework and follow through with it, their
motivation and the overall level of cohesion in the group will increase.
group process

Therapeutic Factors that Operate in a Group

SELF-DISCLOSURE AND THE GROUP MEMBER
Too much or too little disclosure can be counterproductive, and leaders should
monitor such disclosures so a single member does not lead the others by too great
a gap in terms of frequency and depth of disclosure.
If disclosures are limited to safe topics, the group does not progress beyond a
superficial level.
What Disclosure is not?
Self-disclosure is not merely telling stories about one’s past in a rehearsed and
mechanical manner. It is not a mere reporting of there-and-then events. A
client needs to ask the question, “How is what I reveal related to my present
conflicts?”
In the name of being open and honest and as a result of the pressure of other
group members, people often say more than is necessary for others to
understand them. They confuse being self-disclosing with being open to the
extent that nothing remains private. As a result, they may feel overly exposed
in front of others.
Expressing every fleeting feeling or reaction to others is not to be confused
with self-disclosure. Judgment is needed in deciding how appropriate it is to
share certain reactions. Persistent reactions are generally best shared, but
people can be honest without being tactless and insensitive.
Guidelines for Appropriate Member Self-Disclosure
The degree of self-disclosure should be related to the purposes, goals, and
type of the group.
If members have persistent reactions to certain people in the group, members
are encouraged to bring them out into the open without blaming, especially
when these reactions are inhibiting their level of participation.
Members must determine what and how much they want others to know about
them. They also have to decide what they are willing to risk and how far they
are willing to go.
Reasonable risks can be expected to accompany self-disclosure. If groups are
restricted to overly safe disclosures, the interactions can become fairly
meaningless.
The stage of group development has some bearing on the appropriateness of
self-disclosure. Certain disclosures may be too deep for an initial session but
quite appropriate during the working stage.
SELF-DISCLOSURE AND THE GROUP LEADER
Appropriate leader self-disclosure can be used to model risk-taking and may be a
key element in joining and building trust.
Leader self-disclosures should be appropriate, timely, helpful, purposeful, and
done for the good of the group members.
FEEDBACK
Feedback occurs when group members or leaders share their observations and
personal reactions regarding the behavior of another.
Feedback has been associated with increased motivation for change, greater
insight into how one’s behavior affects others, increased willingness to take risks,
and group members evaluating their group experience more positively.
Members can gain from feedback that is given in a clear, caring, genuine, and
personal manner.
CONFRONTATION
It is through acts of caring and respectful confrontation that members are invited to
examine discrepancies between what they say and do, to become aware of
potentials that are dormant, and to find ways of putting their insights into action.
group process

COHESION AND UNIVERSALITY

Cohesion operates as a therapeutic factor at first by enhancing group support and
acceptance, and later by playing a crucial role in interpersonal learning.
At the working stage, members are able to see commonalities, and they are often
struck by the universality of their life issues.
Universal themes include remembering painful experiences of childhood and
adolescence, experiencing loneliness and abandonment, becoming aware of
the need for and fear of love, learning to express feelings that have been
blocked from awareness, searching for meaning in life, recognizing universal
themes that link us together as humans, recognizing unfinished business with
parents, and seeking meaningful connections with significant people.
The cohesion that is characteristic of the working stage is a deeper intimacy that
develops with sharing by members, time, and commitment.
HOPE
Hope is the belief that change is possible.
Hope is therapeutic in itself because it gives members confidence that they have
the power to choose to be different, or to change their life circumstances.
WILLINGNESS TO RIKS AND TO TRUST
Risking involves opening oneself to others, being vulnerable, and actively doing in
a group what is necessary for change.
The higher the level of trust in a group, the more likely members are to push
themselves beyond their comfort level.
Trust is a healing agent; it enables people to show the many facets of
themselves, encourages experimental behavior, and allows people to look at
themselves in new ways.
CARING AND ACCEPTANCE
One way caring is demonstrated is by staying present with someone who has
received some feedback that was difficult to hear.
If members sense a lack of genuine caring, either from other members or from
the leader, their willingness to make themselves vulnerable will be limited.
Caring and acceptance develop into empathy, a deep understanding of another’s
struggles.
POWER
A feeling of power emerges from the recognition that one has untapped internal
reserves of spontaneity, creativity, courage, and strength.
This strength is not a power over others; rather, it is the sense that one has the
resources necessary to direct one’s own life.
CATHARSIS
When people finally do express their stored-up pain and other unexpressed
feelings, they typically report a tremendous physical and emotional release, known
as catharsis.
Emotional release plays an important part in many kinds of groups, and the
expression of feelings facilitates trust and cohesion.
Although it is often healing, catharsis by itself is limited in terms of producing long-
lasting changes.
Group leaders can help members face intense feelings and at the same time
encourage them to translate insights into positive action within the group setting.
COGNITIVE COMPONENT
Some conceptualization of the meaning of the intense feelings associated with
certain experiences is essential to further deeper exploration of one’s struggles.
The cognitive component includes explaining, clarifying, interpreting,
formulating ideas, and providing the cognitive framework for creating a new
perspective on problems.
group process

COMMITMENT TO CHANGE
The commitment to change involves members’ being willing to make use of the
tools offered by group process to explore ways of modifying their behavior.
It is crucial for members to commit themselves to following through on their plans,
and the group itself can help members develop the motivation to follow through
with their commitments.
FREEDOM TO EXPERIMENT
In the accepting environment of a group, a shy member can exhibit spontaneous
behavior and be outgoing.
A person who typically is very quiet may experiment with being more verbal.
HUMOR
Humor can help group members get insight or a new perspective on their
problems, and it can be a source of healing. But humor should never be used to
embarrass a group member.
group process

