Department of Pharmacognosy and Drug Development, Ahmadu Bello

University, Zaria.
PHCG201 CYTOLOGY AND CYTOGENESIS

INSTRUCTOR
A. ADAMU
Office: 2ND Office GOLT 2
Email: [email protected]
OFFICE HOURS: 8:00 - 4:00 p.m. Mon - Fri.
Academic year/level: 2015/2016 200 Level
• Course Aim
• This part of the course introduces you to the general concepts of
cytology.
• Course Objectives
• To discuss the concept of cell biology/cytology briefly
• History
• Types of cells – Eukaryote and prokaryote
• Plant and animal cell
• Components – organelles
• Cytoplasm
• Vacuole
• Cell wall
• Chemical test on cell wall
• discuss briefly on cytology technique. 
Introduction
• The Cell is the fundamental structural and
functional unit of living organisms.
• The cell could be described as a small unit of
living protoplasm always surrounded by cell
surface membrane and sometimes as in case
of plants surrounded by non living cell wall of
cellulose.
• Ultra structure of the cell is the fine structure
of the cell as seen under electron microscope.
Introduction contd
• The study of the different structural
organization within the cell is called Cytology.
• Researches in cytology have been successfully
applied in various fields such as agriculture,
biotechnology, pharmacy and medicine.
Introduction contd
• Viruses are not quite living organisms, but when
inside a living host cell they show some features of a
living organism. Viruses are too small to be seen in an
optical microscope, but are big enough to reveal their
structure in an electron microscope (the characteristic
size of the virus is about 0.05-0.1µ.
• A good knowledge of cellular structures of various
plant parts is essential for a pharmacognosist dealing
with plant drugs. Thus, it is important to know various
characters of the cell. This is to appreciate the
organization of the biochemical processes involved in
the production of chemical constituents.
History of Cytology/ theories of cell origin
• Cytology is one of the oldest fields of biological sciences. Historical
events that occurred in the advancement of cytology are outlined
below.
• In the year ND/NA, Aristotle & Paracelsus “Concluded that all animals
& plants, are constituted of few elements which are repeated in each
of them”
• 1665, Robert Hooke Coined the word “cells”
• 1674, Anthoin van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch lens maker discovered free
living cells which he referred to as animalcules (spermatozoas &
bacteria)
• 1831, Robert Brown Established that the nucleus is a fundamental &
constant component of the cell
• 1839, Theodor Schwann & Matthias Scheilden Proposed the Cell
Theory (below)
• 1882 Walter Flemming Described mitosis in animals.
Summary of the Cell theory
• 1. All living organisms are made up of one or
more cells
• 2. The cell is the basic unit of life
• 3. All cells come from the division of pre-
existing cells
TYPES OF CELLS

• There are two fundamentally different types

of cells. These are:
• The prokaryotic cell
• The eukaryotic cell
PROKARYOTIC CELLS
• Do not have true nucleus. Example: Bacteria.
• Characteristics include:
• Simplest overall structure.
• It is bounded by a lipid bilayer membrane, but does not contain any
internal membrane-bound organelles.
• It contains a region rich in DNA called a nucleoid. The nucleoid contains a
circular molecule of DNA which is the cells genetic material, or genome.
• Surrounding the nucleoid is a region of cytoplasm rich in ribosomes. Finally,
surrounding the plasma membrane is a cell wall.
• They have surface appendages which do particular jobs. Flagella are used
for locomotion. Pili are used for sexual reproduction (mating)
• One of the more surprising aspects of cell structure is the way that DNA
molecules are packaged into cells.
• The genome of a common bacterium like the gut bacterium Escherichia coli
is about 1.5 millimeters in length, but the length of the bacterium is about
1000 times shorter.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• Eukaryotic cells are much more complicated.
• These are cells which possess true nucleus and nuclear
material are found inside the nucleus surrounded by the
two membranes, i.e nucleus envelope.
• Much of the cell is taken up by subcellular organelles
bound by their own membranes (analogous to the
plasma membrane surrounding the cell)
• Most importantly, eukaryotic cells have a nucleus which
contains all of the cell's DNA.
• The problem of packaging DNA is greater in eukaryotes.
A human genome would stretch about 1 meter, but
must fit in a cell 50,000 times smaller.
A EUKARYOTIC CELL
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EUKARYOTE AND
PROKARYOTE CELL
PROKARYOTE
• Unicellular
• Nucleus absent
• Genetic material is not enclosed within a membrane
• Do not engulf solids
• Do not have centrioles or asters
• Do not have internal membrane-bound organelles
• Smaller than eukaryotes (diam 1µ).
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EUKARYOTE AND
PROKARYOTE CELL
EUKARYOTES
• Unicellular or multicellular
• Nucleus present
• Genetic material is surrounded by a membrane
• Engulf solids
• Have centrioles or asters
• Have internal membrane-bound organelles
• Larger than prokaryotes
Differences between animal and plant cell?

• the presence of centrioles in animal cell

• the presence of cell wall, chloroplast and a
large vacuole in plant cells.
• ?
• ?
Differences between plant and animal cell
                           Animal cell                Plant Cell  
 Animal cells are usually smaller is size.   Plant cells are usually larger in size. 
 Presence of cell wall is a
 Cell wall is completely absent. 
characteristic feature of plant cell.
 Cellulose in any form is not present.    Cell wall is made up of cellulose. 
 In a plant cell, cytoplasm is pushed
 Cytoplasm of animal cells is dense, more granular to the periphery of the cell.
and it occupies most of the space in the cell.  The cytoplasm forms a thin lining
against the cell wall. 
 Vacuoles are prominent and large
organelles in the plant cell.
 Vacuoles are absent usually. If present, they are small
One or more vacuoles may be
organelles, they are temporary and they serve as organelles for
present.
excretion or secretion. 
The central space in the cell may be
occupied by a large single vacuole.
Plastids are present. They may of three types
 Plastids are absent.
chromoplasts, chloroplasts and leucoplasts. 
 Centrosome is absent in plant cells. Instead of
 Centrosome is present.  centrosome, there are two small clear areas called polar
caps are present.
 Golgi complex is prominent and
  Golgi apparatus is present in form subunits
highly complex,  it is present near the
called dictyosomes. 
nucleus of the cell. 
Organelles and structures which are
common to both plant and animal cells
• Plasma membrane
• Nucleus
• Mitochondria
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi apparatus
CELL CONTENT
• Cells are 90% fluid (cytoplasm) which consists
of free amino acids, proteins, glucose, and
numerous other molecules. Below are
approximations of other components
ELEMENTS
• 59% Hydrogen (H)
• 24% Oxygen (O)
• 11% Carbon (C)
• 4% Nitrogen (N)
• 2% Others - Phosphorus (P), Sulphur (S), etc
MOLECULES THAT MAKE UP THE CELL

