Module 4

MOTIVATION
What Is Motivation?

• Motivation
 Is the result of an interaction between the person and a
situation; it is not a personal trait.
 Is the process by which a person’s efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained towards attaining
a goal.
 Energy: a measure of intensity or drive.

 Direction: toward organizational goals

 Persistence: exerting effort to achieve goals.

 Motivation works best when individual needs are

compatible with organizational goals.
Early Theories of Motivation

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• McGregor’s Theories X and Y
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• McClelland’s three-needs theory
Early Theories of Motivation

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

 Needs were categorized as five levels of lower- to
higher-order needs.
 Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before
they can satisfy higher order needs.
 Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.
 Motivating a person depends on knowing at what
level that person is on the hierarchy.
 Hierarchy of needs
 Lower-order (external): physiological, safety
 Higher-order (internal): social, esteem, self-
actualization
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Implications for Managers

Physiological needs- are the managers should give employees appropriate salaries to
needs for basic amenities of life. purchase the basic necessities of life. Breaks and eating
opportunities should be given to employees.
Safety needs- Safety needs the managers should provide the employees job security,
include physical, environmental safe and hygienic work environment, and retirement
and emotional safety and benefits so as to retain them.
protection
Social needs- Social needs the management should encourage teamwork and
include the need for love, organize social events.
affection, care, belongingness, and
friendship.
Esteem needs- Esteem needs are  the managers can appreciate and reward employees on
of two types: internal and external accomplishing and exceeding their targets. The
esteem needs  management can give the deserved employee higher job
rank / position in the organization.
Self-actualization need-It the managers can give the employees challenging jobs in
includes the need for growth and which the employees’ skills and competencies are fully
self-contentment, desire for utilized. Moreover, growth opportunities can be given to
gaining more knowledge, social- them so that they can reach the peak.
service, creativity and being
aesthetic.
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
 Theory X
 Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike
work, avoid responsibility, and require close
supervision.
 Theory Y
 Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction,
desire responsibility, and like to work.
 Assumption:
 Motivation is maximized by participative decision
making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.
Implications of Theory X and Theory Y
Quite a few organizations use Theory X today. Theory X
encourages use of tight control and supervision. It implies
that employees are reluctant to organizational changes. Thus,
it does not encourage innovation.
Many organizations are using Theory Y techniques. Theory Y
implies that the managers should create and encourage a
work environment which provides opportunities to
employees to take initiative and self-direction. Employees
should be given opportunities to contribute to organizational
well-being. Theory Y encourages decentralization of
authority, teamwork and participative decision making in an
organization. Theory Y searches and discovers the ways in
which an employee can make significant contributions in an
organization. It harmonizes and matches employees’ needs
and aspirations with organizational needs and aspirations.
Early Theories of Motivation (cont’d)
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are created by
different factors.
 Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors that
create job dissatisfaction.
 Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job
satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
 Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does
not result in increased performance.
The opposite of satisfaction is not
dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction
Implications of Two-Factor Theory
• The Two-Factor theory implies that the managers
must stress upon guaranteeing the adequacy of
the hygiene factors to avoid employee
dissatisfaction. Also, the managers must make
sure that the work is stimulating and rewarding
so that the employees are motivated to work and
perform harder and better. This theory
emphasize upon job-enrichment so as to
motivate the employees. The job must utilize the
employee’s skills and competencies to the
maximum. Focusing on the motivational factors
can improve work-quality.
• Three-Needs Theory (McClelland)
 There are three major acquired needs that are major
motives in work.
 Need for achievement (nAch)

– The drive to excel and succeed

 Need for power (nPow)

– The need to influence the behavior of others

 Need of affiliation (nAff)

– The desire for interpersonal relationships

nAch
• The individuals with high achievement needs are highly
motivated by competing and challenging work. They look
for promotional opportunities in job. They have a strong
urge for feedback on their achievement. Such individuals
try to get satisfaction in performing things better. High
achievement is directly related to high performance.
Individuals who are better and above average performers
are highly motivated. They assume responsibility for
solving the problems at work. McClelland called such
individuals as gamblers as they set challenging targets for
themselves and they take deliberate risk to achieve those
set targets. Such individuals look for innovative ways of
performing job. They perceive achievement of goals as a
reward, and value it more than a financial reward.
nPow
• The individuals who are motivated by power have a
strong urge to be influential and controlling. They want
that their views and ideas should dominate and thus,
they want to lead. Such individuals are motivated by the
need for reputation and self-esteem. Individuals with
greater power and authority will perform better than
those possessing less power. Generally, managers with
high need for power turn out to be more efficient and
successful managers. They are more determined and
loyal to the organization they work for. Need for power
should not always be taken negatively. It can be viewed
as the need to have a positive effect on the organization
and to support the organization in achieving it’s goals.
nAff