FINAL STAGE OF A GROUP

Tasks of the Final Stage of a Group: Consolidation of Learning
The final phase in the life of a group is the time for members to consolidate their
learning and develop strategies for transferring what they learned in the
group to daily life.
If the group has been truly therapeutic, members will be able to extend their
learning outside, even though they may experience a sense of sadness and loss.
In a closed group that has had the same members for all sessions, the task of
leaders is to help members review their individual work and the evolving patterns
from the first to the final session.
In these groups it is particularly valuable for members to give one another
feedback on specific changes they have made.
An open group has different challenges because members leave the group and
new members are incorporated into the group at various times. The termination
process is most meaningful when members have ample time to explore their
thoughts and feelings both when a member is leaving and when a new member
enters the group.
Educate members to give adequate notice when they decide it is time to
terminate. This will ensure that members have time to address any unfinished
business with themselves or others in the group.
Allow time for the person who will be leaving to prepare emotionally for
termination.
Give an opportunity to others to say good-bye, to share their own reactions,
and to give feedback.
Explore cultural influences on members’ perceptions and understandings of
endings.
Help members who are leaving the group identify how they can incorporate
what was meaningful in the group into their daily life.
Assist the member who is leaving to review what has been learned in the
group and, specifically, what to do with this learning.
Make referrals, when appropriate.

Termination of the Group Experience

GROUP PROPOSALS ILLUSTRATE ENDING OF A GROUP
DEALING WITH FEELINGS OF SEPARATION
Members need to be reminded that close relationships do not happen by
accident; rather, they are the product of considerable struggle and commitment
to work through interpersonal conflicts.
To facilitate members’ expressions of their feelings over separation, it is
important for leaders to examine their own experiences or difficulties with
saying good-bye.
COMPARING EARLY AND LATER PERCEPTIONS IN THE GROUP
DEALING WITH UNFINISHED BUSINESS
During the final phase of a group, allow time for expressing and working
through any unfinished business relating to transactions between members or
to the group process and goals.
PERSONAL GESTURED IN EXPRESSING THE MEANING OF A GROUP
EXPERIENCE
During closing sessions it is not uncommon for members to want to offer gifts
or tokens of appreciation to the leaders and perhaps even to one another.
REVIEWING THE GROUP EXPERIENCE
PRACTICE FOR BEHAVIORAL CHANGE
CARRYING LEARNING FURTHER
Assisting members in carrying their learning into action is a key function of
leaders.
group process

GIVING AND RECEIVING FEEDBACK

Feedback from others in the group is especially helpful to members who
identify and discuss changes they expect to make in their everyday lives.
Feedback at this point has a focus on integration and synthesis of learning.
USE OF A CONTRACT AND HOMEWORK
Homework can be included in the contracts members formulate, and measures
can be discussed that will help members when the assignments they have
given themselves do not materialize as they had expected.
DEALING WITH SETBACKS
During the final stages of a group, it is helpful to reinforce members so that
they can cope with realistic setbacks and avoid getting discouraged and giving
up.
Assisting members in creating a support system is a good way to help them
deal with setbacks and keep focused on what they need to do to accomplish
their goals.
It is important for them to realize that even a small change is the first step in a
new direction.
GUIDELINES FOR APPLYING GROUP LEARNING TO LIFE
Realize that the group is a means to an end
Change may be slow and subtle
One group alone may not permanently change your life
REMINDING MEMBERS ABOUT CONFIDENTIALITY

Evaluation of the Group Experience

Evaluation is an ongoing process throughout the life of a group—or at least at
important turning points in the group—that tracks the progress of individual
members and the group as a whole.
Follow-up
At follow-up sessions, the participants can share difficulties they have
encountered since leaving the group, talk about specific steps they have taken
to keep themselves open for change, and remember some of the most positive
experiences during the group itself.
Follow-ups also give members a chance to express and possibly work through
any afterthoughts or feelings connected with the group experience.
group process

GROUP DYNAMICS BITES

Introduction
What are Groups?
Groups - two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.
Primary Group
A small, long-term group characterized by frequent interaction, solidarity, and
high levels of interdependence among members that substantially influences
the attitudes, values, and social outcomes of its members.
families, close friends, small combat squads
Social (Secondary) Group
A relatively small number of individuals who interact with one another over an
extended period of time, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations.
Larger, more formally organized.
Memberships are shorter (permeable boundaries) and less commitment/
emotionally involving.
coworkers, teams, crews, study groups, task forces
Collectives
A relatively large aggregation or group of individuals who display similarities in
actions and outlook.
Usually created by happenstance, convenience, experience.
Dissolves when the experience ends.
audiences, queues, mobs, crowds, social movements
Categories
A perceptual grouping of people who are assumed to be similar to one another
in some ways but different in one or more ways.
May have social implications (LGBTQ).
Social identity: An individual’s sense of self derived from relationships and
memberships in groups.
Stereotype: A socially shared set of qualities, characteristics, and
behavioral expectations ascribed to a particular group or category of
people.
Asians, doctors, men

Group Characteristics
Composition - the individuals who constitute a group (qualities).
Boundaries - open vs closed (more collective and cohesive) groups.
Size - influences structures, processes, patterns of interaction, social ties.
Interaction - task-interaction vs relation-interaction.
task-interaction - interaction focused on a task, goal or project.
relations-interaction - interaction focused on an inter-personal relationship.
Interdependence - members depend on one another.
symmetric interdependence - two or more members can influence each other
equally and with reciprocity.
hierarchical interdependence w/o reciprocity - when a boss influences its
employees but not the other way around.
hierarchical interdependence w/ reciprocity - when employees can influence
their boss and the other way around, even when effects are unequally divided.
sequential interdependence w/o reciprocity - one member influences another
who in its turn influences yet another member.
Structure - the organization of a group, including the members, their interrelations,
and their interactions.
Goals - generating, choosing, negotiating, executing (McGrath's Circumplex
Model).
group process

Origin - planned vs emergent.

planned - deliberately formed by the members themselves or by an external
authority, usually for some specific purposes.
concocted - planned by individuals or authorities outside the group.
founded - planned by one or more individuals who remain within the group.
emergent - groups that form spontaneously as individuals find themselves
repeatedly interacting with the same subset of individuals over time and
settings.
circumstantial - unplanned groups that arise when external, situational
forces set the stage for people to join together, often only temporarily, in a
unified group.
self-organizing - emerge when interacting individuals gradually align their
activities in a cooperative system of interdependence.
Unity - group cohesiveness concerns the power of the bond between members of
the group.
Entitativity - the apparent cohesiveness or unity of an assemblage of individuals
(i.e., common fate, similarity, proximity, perceptual cues).