• 50% protein
• 15% nucleic acid
• 15% carbohydrates
• 10% lipids
• 10% Other
STRUCTURE OF PLANT CELL
Structure of a plant cell
Structure of Animal cell
COMPONENTS
OF A CELL
CYTOPLASM
• A jelly-like substance made up of eighty percent water and is
usually clear and colorless.
• It is a thick gel-like substance. It liquefies when it is agitated or
stirred.
• also called cytosol, meaning substance of the cell. (substance
of life), the cytoplasm serves as a molecular soup, where all
the cellular organelles are suspended and are bound together
by a lipid bilayer membrane. 
• The cytoskeleton present in the cytoplasm gives the cell its
shape.
• The cytoplasm constitutes of dissolved nutrients and it aids to
dissolve waste products. It helps movement of the cellular
materials around the cell through a process called cytoplasmic
streaming.
General Characteristics of Cytoplasm
• Cytoplasm shows differential staining properties, the
areas stained with the basic dyes are the basophilic
areas of the cytoplasm and is termed as ergatoplasm.
• It is heterogenous mixture of opaque granules and
organic compounds which gives it its colloidal
nature. 
• The peripheral zone of cytoplasm is thick and jelly-
like substance, known as the plasmogel. The
surrounding area of the nuclear zone is thin and
liquefied in nature and is known as the plasmosol. 
• The physical nature of cytoplasm is colloidal.
Functions of the cytoplasm
• It is the site of many biochemical reactions that are vital
and crucial for maintaining life.
• The cytoplasm provides a medium for the organelles to
remain suspended.
• The cytoskeleton of the cytoplasm provides shape to the
cell and it also facilitates movement.  
• The enzymes in the cytoplasm metabolize the
macromolecules into small parts, so that it can be easily
available for the other cellular organelles like
mitochondria. 
• The cytoplasm is a means of transport for genetic material.
• It also transports the products of cellular respiration.  
Cell Membrane: Definition
Cell membrane is a thin semi permeable
biological membrane or an outer
membrane of a cell, which is composed of
two layers of phospholipids and
embedded with proteins, which surrounds
the cytoplasm and other constituents of
the cell.
THE CELL MEMBRANE
• It is present in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic
cell
• It is also called plasma membrane or
plasmalemma.
Cell Membrane: Structure
Cell membrane: characteristics
• The plasma membrane (cell membrane) is made of two layers
of phospholipids. 
• The plasma membrane has many proteins embedded in it.
• The plasma membrane regulates the entry and exit of the
cell. Many molecules cross the cell membrane by diffusion
and osmosis.
• The fundamental structure of the membrane is phospho lipid
bilayer and it forms a stable barrier between two aqueous
compartments.
• The proteins present in the plasma membrane, act as pumps,
channels, receptors, enzymes or structural components
Cell membrane: component
Components of the plasma memb.
• Proteins like glycoprotein, which are used for cell
recognition and act as receptors and antigens. 
• Glycolipids :phospholipids along with the sugar chains.
Lipids with short chain of carbohydrates are attached on
the extracellular side of the membrane.
• Phospholipid Bilayer - which are made up of phosphates
and lipids. They create a partially permeable membrane,
which allows only certain substances to diffuse through the
membrane.
• Cholesterol – it maintains the fluidity of cell surface
membrane.
Proteins in plasma memb.
• In plasma membrane, a protein helps in providing the
support and shape to the cell. There are three types of
proteins in plasma membrane, which includes:
• Cell membrane receptor proteins- It helps in
communication of a cell with their external
environment with the help of hormones,
neurotransmitters and other signaling molecules.
• Transport proteins - It helps in transporting molecules
across cell membranes through facilitated diffusion. For
example: globular proteins.
• Glycoprotein - It helps in cell to cell communications
and molecule transport across the membrane.
Nucleus: Definition
• The word nucleus is derived from a Latin word nucleus or
nuculeus which means 'kernel'. Nucleus, the most prominent
organelle of the cell, is a double-membrane bound cell
organelle present in eukaryotic cells. The nucleus constitutes
most of the genetic material of the cell - the DNA.
• The nucleus maintains the integrity of the genes which
regulate the gene expression, in-turn regulating the activities
of the cell.
• Therefore, the nucleus is known as the control center of the
cell.
• The number of nuclei may vary, they may be uni-nucleate
(single nucleus), bi-nucleate (two nuclei) or even multi-
nucleate. 
Nucleus: Structure
Nucleus: Structure
• Within the nucleus, there is a matrix called nucleoplasm which
contain the chromatin and nucleolus.
• The chromatin materials are coiled DNA bounded by protein
called histones
• There are two types of chromatin in the nucleus, these are:
• i. Heterochromatin – Tightly coiled and continue to stain intense.
• ii. Euchromatin – The looser coiled and more scattered
chromatin during the interphase.
• The outer membrane is continuous with the endoplasmic
reticulum and may be covered by ribosomes for protein synthesis
Functions of the Nucleus
• It controls the heredity characteristics of an organism.
• It is responsible for protein synthesis, cell division, growth and
differentiation. 
• Stores heredity material in the form of deoxy-ribonucleic acid
(DNA) strands.
• Also stores proteins and ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleolus. 
• It is a site for transcription process in which messenger RNA (m
RNA) are produced for protein synthesis.
• Aids in exchange of DNA and RNA (heredity materials) between
the nucleus and the rest of the cell.
• Nucleolus produces ribosomes and are known as protein
factories.
• It also regulates the integrity of genes and gene expression.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
• A system of flattened membrane bounded sacs
called cisternae forming sheet-like rather than
tubular. It originates from outer membrane of the
nucleus to which it’s often remains attached.
• The outer surface of some endoplasmic reticulum
carries numerous ribosome which gives granular
appearance and forming rough endoplasmic
reticulum (R.E.R), other endoplasmic reticulum does
not contain ribosomes and form smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (S.E.R).
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:structure
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: Fxn
