Topic 3: Education and Process of

Stratification : Major Theories

Explains of Stratification

主題三 : 教育和階層化過程︰主
要解釋階層化的理論
The process of stratification: is inequality
inevitable? 階層化的過程：不平等是不可
避免的嗎？
• Stratification, a process that is interlaced through the whole
societal structure, refers to our position in society’s hierarchy.
階層化，乃泛穿整個社會結構的一個過程，指的是我們在社
會階層中的地位。
• Social class is determined by several variables, including wealth,
power, and prestige. Educational attainment is closely
associated with these variables. 社會階層取決於幾個變數，包
括財富、權力和威望。 學歷與這些變數亦息息相關。
• In addition, education is used to sort people into future societal
roles. Thus, people look to education to improve their status in
society. 人們在未來的社會中的角色也用教育來劃分。 因
此，人們寄望教育助於改善他們在社會中的地位。

(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, p.87)

Determinants of social class 社會階
層的決定因素
• Sociologists study stratification, defining the meaning of social class and
discussing its significance and implications for individuals in society. 社會學家研
究階層化，定義社會階層的意義並討論其對個人在社會中的意義和影響。
• Class has been described as multidimensional concept that is determined by
three major variables: wealth, power, and prestige. 階層描述為由三個主要變
數而決定的多層概念：財富，權力和威望。
• Wealth refers to one’s property, capital, and income; 財富是指個人的財產，資
本和收入。
• Power implied the ability to make major decision or influence others to act on
behalf of one’s benefit. 權力意味著能做出重大決定或影響他人來代表個人利
益而行事的能力
• Occupation is main factor in one’s prestige. Education affects occupational
status, and income is closely associated with one’s occupation. 職業是個人威望
的主要因素。教育影響職業地位，而收入與個人職業關係密切。
• Various occupations have different amounts of prestige, including the ability to
influence others. 各種職業具有不同的威望，包括影響他人的能力。

(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, pp.63-66)

Major theoretical explanations of
stratification systems 階層化系統的
主要理論解釋
• Functionalist (Consensus) Theory of
Stratification 階層化的功能主義（共識）理
論
• Conflict Theory of Stratification 階層化的衝
突理論
• Code, Reproduction and Resistance Theories
符碼、再製和抗拒理論

(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, pp.66-71)

Functionalist (Consensus) theory of stratification
階層化的功能主義（共識）理論

• People are induced to do what society needs done,

motivated to fulfill roles by extrinsic rewards (money,
prestige). 人們被引導去做社會需要做的事情，在外
在獎賞（金錢，威望）的激勵下來完成角色。
• The importance to the survival of society of a
particular role and scarcity of qualified persons to fill
the role determine the prestige ranking of positions.
職位威望的排名取決於特定角色在社會生存中的重
要性以及具資格填補此角色人士的稀缺。

(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, pp.66-71)

Functionalist (Consensus) Theory of
Stratification (Cont’d)
階層化的功能主義（共識）理論 ( 續 )
• Those positions that are most complex and important
and require the most talent and training-that is,
education-are the most highly rewarded. 最複雜、最
重要及所需才能和培訓最多 - 即教育 - 的那些職位
獎賞最高。
• The selection process that will eventually determine
occupational status begins in school, where
functionalists argue that students are placed more
according to individual performance than to group
differences such as race and sex. 最終決定職業地位
的選擇過程從學校就開始了，功能主義者認為學生
排名大多根據個人績效而非群體差異，如種族和性
別(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, pp.66-71)
Conflict theory of stratification
階層化的衝突理論
• Conflict theorists believe that problems in the educational system
stem from the conflicts in the society as a whole. Education is but
one part of a system that is based on “haves” and have-nots.” 衝突
理論家認為教育制度中的問題源於整個社會的衝突。教育只是
基於“富人”和“窮人”制度的一部分。
• When the type of education and knowledge available to various
groups of people is controlled, their access to position in society is
controlled. Thus, the educational system is doing its part to
perpetuate the existing class system-to prepare children for their
roles in the capitalistic, technological society, controlled by the
dominant groups in society. 當不同群體可得的教育和知識類型
被控制時，他們在社會中得到職位機會亦被控制。因此，教育
系統只是在它的部分延續了被擁有主導地位群體所控制的現有
階級系統而為孩子們在資本、科技社會中的角色做準備。

(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, pp.66-71)