What is Group Dynamics?

Group Dynamics - interpersonal processes that occur within and between groups;
also, the scientific study of those processes.
Formative
The need to belong (individualistic, self-focused orientation to a group-level
perspective).
Personal and situational forces, interpersonal attraction.
Factors that increase unity of group.
Influence
Structural processes organize the group’s procedures (roles, norms),
interaction patterns, and intermember relations.
Flow of information, influence, and interaction in that microcosm.
Performance
Processes that facilitate and inhibit people’s performance in groups.
Analysis of group performance by examining the unique features of groups.
Conflict
Tensions tend to undermine the cohesiveness of the group and cause specific
relationships within the group to weaken or break altogether.
Intergroup relations.
Contextual
Social and physical environment.
Use of group.
Processes that influence people.

Inclusion and Identity

From Isolation to Inclusion
The need to belong: The generalized desire to seek out and join with other people,
which, when unsatisfied, causes a state of tension and want.

Solitude and Social Isolation

Spending time alone can be pleasant/rejuvenating (e.g., self-discovery,
contemplation, increased spirituality).
Most people find protracted periods of social isolation disturbing → Psychological
costs (e.g., fear, fatigue)
Prolonged social isolation is a risk factor for the onset of some psychological
disorders (e.g., depression, schizophrenia).
group process

Social and Emotional Loneliness

Group memberships can serve as a buffer against feelings of isolation and
loneliness (especially those with extensive interconnections among all members)
Social loneliness: Occurs when people feel cut off from their network of friends,
acquaintances, group members.
Groups that sustain stable, reliable alliances among members
Emotional loneliness: Lack of a long-term, meaningful, intimate relationship with
another person
Groups that connect people in an intimate, meaningful way.

Inclusion and Exclusion

Ostracism
Excluding one or more individuals from a group by reducing or eliminating contact
with the person, usually by ignoring, shunning, or explicitly banishing them.
Contemporary forms – formal rejection, subtle interpersonal tactic.
Experimental studies – “ball toss” method, “life alone” method, “get acquainted”
sessions.
Inclusion-Exclusion Continuum (Leary, 1990)

Temporal Need-Threat Model of Ostracism (Williams, 2009)

Reflexive stage – flood of negative feelings.
Reflective stage – adopting a specific behavioral strategy to minimize the
negative effects of exclusion.
Flight-or-Flight Response
Fight
Self-defeating behaviors
Become less helpful and more competitive
Lose temper and harm the group
More likely when the exclusion is unexpected
Flight
Withdraw physically or psychologically from the situation
Inhibit their relational tendencies, keep to themselves, seek acceptance
elsewhere
Can lead to social isolation, emotional numbing
Tend-and-Befriend Response
A physiological, psychological, and interpersonal response to stressful events
characterized by increased nurturing, protective and supportive behaviors
(tending), and initiating and strengthening relationships with other people
(befriending).
Seeks social reconnection, more socially perceptive.
Men are more likely to display a fight-or-flight response, whereas women are
more likely to tend-and-befriend.
group process
Inclusion and Human Nature
Evolutionary Theory
Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
Recurring psychological and social tendencies stem from evolutionary processes
that increase adaptive actions and neurological mechanisms.
Interaction of genetical predisposition with environment.
Sociometer Theory
A conceptual analysis of self-evaluation processes that theorizes self-esteem
functions to psychologically monitor of one’s degree of inclusion and exclusion in
social groups.
Interpersonal rejection has a greater impact on lowering self-esteem than
impersonal ones.
Biological Theory
Pain of exclusion is neurologically similar to pain caused by physical injury.
Social attachment system, which ensures social connection, may have borrowed
the pain signal to indicate when social relationships are threatened.

From Individualism to Collectivism

Facet Individualism Collectivism

Emphasizes the primacy of Emphasizes the primacy of

the individual and his or her the group or community
Definition rights, independence, and rather than each individual
relationships with other person.
individuals.

Concern for maintaining Concern for nurturing and

Social relations that yield personal maintaining harmonious
Relations benefits and few costs relations with others
(exchange orientation) (communal orientation)

Behavior is guided by Behavior is guided by group

Social personal attitudes and norms and roles.
Obligations preferences.

Social Striving for personal Concern for group success

Motives success

The independent self is The interdependent self is

based on one’s personal, based on group-level
Social Self idiosyncratic characteristics. relationships, roles, and
social identities.

Attribute behaviors to the Recognize that people’s

internal, personal actions are often determined
Groups characteristics of the by the social circumstance
person. in which they find
themselves.

Optimal Distinctiveness Theory (Marilyn Brewer)

A conceptual analysis that assumes individuals strive to maintain a balance between
three basic needs: the need to be assimilated by the group, the need to be connected
to friends and loved ones, and the need for autonomy and differentiation.
group process
From Personal Identity to Social Identity: Social Identity Theory
Social Categorization
The perceptual classification of people, including the self, into categories.
Individuals’ perceptions of people are influenced by any beliefs they may have
about the qualities of people in such groups.
Stereotypes/self-stereotyping.
Self-Categorization
People are more likely to think of themselves collectively if they are part of a group
that others have labeled a group, even if the group members are minimally
interdependent.
Presence of other groups triggers a Collective Self-Categorization.
Being in the minority increases the importance of Social Identification.
Social Identification
Accepting the group as an extension of the self and therefore basing one’s self-
definition on the group’s qualities and characteristics.
Higher Social Identification → Perception of significant group membership.
Self-descriptions become increasingly depersonalized.
Sense of self changes as the group is included in the self.
Self-Identification
A person’s identification with a group can become so pronounced that across
situations they think of themselves as group members first and individuals second.