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum concerned with
the production and storage of protein
molecules before they are used inside the cell
or are secreted to the exterior.
• S.E.R involved in lipids and steroid synthesis
and storage.
• Producing and storing carbohydrates (S.E.R).
RIBOSOMES
• Ribosomes are very small organelles made up of protein
and ribonucleic acid (ribosomal R.N.A) from nucleoli.
• They occur in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. The
ribosomes of prokaryotic cells are distinctly smaller (70’s
ribosomes) than those of eukaryotic cells (80’s
ribosomes).
• Each ribosome consists of two units, small sub-unit and
large sub-unit. When several ribsomes occur along a
common strand of mRNA, the whole structure is known
as Polyribosomes or Polysomes.
FUNCTIONS
• It is a site for protein synthesis. 
Centrosome
• Centrosomes are the cytoskeleton organizers. 
• The centrosomes produces the microtubules
of a cell, they are the key components of the
cytoskeleton. 
• Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles,
they separate during cell division and they
help in the formation of mitotic spindle
CYTOSKELETON
• It is a network of interconnected filaments and tubules that extends from the nucleus to the
plasma membrane in eukaryotic cells. The cytoskeleton contains three types of elements:
• Actin filaments, intermediate filaments and microtubules.
ACTIN FILAMENTS
• Actin filaments or microfilaments are long extremely thin fibres that occur in bundles meshlike
network. It contains two chains of globular actin monomers twisted about one another in a helical
manner. It plays a structural role and involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
• They are rope like assembly of fibrous polypeptides but specific types varies according to the
tissue. They are intermediate in size between the actin filaments and microtubules.
• Intermediate filament supports the nuclear envelope and plasma membrane and take part in the
formation of cell to cell junction.
• In the skin, the intermediate filament is made up of protein keratin which gives mechanical
strength to the skin cells.
MICROTUBULES
• Microtubules are straight un-branched hollow cylinders which are usually short in length. They
occur in most plant and animal cells.
• Microtubules are involved in the movement of cytoplasmic components within the cell. They also
occur in centrioles, in the spindle, in cilia and flagella and in the basal bodies.
• Microtubules are made up of proteins. They help to maintain the shape of the cell and act as
routes along which organelles can move.
PEROXISOMES
• Peroxisomes or microbodies are spherical organelles bounded
by a single membrane commonly found in eukaryotic cells.
• derived from endoplasmic reticulum.
• They are like the lysosomes containing the powerful enzymes
but the enzymes in peroxisome are oxidative rather than
digestive enzymes.
• Eg: catalase which catalyses the decomposition of hydrogen
peroxide to water and oxygen. Hydrogen peroxide as a by
product of certain cell oxidation reaction, is very toxic and
therefore must be eliminated immediately.
• In the liver cells contain large number of peroxisomes which
are involved in oxidative metabolic activities. In plants,
peroxisomes are site of the glycolate cycle (photorespiration).
PLASTIDS
• Plastids are ovoid or spherical shaped organelles
found in plant cells and in certain unicellular
organism like algae. They are surrounded by two
membranes which form an envelope. There are
three main types of plastids, these are:
• i. Chloroplast
• ii.       Chromoplast
• iii.      Leucoplast
The chloroplast
• The chloroplast bounded by two concentric
membranes. It consists of many flattened fluid filled
sacs called thylakoids which form stocks called grana.
• The thylakoids contain chlorophyll (green pigments)
which is responsible for absorbing energy from the
sunlight and convert it to chemical energy.
Function:
• Chloroplast is the site for photosynthesis in plants. 
The chromoplast
• Chromoplasts are plastids containing mainly
red, orange or yellow pigments which are
commonly known as carotenoids.
• They are non-photosynthetic pigments which
are found mainly in fruits and flowers, their
bright color attracts insects and birds for
pollination and seed dispersal.
The leucoplast
• The leucoplasts are colorless plastids which
have no pigments. They are numerous in
storage organs such as roots, seeds and young
leaves where there they store food. Examples
of leucoplasts include:
• Amyloplast – store starch.
• Lipidoplast – store lipid, eg. In sunflower seeds
• aleuronoplast – store protein, eg. In beans
GOLGI APPARATUS
• A stack of flattened membrane bounded sacks  called
cisternae, consists of a tubular parallel smooth membrane
with membrane vesicles at their tips called golgi vesicles.
• The golgi apparatus are found freely within the cytoplasm
in all eukaryotic cells.
FUNCTIONS OF GOLGI APPARATUS
• It transports material to other parts of the cell
or to the cell surface membrane for secretion.
• It makes lysosomes and perisoxomes.
• It involves in storage, modification and
packaging of excretory products.
LYSOSOMES
• A simple spherical sac bounded by a single
membrane and contains a mixture of digestive
enzymes such as protease, nuclease and lipase
which break down proteins, nucleic acids and lipids
respectively.
• The enzymes contained within lysosomes are
synthesized on rough E.R and transported to the
golgi apparatus. Golgi vesicles containing the
processed enzymes later bud off to form the
lysosomes.
FUNCTIONS OF LYSOSOME
• Lysosomes contain  digestive enzymes which are used in digestion of reductant
structure or damaged macromolecule from, within or outside the cell by autolysis.
• Lysosome destroys foreign particles such as bacteria by phagocytosis.
• It secretes the digestive enzymes.
• Lysosomes play part in autophagy, autolysis, endocytosis and exocytosis.
• Autolysis is the self digestion of a cell by releasing the contents of lysosome within
the cell. For this reason, lysosomes sometimes called ‘suicide bags’ or ‘self breaking
down’.
• Autophagy is the process by which unwanted structures within the cell are
engulfed and digested within lysosome.
• Endocytosis occurs by an infolding or extension of the cell surface membrane to
form vesicles or vacuoles. It is of two types, these are:
• Phagocytosis – ‘cell eating’. Material taken up is in solid form.
• Pinocytosis – ‘cell drinking’. Material taken up is in liquid form.
• Exocytosis is the process in which waste materials may be removed from cells. It is