• The individuals who are motivated by affiliation have

an urge for a friendly and supportive environment.
Such individuals are effective performers in a team.
These people want to be liked by others. The
manager’s ability to make decisions is hampered if
they have a high affiliation need as they prefer to be
accepted and liked by others, and this weakens their
objectivity. Individuals having high affiliation needs
prefer working in an environment providing greater
personal interaction. Such people have a need to be on
the good books of all. They generally cannot be good
leaders.
Contemporary Theories of Motivation

•Goal-Setting Theory
•Reinforcement Theory
•Designing Motivating Jobs
•Equity Theory
•Expectancy Theory
Motivation and Goals
• Goal-Setting Theory
 Proposes that setting goals that are accepted,
specific, and challenging yet achievable will result
in higher performance than having no or easy goals.
 Is culture bound to the U.S. and Canada.
Features of goal-setting theory
• The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main
source of job motivation. Clear, particular and difficult
goals are greater motivating factors than easy, general and
vague goals.
• Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better
performance. Unambiguous, measurable and clear goals
accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids
misunderstanding.
• Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an
individual a feeling of pride and triumph when he attains
them, and sets him up for attainment of next goal. The
more challenging the goal, the greater is the reward
generally and the more is the passion for achieving it.
• Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the
employee behaviour and contributes to higher
performance than absence of feedback. Feedback is a
means of gaining reputation, making clarifications and
regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to work with
more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction.
• Employees’ participation in goal setting is not always
desirable.
• Participation in setting goal, however, makes goal more
acceptable and leads to more involvement.
Goal setting theory has certain eventualities
such as:
• Self-efficacy- Self-efficacy is the individual’s self-confidence
and faith that he has potential of performing the task. Higher
the level of self-efficacy, greater will be the efforts put in by the
individual when they face challenging tasks. While, lower the
level of self-efficacy, less will be the efforts put in by the
individual or he might even quit while meeting challenges.
• Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the
individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal.
The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors:
 Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.
 Goals should be set-self by individual rather than
designated.
 Individual’s set goals should be consistent with the
organizational goals and vision.
Goal-Setting Theory
• Benefits of Participation in Goal-Setting
 Increases the acceptance of goals.
 Fosters commitment to difficult, public goals.
 Provides for self-feedback (internal locus of control) that guides
behavior and motivates performance (self-efficacy).
• Limitations of Goal Setting Theory
At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial
goals.
Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behaviour.
If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions
essential for goal, then the goal-setting can fail and lead to
undermining of performance.
There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job
satisfaction.
Motivation and Behavior

• Reinforcement Theory
 Assumes that a desired behavior is a function of its
consequences, is externally caused, and if reinforced, is
likely to be repeated.
 Positive reinforcement is preferred for its long-term
effects on performance
 Ignoring undesired behavior is better than
punishment which may create additional
dysfunctional behaviors.
• Implications of Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an
individual learns behaviour. Managers who are making
attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that
they do not reward all employees simultaneously. They
must tell the employees what they are not doing
correct. They must tell the employees how they can
achieve positive reinforcement.
Designing Motivating Jobs
• Job Design
 The way into which tasks can be combined to form
complete jobs.
 Factors influencing job design:
 Changing organizational environment/structure
 The organization’s technology
 Employees’ skill, abilities, and preferences

 Job enlargement
 Increasing the job’s scope (number and frequency of
tasks)
 Job enrichment
 Increasing responsibility and autonomy (depth) in a
job.
Designing Motivating Jobs (cont’d)
• Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
 A conceptual framework for designing motivating jobs that
create meaningful work experiences that satisfy employees’
growth needs.
 Five primary job characteristics:
 Skill variety: how many skills and talents are needed?
 Task identity: does the job produce a complete work?
 Task significance: how important is the job?
 Autonomy: how much independence does the jobholder
have?
 Feedback: do workers know how well they are doing?
Job Characteristics Model
Designing Motivating Jobs (cont’d)
• Suggestions for Using the JCM
 Combine tasks (job enlargement) to create more
meaningful work.
 Create natural work units to make employees’ work
important and whole.
 Establish external and internal client relationships
to provide feedback.
 Expand jobs vertically (job enrichment) by giving
employees more autonomy.
 Open feedback channels to let employees know how
well they are doing.
Guidelines for Job Redesign
Motivation and Perception

• Equity Theory
 Proposes that employees perceive what they get from
a job situation (outcomes) in relation to what they put
in (inputs) and then compare their inputs-outcomes
ratio with the inputs-outcomes ratios of relevant
others.
 If the
ratios are perceived as equal then a state of
equity (fairness) exists.
 If the
ratios are perceived as unequal, inequity
exists and the person feels under- or over-
rewarded.
 When inequities occur, employees will attempt to
do something to rebalance the ratios (seek justice).
Motivation and Perception (cont’d)
• Equity Theory (cont’d)
 Employee responses to perceived inequities:
 Distort own or others’ ratios.