Formation
Joining Groups
PERSONALITY
Extraversion - Outgoing, friendly, gregarious, assertive, emotionally positive
Agreeableness - Sincere, thinks the best of people, frank, concerned with others’
welfare, conciliatory, modest, sympathetic
Conscientiousness - Responsible, organized, achievement-oriented, self-
disciplined, planned confident
Neuroticism - Emotional, anxious, easily angered, self-conscious, prone to feel
depressed or sad, impulsive, distressed
Openness - Intellectually able, appreciative of art and beauty, emotionally
expressive, open-minded, imaginative

Joiners (Extraverts)
Oriented primarily toward social experiences.
Prefers working with other people than alone.
Prefers groups that are team-oriented & cooperative.
Appreciates stimulating experiences.

Loners (Introverts)
Oriented primarily toward inner perceptions and judgments of concepts and ideas.
Tend to be withdrawn, quiet, and reclusive.
Personality-Group Fit: The closer the fit between an individual’s personality
characteristics and the group’s purpose and organization, the more likely the
individual will seek to join the group.

Shyness
The tendency to be reserved or timid during social interactions, usually coupled
with feelings of discomfort and nervousness.
Often form associations with other shy individuals, and these groups adopt
interaction styles and activities that better suit the social tendencies of their
members (e.g., activity-focused groups).
group process

Social surrogate helps them transition into the group by doing much of the work
needed to establish connections with others, until they overcome their initial
anxieties.
Social Anxiety
A feeling of apprehension and embarrassment experienced when anticipating or
actually interacting with other people.
Sets in from pessimistic expectations (thinking that their attempt to make a good
impression would fail)
Innocuous sociability – merging in the group’s background by indicating general
interest in the group and agreement.
Disaffiliate – reduce social contact with others in the group.
Attachment Styles
Childhood differences emerge in adulthood as variations in attachment style.
4 basic styles – secure, preoccupied, fearful, dismissing
2 dimensions – anxiety about relationships and avoidance of closeness &
dependency on others
Group-level attachment style (e.g., group experiences)
Secure: contributed to both instrumental & relationships work
Anxious: contributed less to instrumental work
Avoidant: contributed less to relationships and instrumental work
Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO)
A theory of group formation and development that emphasizes compatibility among
3 basic social motives: inclusion, control, and affection
Inclusion (need for affiliation)
A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by joining with other
people (e.g., winning their approval)
Drawn to groups, but are more anxious (fear of rejection)
Control (need for power)
A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by seeking out warm,
positive relationships with others.
Drawn to groups, does not fear rejection.
Affection (need for intimacy)
A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by gaining control over
other people and one’s environment.
Drawn to groups as it allows them to influence other people.

Affiliation
AFFILIATION - The gathering together of individuals (typically members of the same
species) in one location; also, a formalized relationship, as when an individual is said to
be affiliated with a group or organization.

Social Comparison
The process of contrasting one’s personal qualities and outcomes, including
beliefs, attitudes, values, abilities, accomplishments, and experiences, to those of
other people.
Misery Loves Company
Most people in an ambiguous predicament would choose to join with other
people to gain the information they need to allay their anxiety.
Misery Loves Miserable Company
People are more interested in gaining clarifying information than in sharing
the experience with someone, particularly when the situation is a
dangerous one and they can converse openly with other group members.
Embarrassed Misery Avoids Company
Fear of embarrassment can be stronger than the need to understand what
is happening, resulting in social inhibition instead of affiliation.
group process

Affiliation with others plays a key role in both fight-or-flight & tend-and-befriend
responses.
Groups can serve as protective buffers against negative psychological/physical
consequences (buffering effect)
Downward Social Comparison
Selecting people who are less well off as targets for social comparison
(rather than individuals who are similar or superior to oneself or one’s
outcomes).
Upward Social Comparison
Selecting people who are superior to oneself or whose outcomes surpass
one’s own as targets for social comparison.
Can provoke darker, more negative, emotions, such as resentment, envy,
and shame rather than pride and admiration.
Self-Evaluation Maintenance
A theoretical analysis of social comparison processes that assumes that
individuals maintain and enhance their self-esteem by associating with high-
achieving individuals who excel in areas that are not relevant to the individual’s
own sense of self-esteem and avoiding association with high-achieving
individuals who excel in areas that are important to the individual’s sense of
self-esteem.

Attraction
Proximity
The tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relations
with those who are close by.
Familiarity principle (mere exposure effect) – people show
preference for familiar people rather than the unknown.
Proximity increases interaction between people, interaction
cultivates attraction.
Elaboration
The tendency for groups to expand in size as nonmembers
become linked to a group member and thus become part of
the group itself.
Friendships are very likely to form between students who
were linked to the same individuals.
Similarity
The tendency for individuals to seek out, affiliate with, or be
attracted to an individual who is similar to them in some
way.
Homophily – similarity of the members in attitudes, values,
demographic characteristics.
Increases a sense of connectedness to the other person.
Groups that form in an environment where diversity was
greatest tended to be more homogenous.
Complementary
A tendency for opposites to attract when the ways in which
people are dissimilar are congruent (complementary) in
some way.
Interchange compatibility – similar needs.
Originator compatibility – dissimilar but complementing
needs.
Reciprocity
The tendency for liking to be met with liking in return.
Minimax
A general preference for relationships and memberships
that provide the maximum number of valued rewards and
incur the fewest number of possible cost.
group process