the reverse of endocytosis.
MITOCHONDRIA
• Are rod shaped or cylindrical organelles surrounded by an
envelope of two membranes.
• The outer membrane is a smooth membrane and the inner
membrane folded to form cristae.
• The cristae provide large surface area for biochemical
activities. It enclose a matrix (mixture of protein, lipid and
nucleic acid) with few ribosomes, a circular DNA molecule
and phosphate granules.
• In 1890, mitochondria was first described by Richard
Altmann and he called them as bioblasts. Benda in the year
1897 coined the term mitochondrion. In the 1920s, a
biochemist Warburg found that oxidative reactions takes
place in most tissues in small parts of the cell.
FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHONDRIA
• In aerobic respiration the cristae are the site
of oxidative phosphorylation and electron
transport.
• The matrix which contains large number of
hormones and enzymes in liquid form is the
site of kreb’s cycle.
Disease of mitochondria
• Disease of mitochondria results due to the failure of mitochondria. Dysfunction in the
mitochondria fails to produce energy that is needed for the sustainment of life and growth of
an organism. If the process happens throughout the body, the whole system begins to fail.
The disease primarily affects young. The mitochondrial disease causes most of the damage to
the cells of brain, heart, liver, muscles, kidney, respiratory and the endocrine systems.
The symptoms may be as follows depending upon the cells that are affected:
• Loss of motor control, 
• Muscle weakness and pain, 
• Gastro-intestinal disorders, 
• Swallowing difficulties, 
• Poor growth, 
• Cardiac disease, 
• Liver disease, 
• Respiratory illness, 
• Seizures, 
• Visual/hearing problems, 
• Lactic acidosis, 
• Developmental delays and 
• Susceptibility to infection
Components of a mitochondrion
Components of a mitochondrion
CENTRIOLES
• The centrioles are cylindrical shaped cellular organelles
found in most of the eukaryotic cells.
• The centrioles are made of groups of microtubules, these
microtubules are arranged in a pattern of 9+3.
• The pattern of the microtubules for a ring of 9
microtubules known as "triplets" and the
microtubules are arranged at right angles to one another.
• In animals cells, the centrioles help the organizing
and assembly of microtubules during the process of cell
division. The replication of centrioles happens in the
interphase of mitosis and meiosis.
• The centrioles called basal bodies form cilia and flagella. 
•
Centrioles: Function
In higher animal cells the centrioles form the mitotic poles. 
• it is an important event in major cellular process, that is cell division and
flagella/cilia formation. 
• The centrioles pair duplicates within a cell and the two pairs migrate to the
opposite ends of the cell to organize the mitotic spindle. During the transition
phase of G1/S of the interphase stage, the existing centrioles disengage from
each other. 
• Each centriole gives rise to a new centriole. The centrioles that are newly
formed remain tightly attached to the parent centriole, and it elongates during
the S and G2 phase. 
• In the prophase stage the centriole pairs start moving towards the opposite
pokes of the cell, and also forming the spindle simultaneously.
• The migration and the positioning of the centrioles determines the orientation
of the spindle. It also influences the chromosomes attachment to the spindle
fibers.
• The spindle fibers are responsible for the segregation of chromosomes into the
daughter cells.. 
• After segregation, the centrioles determine the position of the nucleus and also
influence the cellular organization in the new formed daughter cells. 
• The fiber of the tail of sperms also arises from the centriole. 
VACUOLE
• A vacuole is fluid filled sac bounded by a single
membrane.
• Animal cells contain relatively small vacuoles, such
as phagocytic vacuoles, food vacuoles, autophagic
vacuoles and contractile vacuoles.
• Typically plant cells have one or two large
vacuoles filled with fluid known as cell sap and
surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast.
• The cell sap is a watery fluid containing water,
sugar, organic acids, mineral salts, pigments and
toxic substances.
FUNCTIONS OF VACUOLE
• Water generally enters the concentrated cell sap by osmosis.
• The vacuole sometimes contains pigments in solution, eg:
anthocyanins which are red, blue, yellow and purple.
• They are responsible for colors in flowers, fruits, buds and
leaves. They are important in attracting insects and animals.
• Plant vacuole sometimes contains hydrolytic enzymes and act as
lysosomes. After cell death, the tonoplast loses its partial
permeability and the enzymes escape causing autolysis.
• Vacuoles contain waste products and certain secondary products
of plants metabolism such as calcium oxalate, alkaloids and
tannins which offer protection from consumption by herbivores.
• Vacuole acts as a food storage organelle. It stores sucrose and
mineral salts which can be utilized by the cytoplasm when
necessary.
CELL WALL
• Cell wall is a tough, rigid layer that surrounds some
types of cells
• located outside the cell membrane
• characteristic feature to cells of plants, bacteria,
fungi, algae and some archaea
• Protozoans and animals do not have a cell wall.
• The wall formed during cell division of plants is
called the primary wall which is later thickened to
become a secondary wall.
• The primary wall consists of cellulose fibrils running
through a matrix of other polysaccharides.
Chemical Composition of the Cell Wall
• It differs from one species to the other.
• Bacteria cell wall is made up of peptidoglycans
(Murein)
• Archean cell wall is made of glycoproteins and
polysaccharides.
• Fungi cell walls are made of glucosamine and chitin
• Algae cell walls is composed of glycoproteins and
polysaccharides
• Plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose,
hemicellulose, glycoproteins, pectins and lignin.
FUNCTIONS OF CELL WALL
• Gives the cell a definite shape and structure.
• Protection against infection and mechanical stress.
• Separates interior of the cell from the outer environment.
• It enables transport of substances and information from the cell
insides to the exterior and vice versa.
• Also helps in osmotic-regulation.
• Prevents water loss.
• The physiological and biochemical activity of the cell wall helps
in cell-cell communication.
• It prevents the cell from rupturing due to tugor pressure.
• Aids in diffusion of gases in and out of the cell. 
• Also provides mechanical protection from insects and
pathogens.