 Induce others to change their own inputs or outcomes.

 Change own inputs (increase or decrease efforts) or

outcomes (seek greater rewards).
 Choose a different comparison (referent) other
(person, systems, or self).
 Quit their job.

 Employees are concerned with both the absolute and

relative nature of organizational rewards.
Motivation and Perception (cont’d)
• Equity Theory initially focused on
 Distributive justice
 The perceived fairness of the amount and
allocation of rewards among individuals (i.e., who
received what).
– Influences an employee’s satisfaction.
Later on the focus shifted to
 Procedural justice
 The perceived fairness of the process use to
determine the distribution of rewards (i.e., how
who received what).
– Affects an employee’s organizational
commitment.
Motivation and Behavior
• Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
 States that an individual tends to act in a certain way
based on the expectation that the act will be followed by
a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.
 Key to the theory is understanding and managing
employee goals and the linkages among and between
effort, performance and rewards.
 Effort: employee abilities and training/development

 Performance: valid appraisal systems

 Rewards (goals): understanding employee needs

Simplified Expectancy Model
Motivation and Behavior (cont’d)
• Expectancy Relationships
 Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
 The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result
in a certain level of performance.
 Instrumentality
 The perception that a particular level of performance will
result in the attaining a desired outcome (reward).
 Valence
 The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward
(outcome) to the individual.
Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Current Issues in Motivation
• Cross-Cultural Challenges
 Motivational programs are most applicable in cultures
where individualism and quality of life are cultural
characteristics
 Uncertainty avoidance of some cultures inverts Maslow’s needs
hierarchy.
 The need for achievement (nAch) is lacking in other cultures.
 Collectivist cultures view rewards as “entitlements” to be
distributed based on individual needs, not individual
performance.
 Cross-Cultural Consistencies
 Interesting work is widely desired, as is growth, achievement,
and responsibility.
Current Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
• Motivating Unique Groups of Workers
 Motivating a diverse workforce through flexibility:
 Men desire more autonomy than do women.
 Women desire learning opportunities, flexible work
schedules, and good interpersonal relations.
Current Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
• Flexible Work/Job schedules
 Compressed work week
 Longer daily hours, but fewer days
 Flexible work hours (flextime)
 Specific
weekly hours with varying arrival, departure,
lunch and break times around certain core hours
during which all employees must be present.
 Job Sharing
 Two or more people split a full-time job.
 Telecommuting
 Employees work from home using computer links.
Current Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
• Motivating Professionals
 Characteristics of professionals
 Strong and long-term commitment to their field of
expertise.
 Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer.
 Have the need to regularly update their knowledge.
 Don’t define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00 pm.
 Motivators for professionals
 Job challenge
 Organizational support of their work
Current Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
• Motivating Contingent Workers
 Opportunity to become a permanent employee
 Opportunity for training
 Equity in compensation and benefits
• Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees
 Employee recognition programs
 Provision of sincere praise
Current Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
• Designing Appropriate Rewards Programs
 Open-book management
 Involving
employees in workplace decision by
opening up the financial statements of the employer.
 Employee recognition programs
 Giving
personal attention and expressing interest,
approval, and appreciation for a job well done.
 Pay-for-performance
 Variablecompensation plans that reward employees
on the basis of their performance:
– Piece rates, wage incentives, profit-sharing, and
lump-sum bonuses
Current Issues in Motivation (cont’d)
• Designing Appropriate Rewards Programs (cont’d)
 Stock option programs
 Using financial instruments (in lieu of monetary
compensation) that give employees the right to
purchase shares of company stock at a set (option)
price.
 Options have value if the stock price rises above
the option price; they become worthless if the stock
price falls below the option price.
Recommendations for Designing Stock Options
Recommendations for Designing Stock Options
From Theory to Practice:
Guidelines for Motivating Employees
• Use goals • Check the system for
• Ensure that goals are equity
perceived as attainable • Use recognition
• Individualize rewards • Show care and concern
• Link rewards to for employees
performance • Don’t ignore money