Cohesion and Development

Cohesion
Social Cohesion
The attraction of members to one another and to the group as a whole.
When cohesion is based on group-level attraction (multilevel process), people
remain members even when specific members leave the group.
Structural Cohesion
The group’s structural integrity, including normative coherence, clarity of roles, and
strength and density of relationships linking member.
Collective Cohesion
The degree to which the group unites its members, as indicated by the perceived
solidarity of the group (entitativity) and members’ identification with the group.
Increased identification of individuals with cohesive groups is predicted by social
identity theory.
Emotional Cohesion
The emotional intensity of the group and individuals when in the group.
Group-based emotions (multilevel process), including pride, esprit de corps, and
overall affective intensity.
Relational cohesion theory: Members of groups develop stronger ties to groups that
are perceived to be sources of positive feelings or emotions and weaker ties to
those perceived to be sources of negative feelings or emotions.
Task Cohesion
A shared commitment among members to achieve a goal and the resulting
capacity to perform successfully as a coordinated unit.
Based on group-level goal motivation (replacing individualistic motives with group-
oriented ones).
Collective efficacy: Members’ shared beliefs that they can accomplish all the
components of their group’s tasks competently and efficiently.
Group potency: The level of the group’s shared optimism regarding its collective
capabilities.

Five-Stage Model of Group Development

Stage Major Process Characteristics

Members become Communications are

familiar with each other tentative, polite.
and the group. Concern for ambiguity,
Forming Dependency and group’s goals.
(Orientation) inclusion issues. Leader is active.
Acceptance of leader Members are compliant
and group consensus. (role uncertainty)

Disagreement over Criticism of ideas, poor

procedures. attendance.
Expression of Counter dependency
Storming dissatisfaction. and withdrawal.
(Conflict) Tension among Polarization and
members. coalition formation.
Antagonism toward Conflicts: task, process,
leader. personal, status.
group process

Growth of cohesiveness Agreement on

and unity. procedures (constructive
Norming Establishment of norms, discussion and
(Structure roles, standards, and negotiation).
relationships. Reduction in role
Development) Increased trust, ambiguity.
communication. Increased “we-feeling”

Goal achievement. Decision making.

High task orientation. Problem solving.
Performing Emphasis on Mutual cooperation.
(Work) performance and
production.

Termination of roles Disintegration and

(spontaneous withdrawal.
dissolution). Increased independence
Adjourning Completion of tasks and emotionality.
(Dissolution) (planned dissolution). Regret
Reduction of
dependency

Group Roles
Functional Roles
Task Roles
Initiator/Contributor
Contributes ideas and suggestions; proposes solutions and decisions;
proposes new ideas or states old ideas in a novel fashion.
Information Seeker
Asks for clarification of comments in terms of their factual adequacy; asks for
information or facts relevant to the problem; suggests information is needed
before making decisions.
Information Giver
Offers facts or generalizations that may relate to the group’s task.
Opinion Seeker
Asks for clarification of opinions made by other members of the group and asks
how people in the group feel.
Opinion Giver
States beliefs or opinions having to do with suggestions made; indicates what
the group’s attitude should be.
Elaborator/Clarifier
Elaborates ideas and other contributions; offers rationales for suggestions; tries
to deduce how an idea or suggestion would work if adopted by the group.
Coordinator
Clarifies the relationships among information, opinions, and ideas or suggests
an integration of the information, opinions, and ideas of subgroups.
Diagnostician
Indicates what the problems are.
Orienter/Summarizer
Summarizes what has taken place; points out departures from agreed-on
goals; tries to bring the group back to the central issues; raises questions about
the direction in which the group is heading.
Energizer
Prods the group to action.
group process

Procedure Developer
Handles routine tasks such as seating arrangements, obtaining equipment, and
handing out pertinent papers.
Secretary
Keeps notes on the group’s progress.
Evaluator/Critic
Constructively analyzes the group’s accomplishments according to some set of
standards; checks to see that consensus has been reached.
Social/Maintenance Roles
Supporter/Encourager
Praises, agrees with, and accepts the contributions of others; offers warmth,
solidarity, and recognition.
Harmonizer
Reconciles disagreements; mediates differences; reduces tensions by giving
group members a chance to explore their differences.
Tension
Reliever Jokes or in some other way reduces the formality of the situation;
relaxes the group members.
Conciliator
Offers new options when his or her own ideas are involved in a conflict;
disciplines to admit errors so as to maintain group cohesion.
Gatekeeper
Keeps communication channels open; encourages and facilitates interaction
from those members who are usually silent.
Feeling Expresser
Makes explicit the feelings, moods, and relationships in the group; shares own
feelings with others.
Follower
Goes along with the movement of the group passively, accepting the ideas of
others sometimes serving as an audience.
Dysfunctional Roles
Blocker
Interferes with progress by rejecting ideas or taking a negative stand on any
and all issues; refuses to cooperate.
Aggressor
Struggles for status by deflating the status of others; boasts; criticizes.
Deserter
Withdraws in some way; remains indifferent, aloof, and sometimes formal;
daydreams; wanders from the subject; engages in irrelevant side
conversations.
Dominator
Interrupts and embarks on long monologues; is authoritative; tries to
monopolize the group’s time.
Recognition Seeker
Attempts to gain attention in an exaggerated manner; usually boasts about past
accomplishments; relates irrelevant personal experiences, usually in an attempt
to gain sympathy.
Playboy
Displays a lack of involvement in the group through inappropriate humor,
horseplay, or cynicism.

Influence
Social Influence
Social Influence - Interpersonal processes that change the thoughts, feelings, or
behaviors of another person.
group process

Majority Influence
Majority Influence
Social pressure exerted by the larger portion of a group (the majority), directed
toward individual members and smaller factions within the group (the minority).

Compliance Conversion Congruence

(Acquiescence) (Private Acceptance) (Uniformity)
Change that occurs when Members change their Members agree with the
the targets of social position on the issue group from the outset, so
influence publicly accept because they think the they are not responding
the influencer’s position group is correct. to the group’s influence
but privately maintain when they express their
their original beliefs. position publicly.