Layers of a plant cell wall
Cell wall is characterized by 3 distinct parts
namely:
• a. Middle lamella
• b. Primary cell wall
• c. Secondary cell wall
a. The Middle Lamella
• It is first layer formed during cell division
• This layer  is rich in pectin. The pectin is mainly in
form of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) salts.
• It is the outermost layer,  joins together adjacent
plant cells and holds them together
• Adhesion of the walls of immediate neighboring
cells is primarily due to these ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+)
in the middle lamella.
• Removal of these ions results in the separation of
the neighboring cells. Pectin is readily hydrolyzed
by either pectinase or strong acids.
b.The Primary Cell wall:
• It is a layer deposited after the
formation of the middle lamella.
• It is mainly composed of
hemicelluloses (53%) and cellulose
(30%). It also contains in addition,
Pectin (5%) protein (5%) and lipids
(7%).
• It is thin, flexible and extensible layer
c. Secondary Cell wall:
• It is a thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall
• As the cell matures, It looses its flexibility.
• Secondary deposition (incrustation) of various chemical
substances occur on the inner surface of the primary
wall which result in the formation of a secondary or
modified cell wall.
• This adds strength to the primary wall to increase its
mechanical strength.
• It modified some of its physical and chemical properties.
• The secondary cell walls consist of 1 to 3 layer and are
variously named as lignified wall, suberised wall,
cutinized wall etc....in a few slides.
Layers of plant cell wall
Bacterial cell wall
Fungi cell wall
Cellulose wall
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide which has a high tensile
strength.
• The basic framework of the primary cell wall is composed of
chains of cellulose molecules embedded in a matrix of
mixture of hemicelluloses and pectic substances.
• Molecules of cellulose are made up of 300 – 2500 units of 1:4
C-linked glucose units in straight chain.
• Hemicelluloses is an amorphous carbohydrate made of
various sugar units – glucose, pentoses and uronic acids.
• Pectin is
a gelatinous substance, consisting largely of long chains
of mostly D-galacturonic acid units (typically )-1,4 linkages and
sometimes present as methyl esters
Colour reaction: Cellulose CW
Certain colour reactions can be applied for the recognition of cellulose
cell walls 
• The colour reactions vary with differences in the relative proportions of
cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin present. 
• (1) Chlor-zinc-iodine gives a blue colour with celluloses and a yellow with
pectic substances.
• Walls containing these in different proportions stain blue, violet,
brownish-violet or brown.
• (2) Iodine, when used alone, gives no colour with celluloses but may give
a blue colour if hemicelluloses are present (e.g. in the cotyledons of
tamarind seeds).
• (3) Ammoniacal solution of copper oxide (Cuoxam) dissolves celluloses
• and on pouring the alkaline liquid into dilute sulphuric acid the cellulose is
precipitated.
• Walls containing hemicelluloses, etc., are incompletely soluble in this
reagent.
Lignified walls
• Lignin is a strengthening material which impregnates
the cell walls of tracheids, vessels, fibres and
sclereids of vascular plants
• it constitutes 22-34% of woods.
• Chemically, it is a complex phenylpropanoid(C6-C3)
polymer which differs according to its source.
• It occur chemically combined with hemicelluloses
and is built up in greatest concentration in the
middle lamellae and in the primary walls.
• Lignified cell walls after treatment with Schultze's
macerating fluid will show cellulose reactions.
Colour reaction: Lignified CW
• For the identification of lignified walls the
following tests are available:
• 1) On treatment with 'acid aniline sulphate'
the walls become bright yellow.
• 2) Phloroglucinol and hydrochloric acid stains
lignified walls pink or red.
Suberized and cutinized walls.
• When the Cellulosic frame work of the plant cell are adcrusted
with Suberins and cutins.
• Suberin and cutin consist of oxidised and polymerized fatty acids
such as suberic acid..., COOH[CH2]6COOH, and their esters.
• They differ from each other in the type of acid, degree of
esterification and polymerization.
• These materials make cells impermeable to water, prevent
dehydration and form a good thermal insulation of the cell wall.
• Waxes (largely esters of higher monohydric alcohols and fatty
acids) occur with suberin and cutin.
• Unlike the latter, they readily melt on warming and are
extractable with fat solvents.
Chemical test
• The reactions of suberin and cutin are almost
identical.
• ( l ) Sudan-glycerine colours both suberin and cutin
red, especially on warming.
• The reagent made by dissolving 0.01g of Sudan III in
5 ml of alcohol and adding 5 ml of glycerin.
• (2) Strong solution of potash stains suberin and
cutin yellow. On warming suberin with a 20%
solution of potash, yellowish droplets exude, but
cutin is more resistant.
• (3) Diluted tincture of alkanna stains the walls red.
Mucilaginous cell walls.
• Certain cell walls may be adcrusted or covered
with gums and mucilages.
• This gummosis (gummous degenerated
substance) posses slimy ppties
• They contain mixture of polysaccharides and
polyuronides formed from cellulose and pectic
substances.
• When treated with aq KOH sol, MCW swell
• Stain pink with ruthenium red
• Stain red with Corallin soda
Chitinous walls.
• Chitin (C6H13O5N)n, a polyacetylamino-hexose,
• forms the major part of the cell walls of
crustaceans insects and many fungi.
• It gives no reactions for cellulose or lignin.
• When heated with 50% potash at 160-170oC for
1hr, it is converted into chitosan, C14H26O16N2,
ammonia and acids such as acetic and oxalic.
• Chitosan gives a violet colour when treated first
with a 0.5% solution of iodine in potassium
iodide, and then with 1% sulphuric acid.
Parenchymatous Tissues
• Meristematic tissues are usually composed of cells in a state
of division or capable of division and a primary cell wall
composed of cellulose.
• Cells of meristematic tissues are also called meristem and
such cells achieve maturity without further differentiation
except for an increase in cell size and wall thickness and a
restricted change of form.
• The pith, cortex and rays of the plant axis and the mesophyll
of the leaves are compose at least in part, of such
parenchymal.
• The mesophyll cells often contain abundant chloroplasts and
may be differentiated into palisade and spongy mesophyll.
PLANT TISSUES