Conflict theory of stratification (Cont’d)
階層化的衝突理論 ( 續 )
• Education serves to reproduce the inequalities based
on power, income, and social status (Carnoy, 1974).
教育旨在重現基於權力、收入和社會地位的不平等
• The values, rules, and institutions of society reflect the
interests of the dominant groups, the ruling class; this
is evident in the institution of education in the way
resources are distributed (Scheurich and Imber, 1991).
社會的價值觀、，規則和機構反映了擁有主導地位
群體即統治階級的利益 ; 這在教育機構的資源分
配方式中特別明顯
(From Ballantine & Hammack, 2012, pp.66-71; Carnoy, 1974)
Code theory 符碼理論
• Code theory is the term used to describe the theoretical and
empirical project of British sociologist Basil Bernstein [1924-2000].
符碼理論是用來描述英國社會學家羅勒伯恩斯坦 [1924-2000
年 ] 理論和實證專案中的專有名詞
• For Bernstein, there were social class differences in the
communication codes of working class and middle-class children,
differences that reflect the class and power relations in the social
division of labor, family, and schools.
對伯恩斯坦而言，在勞工階級和中產階級兒童的通訊代碼裡存
在著社會階層的差異，這些差異反映出勞動、家庭和學校中社
會分層的階級與權力的關係
• Based upon empirical research, Bernstein distinguished between
the restricted code of the working class and the elaborated code of
the middle class.
在實證研究基礎上，伯恩斯坦區分了勞工階級的限制型符碼和
中產階級的精緻型符碼
(From Sadovnik, 2008, pp.20-21)
Code Theory (Cont’d) 符碼理論 ( 續 )
• Restricted codes are context dependent and particularistic, whereas
elaborated codes are context independent and universalistic.
限制型符碼具有語境依賴性和特殊性，而精緻型符碼具語境獨立
性和普遍性
• Schools require an elaborated code for success means that working-
class children are disadvantage by the dominant code of schooling.
學校成就需用精緻型符碼意味著教育優勢符碼並不利於勞工階層
兒童
• Bernstein’s work on pedagogic practices and discourse was concerned
with the production, distribution, and reproduction of official
knowledge and how this knowledge is related to structurally
determined power relations.
伯恩斯坦教學實踐和論述著作關注於正式知識的生產、傳播和再
製以及這種知識是如何與受結構影響的權力關係相關聯

(From Sadovnik, 2008, pp.21-22)

Basic concepts of reproduction and resistance
theories
再製和抗拒理論的基本概念
• Two concepts are particularly critical in the development of
reproduction and resistance theories: The concept of cultural
capital was introduced in the 1970s primarily by Pierre Bourdieu,
and social capital was introduced by James S. Coleman (1988).
有兩個概念是再製和抗拒理論發展中特別關鍵的 : 文化資本的
概念是 70 年代主要由皮埃爾 · 布迪厄提出的 , 社會資本概
念是由詹姆斯 · 科爾曼 （ 1988 年） 提出的
• Social capital: the social resource students bring to their education
and future engagement in school or community, resulting in
building of networks and relationships they can use as contacts for
future opportunities.
社會資本：學生將社會資源帶到他們的教育和未來在學校或社
區的參與，因而建立他們在未來有機會用到的連繫網絡和關係

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, pp.14-15)

Basic concepts of reproduction and
resistance theories (Cont’d)
再製和抗拒理論的基本概念 ( 續 )
• Cultural capital: cultural practices, including language
patterns and experiences such as visits to museums, that
provide knowledge of middle- and upper-class culture- the
culture of schools.
文化資本：文化習俗，包括語言模式和經驗如參觀博物館，
以提供中高層文化的知識 - 學校文化。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.12)

Cultural capital and symbolic violence
文化資本和象徵性暴力
• Bourdiue’s central concepts of cultural capital and symbolic violence, which were
developed in Bourdieu and Passeron’s Reproduction in Education, Society, and
Culture (1977), are used to understand how schooling is part of a symbolic process
of cultural and social reproduction. 布迪厄文化資本和象徵性暴力的核心概念
詳述於布迪厄與帕塞隆的《 教育、社會與文化中的再製 》 (1977 年 ) ，
用於瞭解教育如何是文化再製象徵性的一部分
• Although schools appear to be neutral, they actually advantage the upper and
middle-classes through their symbolic representations. These classes possess
cultural capital, or symbolic representations of cultural domination, such as
language, ideas, and knowledge of music, art, and literature, all of which have
important exchange value in the educational and cultural marketplace. Therefore,
while all children possess cultural capital, some are advantaged by possessing the
cultural capital resented in schools. 雖然學校看似中立，實際上他們藉由象徵
性表徵有利於高中產階級。這些階段擁有文化資本或文化優勢的象徵性表徵，
例如語言、想法、及音樂、藝術和文學的知識，其全部在教育和文化市場上
都有交換的價值。因此，雖然所有兒童都擁有文化資本，有些卻因為擁有學
校代表性的文化資本而得利。
(From Sadovnik, 2008, p.22)
Cultural capital and symbolic violence (Cont’d)
文化資本和象徵性暴力 ( 續 )