Independence Anticonformity Strategic

(Dissent) (Counterconformity) Anticonformity
(Devil's Advocate)
Members disagree by Members express ideas
publicly expressing ideas, or take actions that are Members take a position
beliefs, and judgments the opposite of whatever that opposes that
that are consistent with the group favors. endorsed by the majority
their personal standards. of the members.

Conformity Across Contexts

Unanimity
Asch’s experiment: When participants had an ally, conformity rates were cut to
one-fourth of their previous levels; One’s dissent made it easier for others to
express their viewpoints.
Individuals who face the majority alone bear 100% of the group’s pressure.
Gaining a supportive partner helps one withstand the pressure to conform.
The larger the size of the minority, the smaller the majority.
A partner makes a very embarrassing situation less embarrassing.
Strong and Weak Situations
Weak situations → Less pressure → Actions tend to be shaped more by their
personal proclivities rather than by social constraints.
Strong situations → More pressure → Tend to conform more.
More likely to conform when the group is highly cohesive and well-informed;
when tasks are important and difficult.
Less likely to conform when identity is not known to others; when tasks are
important but easy.
Crutchfield situation: No face-to-face interaction → private responses → fewer
people conformed.
Strength in Numbers
Individuals in larger groups state their opinions publicly, while people who keep
their opinions to themselves are more likely to dissent.
As the number in the group increases, the individuals in the majority are
perceived by others to be a group rather than individual entities (e.g., 2 two-
person groups are more influential than 1 four-person group whose members
worked together).
Principle of optimal distinctiveness – individuals would want to maintain their
individual identity rather than conforming to the group.
group process

Social Impact
Strength: Higher status in the group - Less likely to conform
Immediacy: Near physical proximity - More impact
Number of people: The first person who expresses a different opinion has more
impact than the hundredth person.
Minority Influence
Social pressure exerted by a lone individual or smaller faction of a group (the
minority), directed toward members of the majority.
Predictors of Minority Influence
Consistency and Influence
Minorities are more influential when they are perceived to be team players
who are committed, competent, and group-center.
Idiosyncrasy Credits
Credits are earned each time an individual makes a contribution to the
group.
Credits decrease each time the individual influences others, makes errors,
or deviates from the group’s norms.
Diligence of Dissenters
Majorities feel less pressure to articulate their points clearly as they have
numbers.
Minorities feel more intently the need to craft persuasive messages (better
quality).

Sources of Group Influence

Implicit Influence
Consciously recognized social influence, unnoticed and largely automatic cognitive,
emotional, and behavioral reactions to other people.
Mimicry – unconscious copying of the behavior others is exhibiting.
Mindlessness – A state of reduced cognitive processing characterized by actions
based on habit, routine, or previously formed discriminations rather than conscious
deliberation.
Informational Influence
Change-promoting interpersonal processes that are based on the informational
value of the responses of others in the situation.
Normative Influence
Change-promoting interpersonal processes based on social norms, standards, and
convention.
Because individuals internalize their group’s norms, they strive to act in ways
that are consistent with those norms.
Interpersonal Influence
Change-promoting interpersonal processes based on group members selectively
encouraging conformity and discouraging or even punishing nonconformity.
Black-sheep effect: The tendency for group members to evaluate a group
member who performs an offensive behavior more harshly than an outgroup
member who performs the same offense.
Inhibition of Influence (Bystander Effect)
The tendency for people to help less when they know others are present and
capable of helping.
Ambiguity causes them to rely on the reactions of others in the situation to guide
their interpretation of the event.
group process

Performance
Social Facilitation
Social Facilitation - An improvement in task performance that occurs when people
work in the presence of other people.
Coaction - Performing a task or another type of goal-oriented activity in the
presence of one or more other individuals who are performing a similar type of
activity.
People in groups produced more than isolated individuals, but their products were
often lower in quality.
Social facilitation most likely to occur on tasks where speed and quantity matter
more than accuracy.
Simple tasks + presence of people → increased working speed → consistent
increase in productivity
Complex tasks + presence of people → decreased working speed → significant
decrease in quantity and quality of performance
Zajonc’s theory of SF – the presence of others increases the tendency to perform
dominant responses and decreases the tendency to perform nondominant
responses.

Social Loafing
Social Loafing - The reduction of individual effort exerted when people work in groups
compared to when they work alone.
Ringelmann effect: The tendency for people to become less productive when they
work with others; this loss of efficiency increases as group size increases, but at a
gradually decreasing rate.
Coordination losses (failure to reach full productive potential) introduced
inefficiencies in the group.
Motivation losses (people work less hard in groups) reduces group productivity
Even if work groups are so well organized that virtually all losses due to faulty
coordination are eliminated, actual productivity will not equal the potential
productivity due to social loafing.
Minimize Free Riding
Free riding - Contributing less to a collective task when one believes that other
group members will compensate for this lack of effort (more likely to free ride if
they suspect others are not as hardworking).
Sucker effect - The tendency for members to contribute less to a group
endeavor when they expect that others will think negatively of anyone who
works too hard or contributes too much (strongest when they feel that their
group members are competent but lazy).
Can be minimized by reducing the size of the group, strengthening the group’s
performance norms, sanctioning those who contribute too little, and increasing
members’ sense of indispensability.
Ways to Reduce Social Loafing
Individuals who enjoy competition and working with others in groups.
Being engaged in the group or the group’s work
Tasks that are challenging, difficult, or determines group members’ personal
outcomes (reward / punishment)
Rewards for successful performance are group-based rather than individually
based, and divided nearly equally among all the group members
Splitting large groups into smaller ones
group process

OTHER NOTES
Historical Timeline of Group Process
Before 1900
Groups are formed for functional and pragmatic reasons.
Primary emphasis is to give information, instruction, and/or correct behaviors arm.
Group movement developed due to the need for social reform and o education.
Immigrants and the poor receive special attention.
Hull House (Jane Adams in Chicago) focuses on promoting reciprocal
relationships and increasing "individual self- determination and self-respect".
Social workers and physicians use group structure to increase awareness of self.
Overall the development of groups in the 1800s is a dynamic movement which
includes contributions from the disciplines of psychology, sociology, philosophy,
and education.
Group movement developed because of the need for social reform and education.