Plant tissues

Meristematic tissues
Permanent tissues
(Composed of Meristematic cells)

Simple tissues: Parenchyma, collen, schleren

Apical
meristem
Prim meristem

Intercalary Complex tissues: Xylem and phloem

meristem
Sec Meristem
Secretory tissues: Glandular and Laticiferous

Lateral
meristem
Tools and Techniques Used in Cytology

• Microscopy shaped our current understanding of cell structure since cells are not visible to the naked eye.
• However, since light microscope has limited resolution, electron microscope became important in order to study the
detailed structure of cells.
• The advent of electron microscope led to the visualisation of intact biological materials such as isolated sub-cellular
materials, bacteria, macromolecules, etc.
• Microscopic studies alone will not provide all the information as to the functions of the cell and its components. It is
therefore imperative that additional studies be carried out to understand the cell and its components.

• Thus, sub-cellular fractionation studies are undertaken and this involves the
lysis (breakdown) of cells by disruption of the plasma membrane and the cellular
components are separated by series of centrifugations at increasing speeds. The
disruption of the membrane could be carried out using different methods such as
sonication (using high speed frequency), mechanical by grinding, etc. This procedure
allows the cellular organelles to remain intact, be separated and subjected to
biochemical studies.
• Cell Culture Studies; this is the ability to grow cells outside of the organism,
enables one to study growth and differentiation as well as being able to manipulate
them to help in understanding gene structure and function. It is possible to grow in
large numbers by cell culture certain crops or animals. This allows for selection of
genetically superior traits such as disease resistance, high yielding plants, colour, etc.
Sample questions
• 1. One of the following is the fundamental structural and functional unit of living organisms.
• a) Cell
• b) Tissue
• c) Organ
• d) Brain
• e) None of the above

• 2. The Ultra structure of the cell is the fine structure of the cell as seen under.
• a) Light microscope.
• b) Electron microscope.
• c) Optical Microscope
• d) Dark field microscope
• e) All of the above

• 3. The study of the different structural organization within the cell is called
• a) histology
• b) cytogenetic
• c) cytology
• d) All of the above
• e) None of the above
• 4. The following scientist Concluded that all animals & plants, are constituted of few
elements which are repeated in each of them”
• a) Robert Hooke
• b) Theodor Schwann & Matthias Scheilden
• c) Aristotle & Paracelsus
• d) All of the above
• e) None of the above

• 5. One of these statements is a summary of the Cell theory

• a) All living organisms are made up of one or more cells
• b) The cell is the basic unit of life
• c) All cells come from the division of pre-existing cells
• d) All of the above
• e) None of the above

• 6. Prokaryotes contains a region rich in DNA called

• a) Nucleus
• b) Nucleolus
• c) Nucleoplasm
• d) All of the above
• e) None of the above
• 7. Which of these elements have the highest percentage in the cell.
• a) Hydrogen (H)
• b) Oxygen (O)
• c) Carbon (C)
• d) Nitrogen (N)
• e) Others

• 8. The distinct part of a cell which has a particular structure and function is generally called
• a) Organ
• b) Organelle
• c) Nucleus
• d) Mitochondrion
• e) Vacuole

• 9. The subunit of ribosomes are named with a letter ‘S’ meaning

• a) Sevdberg unit
• b) Synthesis unit
• c) sedimentation co-efficient
• d) option A and B
• e) option A and C