• Schooling reproduces cultural capital unevenly among social

classes. Schooling corresponds to the dominant interests of
society; as a result, upper and middle-class forms of cultural
capital; become codified in school’s curriculum.
教育在社會階層間再製不平等的文化資本。教育因應了社
會的優勢利益；結果，高中產階級塑造了文化資本；成為
學校課程中的符碼。

(From Sadovnik, 2008, p.22)

Reproduction theory
再製理論

• Dominant groups pass on privilege to their children via

exposure to the dominant culture so that students with
cultural capital know how schools work and what to do
to be successful.
優勢團體藉著在接觸優勢文化將特權傳給他們的孩
子因此擁有文化資本的學生明瞭學校是如何運作的及
要怎麼做才能取得成功
• Schools reproduce inequality both in the interactions
and the structure of education.
學校在互動及教育組織兩方面都再製了不平等

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.15)

Reproduction theory (Cont’d)
再製理論 ( 續 )
• Access to the dominant class depends on capital gained from
cultural, economic, social, and symbolic sources. The bottom
line is that students from the dominant class obtain more
(and often higher quality) education. This type of analysis can
apply to understanding the process of reproduction at the
individual student, classroom, school, or system level of
analysis.
進入優勢階級的機會取決於從文化、經濟、社會和象徵
性的來源。結果是從優勢階級來的學生得到更多 ( 及常常
是更高的素質 ) 的教育。此類分析可應用在分析個別學生、
課室、學校或系統層面來理解再製過程。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.16)

Resistance theory
抗拒理論
• Teachers and students are not passive participants in the
school process, and that they do not always follow the
expectations that result in social reproduction.
老師和學生在教育過程中都不是被動參與者，而且他們
並不會都跟隨著社會再製的預期結果走
• In Willis (1979) study, students may resist their socialization
into certain roles in society just as teachers do not have
accepted their role in facilitating reproduction.
在威利斯 (1979) 研究中，學生可能會抗拒他們社會化
中扮演社會中的某些角色就如教師不接受他們在促進再製
中扮演的角色。

(From Ballantine & Spade, 2008, p.16)

Case #3 Discussion Questions
個案 3 討論問題
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the school
choice system in Macau? Do you think the school choice
system reinforces or alleviates the stratification of social
classes? 澳門選校系統的優點和缺點是什麼？你認為選校
系統強化或緩解了社會階級的階層化？
2. According to major sociological theories of stratification, which
theories explain the process of stratification in Macau’s
education better? Why? 根據階層化的主要社會學理論，哪
些理論比較能夠解釋澳門教育裡階層化的過程？為什麼？
3. In your opinion, how do schools transmit and distribute
social/cultural capitals to students of various backgrounds in
Macau? Please give concrete examples drawn from your
personal knowledge and experience to support your
explanation. 在你看來，學校如何傳播和分配社會 / 文化資
本給澳門不同背景的學生？請以您個人的知識和經驗提出
一些具體的例子來佐證你的論點。
Reference
Ballantine, J. H., & Spade, J. Z. (Eds.). (2008). Schools and Society: A
Sociological Approach to Education (3rd ed.).: Pine Forge Press.
Bourdieau, P. & Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction in education, society,
and culture. London: Sage.
Carnoy, M. (1974). Education as cultural imperialism. London: Longman.
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social capital in the creation of human capital.
American Journal of Sociology, 94, 95-120.
Sadovnik, A. R. (2008). Contemporary Perspectives in the Sociology of
Education. In Ballantine, J. H., & Spade, J. Z. (Eds.). (2008). Schools and
Society: A Sociological Approach to Education (3rd ed.).: Pine Forge Press,
pp. 20-28.
Scheurich, J. J., & Imber, M. (1991). Educational reforms can reproduce
societal inequalities: A case study. Educational Administration Quarterly,
27 (3), 297-320.
Willis, P. (1979). Learning to labor: How working class kids get working class
jobs. Adlershot, Hampshire, England: Saxon House.
Related empirical studies 相關實
證研究
• Caro, D. H. ,Sandoval-Hernández, A. & Lüdtke, O. (2014). Cultural, social, and
economic capital constructs in international assessments: An evaluation using
exploratory structural equation modeling. School Effectiveness and School
Improvement, 25(3), 433-450.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09243453.2013.812568
• Carless, D. & Lam, R. (2014) The examined life: Perspectives of lower primary
school students in Hong Kong, Education 3-13, 42:3, 313-329.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03004279.2012.689988
• Xu, C. L. (2016): Mainland Chinese students at an elite Hong Kong
university: habitus–field disjuncture in a transborder context, British
Journal of Sociology of Education.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01425692.2016.1158642