1900 - 1909
Joseph Hersey Pratt - organizes the first formal group experience that was not
principally psycho-educational or task/work oriented. His work with groups of
tuberculosis patients leads him to write about the dynamics that occur within group
settings. He recognizes the positive influence of group members on one another -
the therapeutic power of groups (as source of support and inspiration).
Jesse B. Davis and Frank Parsons (founder of modern-day counseling) start
establishing vocational/moral guidance groups. The guidance counselor (e.g.,
counselors at Vocational Bureau of Boston) began to see vocationally undecided
individuals in small groups.

1910 - 1919
World War I - Psychological groups tests (e.g., Alpha and Beta intelligence tests)
are developed and administered.
Groups are used in a limited way to treat combat fatigued soldiers.
During this decade, there is growth in select schools and organizations on group
guidance and psycho-educational approaches to learning in groups.
J.L. Moreno - publishes a philosophical paper on group methods under the name
J.M. Levy. His writings stress the psychoanalytic and social psychological
perspectives of individuals working together.

1920 - 1929
Alfred Adler (1922) initiates a systematic form of group guidance and counseling
known as "collective counseling. He employs his group techniques with prison and
child guidance populations, and most importantly, with families.
Posited the importance of interpersonal relations in mental health.
He and his associates devised "family councils" as a means of getting input
about family relations and conflict resolutions.
J.L. Moreno - Helps promote the growth of group work by employing theatrical
techniques with people who are in mental turmoil. This first step of psychodrama he
calls Theater of Spontaneity.
Some techniques were role playing taking of stage the center, here-and-now
interaction: promotion of catharsis: empathy; encouragement of
cooperative/helping behaviors among group members.
Involved "creative dramatics" and was based on "sociometry" - measurement of
social relationship among group members.
Later influenced theorists. such as Frits Perls Gestalt Technology & William
Schultz' in formation of encounter techniques
Investigation of Small Group (scientific approach)
Allport (1924) - types of interactions; how groups influence individuals
Gordon (1924) & Watson (1928) - evaluating individual vs. group performance
group process

1930 - 1939
Increase in group, guidance and psycho-educational publications and practices,
e.g., guidance hour in schools.
J.L. Moreno continues to write and make creative presentations. He redevises one
of the earliest forms of group treatment: psychodrama. He introduces the terms
group therapy and group psychotherapy.
Increase in the number and quality of fieldwork studies:
Muzafer Sherif (1936)
Studied the influence of groups on the establishments of social norms by
charting the response of individuals inside and outside group setting to
particular stimulus called "autokinetic movement".
Theodore Newcomb (1943)
Found that students from politically conservative homes would tend to
become more liberal because of prevailing norms of their peer groups.
W.F White (1943)
Studied larger social system by moving into the slums of Boston in 1937 for
3½ years.
Found that gangs, clubs and political organizations had a dramatic impact
on the individual's lives.
The founding of the first major self-help group in America, Alcoholics Anonymous. It
was guided by the principle - "the potency of individuals meeting together and
interacting in a supportive way to produce change". It helped alcoholics gainland
maintain control of their lives.
Movement of psychoanalytical treatment into the group domain.
Trigant Burrow's "phyloanalysis"- studied how social forces affect behavior
and stressed the biological principles of group analysis.
Other (1939) pioneers were: Louis Wender (1936) and Paul Schidler.

1940 - 1949
World war II and 1940s - often seen as the beginning of modern group work
period. Two major directions in the development of groups:
Theoretical writings and practices of Kurt Lewin and Wilfred Bion
Establishment of group organizations.
Kurt Lewin (1940-1945) - recognized of the most influential founder and promoter
of group dynamics.
Field Theory - Lewin's approach emphasizes the interaction between
individuals and their environments and based on ideas of Gestalt in which there
is interdependence in part/whole relationships.
Lewin, "the practical theorist." establishes a workshop that leads to the
formation of the National Training Laboratories (NTL) and the Basic Skills
Training Group (BST), which evolves, into the Training Group (T-Group)
movement.
Other major contributions of Lewin include: the discovery that group
discussions are superior to individual instruction in changing people's ideas and
behaviors, his emphasis on here-and-now orientation, changes in group
behavior depend on an "unfreezing" and "freezing" process of human behavior.
He also initiates the application of the concept of feedback to group work.
Wilfred Bion - He focuses on group cohesiveness and forces that foster the
progression or regression of the group.
Member of Tavistock Institute of Human Relations (Great Britain).
Broke away from Freudian concepts (family as the basic group model).
Posited that group phenomena may be radically different from those within a
family.
group process

1950 - 1959
Characterized by a greater refinement in all aspects of group work.
Distinction between group work and family therapy arises.
Group procedures begin to be applied to the practice of family counseling.
Rudolph Dreikurs (1959) -begins to work with parent groups and employed
Adlerian approach; psychoeducational in practicing family counseling.
John Bell (1951) conducted family therapy sessions, treated family how members
as if they were strangers; open discussions to solve problems.
Nathan Acherman, Gregory Bateson, Virginia Satir - their independent but
similar focus is in modifying the psychoanalytic model of group therapy and they
develop techniques for treating dysfunctions in families.
Counseling and Learning through Small-Group Discussion - First textbook in group
work by Helen I. Driver (1958).
Group Guidance is replaced by Group Counseling in the late 1950s as a major way
to bring about behavioral changes, especially in educational settings.
Group psychotherapy increases in popularity, as tranquilizing drugs make working
with groups in mental health settings viable.
W. Edwards Demming - Japanese work/task group master, directs the
implementation of new types of groups called "total quality groups," which later
influences American industry in the 1980s.