• 10. The inner membrane of the mitochondrion folds into a structure called
• a) rugae
• b) Cisternae
• c) Cristae
• d) option A and B
• e) option B and C
CYTOGENETICS
OBJECTIVES
At the end this course, you should be able to:
• Briefly discuss cytogenetics
• trace the history of cytogenetics
• List the cytogenetic techniques.
• discuss at least 3 chromosomal variations
• List the applications of Cytogenetics
• state the role of cell division in reproduction
• illustrate in full, the mitotic cell division
• illustrate in full the meiotic cell division
• differentiate between the mitotic and meiotic cell divisions
• discuss growth and differentiation in plant cell wall
Introduction:
• Cytogenetics is a branch of science that emerged from
cytology and genetics.
• Cytology deals with information as it pertains to cell structure
and function, while genetics deals with the biology of heredity.
• Cytogenetics aims to understand how the genetic or
hereditary components of the cell and their changes affect the
nature of the cell.
• The genetic components as we know are packaged in sub-
cellular structures called chromosomes, which are structurally
and numerically specific among organisms.
• Cytogenetics therefore, is the study of how chromosomal
behaviour and how alterations in their structure and number
affect cellular function and the organism as a whole.
History of Cytogenetics
• Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli, the Swiss botanist in 1842, was the first to
observe chromosome behaviour in plant cells.
• Walter Flemming, the German biologist in 1882, also discussed in detail
chromosomal behaviour in the animal cell in is work with the salamander.
• He discovered that chromosomes split in a longitudinal fashion during cell
division, then, he referred to them as “chromatin”.
• The name ‘chromosome’ was coined by von Waldeyer in 1888.
• In 1884 van Beneden and Heuser observed that the longitudinal halves of
chromosomes are passed on to daughter cells during cell division.
• Early cytogenetic techniques employed procedures such as fixation,
staining and standard optical observation.
• Advances in the field of microscope therefore lead to the birth of newer
and better cytogenetic techniques such as Fluorescent In Situ
Hybridisation (FISH), array comparative genomic hybridisation (array-
CGH), etc. These newer techniques make the analysis of
variations/changes in the entire genome possible.
Chromosomal Variations
• Chromosomal variation could either be
numerical or structural in nature.
• When chromosomes undergo changes or
variations, mutation is believed to have
occurred.
• This mutation may affect the whole
chromosome, whole chromosome sets or parts
of the chromosome.
• These mutations often lead to detrimental and
sometimes favourable phenotypes in organisms.
Structural Variations
These include deletions, duplications, inversions and translocation.
• Deletions
• This is when a portion of the chromosome gets lost. Deletions are usually very detrimental
especially when they occur in gene coding regions of chromosomes.
• Duplications
• Duplications results when any part of the genome- a locus or a portion of the chromosomes,
occurs more than once in the genome. Duplications, like deletions lead to observable phenotypes
although it could be less detrimental. Duplications could either arise as a result of unequal
crossing-over between synapsed chromosomes during meiosis or as a result of replicating error.
• Inversions
• Inversion occurs when a portion of a chromosome is turned 1800 within the chromosome. An
inversion does not involve loss of genetic material, but rather it leads to the rearrangement of the
linear gene sequence in the chromosome. Inversions could either be paracentric or pericentric.
When the inverted portion of the chromosome also includes the centromere, the inversion is
termed pericentric, but when the centromere is not included, a paracentric inversion has
occurred. Inversions usually have less impact on the organism as a whole, but their effects are still
very important.
• Translocation
• This is when a segment of a chromosome moves from one part of the genome to another.
Numerical Variations
• This includes the duplication or omission of a whole chromosome, thus
affecting the overall number of the chromosome set (ploidy number).
Numerical variation could be Euploidy or Aneuploidy.
• Euploidy
• This is when the duplication or omission affects an even number of a
chromosome set/ compliment or the chromosomes pair. For instance, humans,
being diploid organisms are expected to have two copies of each chromosome
one from each parent, 46 in total), a euploidy condition will result in the
deletion/addition of the two copies of either chromosome 1, 2, or any affected
chromosome. Thus, the affected individual will be two chromosomes short,
thereby giving rise to an even ploidy number (e.g. 44 instead of 46).
• Aneuploidy
• This is when the addition or omission affects a member of a chromosome
set/compliment. Thus, a member of a chromosome pair is either lost or added.
For instance, one of the members of chromosome 1 pair might be lost giving
rise to an odd ploidy number (e.g. 45 instead of 46).
Applications of Cytogenetics
• Cytogenetics in Sex Determination
• Detection of Variation Chromosomal aberrations
such as polyploidy, inversions, deletions,
duplications and translocations can be easily
detected.
• Application in Medical Diagnosis. Medical
conditions such as Down syndrome, chronic
leukaemia, and so on, have been successfully
diagnosed using cytogenetic techniques.
• Toxicity and Susceptibility Testing
Structure of a chromosome
Terminologies
• chromatin, highly folded ribbon-like complexes of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and a class of proteins called
histones
• DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid is a large molecule structured
from chains of repeating units of the sugar, deoxyribose and
phosphate linked to four different bases abbreviated A, T, G,
and C
• The cellular events that occur in sequence from one cell
division to another are referred to as cell cycle.
• The division of chromosomes and cytoplasm of the cell into
daughter cells is called “Cell division”.
• Cells undergoing cell division are termed “Parent cells” while
the ones derived from the division are known as “Daughter
cells”.
Cell divisions serve the following functions in
the organisms:
• Growth and development of somatic tissues of
organism
• Regeneration of damaged cell/tissues.
• Production of new cells/ tissues.
• Reproduction to ensure continually of life
organism.
• Keeping the no of cells within limited range.
• Plays a role in the transfer of genetic characters
from parents to offsprings
• Cell division is basically categorized into two,
namely:
• a. Mitosis
• b. Meiosis
Mitotic Cell Division
• Somatic cell division (non-sex cells).
• Critical to some single-cell organisms such as
protozoan, some fungi and algae as it is the
basis for their reproduction (asexual), and in
all eukaryotic organisms as it is the basis for
their growth.
• There are five stages in mitosis which are as
follows:
Interphase
• Interphase consist of three stages; G1, S and G2.
• Chromosome replication takes place in interphase.
• During interphase the individual chromosomes are
elongated and are difficult to see under the light
microscope.
• The DNA of each chromosome is replicated in the
S phase, giving two exact copies called sister
chromatids, which are held together by the
replicated but unseparated centromeres.
Prophase
• During this stage the chromosomes become visible as threads
because they condense more.
• This is followed by progressing coiling and folding.
• Each prophase chromosome now consists of two adjacent
chromosome threads called chromatids.
• The nucleolus breaks down and disappears.
• Electron microscopic studies have shown that the component
parts of the nucleolus disperse throughout the nucleus during
this stage.
• At the end of prophase, the nuclear envelope breaks down
into fragments. This allows the chromosomes to spread over
the greater part of the cell and gives them a better chance to
separate as chromatids during pole ward movement.
Metaphase
• At metaphase the chromosomes are at their
highest level of coiling and therefore appear to be
shorter and thicker than in any other stage.
• The chromosomes move to the equator of the cell.
• With the attachment of the spindle fibres and the
completion of the spindle itself, the chromosomes
move into position in the equatorial plane of the
spindle called Metaphase Plate.
• Alignment of the chromosomes on this plate
marks the end of metaphase.
Anaphase
• This is a stage of active and rapid movement
and is the shortest of all mitotic stages.
• During this stage, the sister chromatid
separate and move towards the opposite
poles on the spindle.
• The physical separation of the sister
chromatids and their movement to opposite
poles are two separate activities.
Telophase
• At the end of anaphase, the separated sister
chromatids have been pulled to opposite poles of
the cell.
• At that time the nuclear envelope reforms around
the two daughter nuclei, the nucleoli form at the
distinct site of the nuclear organiser chromosomes,
and the chromosomes fuse into an
undistinguishable mass of chromatin.
• The uncoiling of the chromatin threads aid in this
process of reforming an interphase nucleus where
the chromosomes lose their density and stainability.
Meiotic Cell Division
• Like mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process.
• Meiosis includes two nuclear divisions that generally succeed each other
rapidly and during which the chromosomes divide only once.
• These two divisions have been called different names according to the
different functions carried out during this division by the chromosomes.
• Names like heterotypic and homeotypic as well as reductional and
equational division are some familiar terms.
• The most commonly used nomenclature for the two divisions are the
terms meiosis 1 and meiosis 2.
• Meiosis like mitosis has been divided into stages and substages. They
are called: Interphase, Prophase 1 (subdivided into 5stages which are
Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene, Diakinesis), Metaphase 1,
Anaphase 1, Telophase 1, Prophase 2, Metaphase 2, Anaphase 2,
Telophase 2.
Prophase 1
• An important feature of prophase 1 is the great increase in volume of the
nucleus. This increase is greater than that during mitosis. It is divided in 5
substages:
• a. Leptotene
• Leptotene does not differ very much from early prophase in mitosis, with
exception that meiotic prophase cells are larger than mitotic ones. During
this stage, the chromatin material begins to condense, and the
chromosomes, although still extended become visible. Along each
chromosome are chromomeres localised condensations that resemble
beads on a string.
• b. Zygotene
• The chromosomes are more shorten and thicken during this stage. There is
complete pairing of homologous chromosome which started from leptotene.
There is formation of a more extensive ultrastructural component called
synaptonemal complex between homologs. It is at the completion of
zygotene that the paired homologs are referred to as bivalents.
• c. Pachytene
• The chromosomes continue to coil and shorten, and further development of the
synaptonemal complex occurs between the two members of each bivalent. This
is the stage where crossing over takes place between nonsister chromatids; i.e.
exchange of genetic material between the homologous chromosomes. The point
where crossing over takes is called chiasma. (pl: Chiasmata).
• d. Diplotene
• During this stage the chromosomes further contract and thicken. This is also the
stage where the chiasmata become apparent as visible evidence of crossing over.
The synaptonemal complex disintegrates and the bivalent is held together by the
chiasmata.
• e. Diakinesis
• This is the final stage of prophase 1. The chromosomes pull farther apart, but
non-sister chromatids remain loosely associated at the chiasmata. As separation
proceeds, the chiasmata move toward the ends of the tetrad. The process of
terminalisation begins in late diplotene and is completed during diakinesis.
During this final stage, the nucleolus and nuclear envelope break down, and the
two centromeres of each tetrad attach to the recently formed spindle fibers. By
the completion of prophase 1, the centromeres of each tetrad structure are
present on the metaphase plate of the cell.
• 1. Metaphase 1
• The bivalents become arranged around the equator of
the spindle, attached by their centromeres.
• 2. Anaphase 1
• Spindle fibers pull homologous chromosomes,
centromeres first, towards opposite poles of the spindle.
This separates the chromosomes into two haploid sets,
one set at each end of the spindle.
• 3. Telophase 1
• The arrival of homologous chromosomes at opposite
poles marks the end of meiosis 1. Halving of
chromosomes number has occurred but the
chromosomes are still composed of two chromatids.
• Meiosis 2 is Similar to Mitosis
• Interphase 2
• This stage is present usually in animal cells and varies in length. No further DNA
replication occurs.
• Prophase 2
• This stage is absent if interphase 2 is absent. The nucleoli and nuclear envelopes
disperse and the chromatids shorten and thicken. Centrioles, if present, move to
opposite poles of the cells and at the end of prophase 2 new spindle fibers appear.
They are arranged at right-angles to the spindle of meiosis 1.
• Metaphase 2
• Chromosomes line up separately around the equator of the spindle.
• Anaphase 2
• The centromeres divide and the spindle fibers pull the chromatids to opposite
poles, centromeres first.
• Telophase 2
• As telophase in mitosis but four haploid daughter cells are formed. The
chromosomes uncoil, lengthen and become very indistinct. The spindle fibers
disappear and the centrioles replicate. Nuclear envelopes re-form around each
nucleus which now possesses half the number of chromosomes of the original
parent cell (haploid).
Growth and Differentiation in Plant Cell Wall
• occur in time sequence through the successive deposition of several
layers of microfibrils leading to differential thickness of the cell wall.
• Base on the thickness and direction of the deposition of the microfibrils
as well as the incorporation of other materials, cell wall can be divided
into primary, secondary and sometimes tertiary walls.
• The primary wall is composed of microfibrils that run in all direction
• the secondary wall, the microfibrils run parallel and are more densely
packed.
• In some tissues the tertiary wall is deposited at the interior of the
secondary wall and is composed mainly of xylan.
• The cell wall is the product of the cytoplasm (cytoplasmic differentiation).
• Immediately after nuclear division (during cell division and before
cytokinesis), the Phragmoplast is formed which in turns forms the cell
plate that later becomes the cell wall.
• THANK YOU!!!!!!!!!!!!!