1960 to 1969
1968 - Group practice becomes so popular that The New York Times designates
this year as "the year of the group"; many forms of group work are invented and/or
refined.
Two of the most popular groups:
Encounter group - Carl Rogers coins the term basic encounter group.
Often known as personal growth group.
Sometimes referred to as sensitivity groups, a term that focuses on and the
individuals' awareness of their own emotional experiences behaviors of
others.
Emphasis is placed on the awareness of and exploration of intrapsychic
and interpersonal issues.
Marathon group - George Bach and Fred Stoller devise marathon group in
1956 as a way of helping people become more authentic with themselves. Held
for extended periods (24-48 hours and members are required to stay together.
Popular theorist practitioners of this decade who take a heldone humanistic-
existential orientation:
Frits Perls (1967)- workshops demonstrating his Gestalt theory
Eric Berne (1964, 1966)- Transactional Analysis (Ego States)
William Schuts (1967) - Interpersonal Needs (Inclusions, Control, and
Affection): stressed the use of nonverbal communication, such as touching,
hugging in groups etc.
Jack Gibb (1961)-competitive vs. cooperative behavior

1970 - 1979
Controversies about the group context
Irving Janis (1971)
Created the term "groupthink" emphasizes the detrimental power that
groups may exert over their members to conform; can be devastating to the
growth of the individuals and the problem-solving ability of the group itself.
Walter Lifton (1972)
In his book, he uncovered the turmoil and concerns behind group works.
Characterized sensitivity groups as "antidemocratic and morally degrading"
Irvin Yalom and Georde Gazda (1970) - analyze group methods and processes
and describe 11 "curative (therapeutic) factors" within groups that contribute to the
betterment of individuals.
group process

Yalom and Lieberman find that leadership style in groups greatly influences
how individuals fare in such settings.
Gazda is largely responsible for collecting primary accounts of how our
different, group workers conceptualize and practice their approaches most and
later develops a rationale for developmental group counseling in the 1980s.

1980 to 1989
The popularity of group work for the masses increased, as did the continued
professionalism of the group movement itself.
The American Group Psychotherapy Association (AGPA) publishes a collection of
articles edited by James Durkin (1981) that examines how general systems theory
could be utilized in groups.
Self-help groups mushroomed (AA, Narcotics Anonymous. Weight Watcher,
Compassionate Friends, etc.).
Psycho-educational groups also receive attention during this decade.
George Gazda, first president of AGPA, proposes the use of developmental group
counseling with multiple populations for teaching basic life skills.
By the end of 1980's, group work is recognized as a viable means of helping
individuals in a variety of settings. More than ever, more types of groups are
available.
Code of Ethics for Group Workers
Published by ASGW (1980) and revised in 1989
Standards for training group leaders were proposed land adopted in 19911

1990 to 1999
Group work continues to flourish.
Group work becomes increasingly utilized in school settings.
In 1990, ASGW approves and publishes professional standards for the training of
group workers in task/works, psychoeducation, counseling and psychotherapy
groups highlighting core group competencies and group work specialties.
Wide variety of self-help groups and support groups were formed such as parenting
groups, cooperative learning groups, and focus groups.
Quality groups are set up among workers to promote teamwork, increase morale
and efficiency, and ensure that more attention is paid to how tasks are completed.

2000 to Present
Groups continued to be popular in multiple settings (school; community;
organization; etc.)
Specialty group practice and research into specialty areas of group work flourish.
Emphasis on the refinement of standard needed to conduct group.
Romano and Sullivan (2000) developed "simulated group counseling model"
Technology and Group Work
"Groupware""-computer support for a group activity; chat rooms; e-mail
systems.
Online groups - "synchronous" and "asynchronous"
The use of technology worldwide "ranges from a minimal encounter constituting
information exchange or referral to resources, to more interactive exchanges
constituting the dissemination of information, provision of support, and offerings
of electronic counseling." Internet websites have emerged for group
associations.
Group use of computers especially for helping group members stay in contact
with one another and exchange information. There are chat rooms, computer
conferencing, electronic mailing lists, virtual environment, news groups.
group process

Important Terms
Group Process
Group Process
It refers to the manner in which group members interact with one another.
Represents the flow of the group from its starting point to its termination.
Kurt Lewin, a German-American psychologist frequently referred to as the "father
of social psychology," was one of the earliest pioneers in the study of group
dynamics.
Lewin believed that both individual characteristics and the social context in
which a group operates influence its behavior.
He created a model of group dynamics that emphasized the interplay between
the personal characteristics of group members, their relationships with one
another, and the group's objectives and structure.

Group Dynamics
Group Dynamics
Group dynamics encompasses the entire field of research and application
concerning the nature of groups, the history of their development and their
interrelations with individuals, other groups and established institutions.

Group Guidance
Group Guidance
Refers to any part of a guidance program that is conducted with groups of students
rather than with an individual student.
Basic purpose: to provide information and data to facilitate decision making and
behavior.
Approach: PREVENTIVE
Composed of 20-35 members
Recommended for all school students on a regularly scheduled basis.
Makes an indirect attempt to change attitudes and behavior by providing
information and stressing cognitive/intellective functioning.
Applicable to classroom-size groups

Group Counseling
Group Counseling
A process in which one counselor is involved in a relationship with a number of
clients at the same time.
Maximum no: 6 or 4-8 members
Process: member to member; member to group; group to member.
Focus: on each member and on changing each member's behavior.
Fundamental characteristics (Gazda)
It focuses on conscious thought and behavior.
It involves such therapeutic functions: permissiveness, orientation to reality,
catharsis, mutual trust, caring, understanding, and acceptance.
Composed of members who are normal, who have concerns that are not
debilitating.
Recommended only for those who are experiencing continuing or temporary
problem.
Makes a direct attempt to modify attitudes and behavior by stressing affective
involvement.
Applicable to small intimate groups.
Multiple counseling: 2 or more counselors interacting with 2 or more clients.