WHAT IS CRITICAL
THINKING?
MODULE 6
At the end of the lesson, you will
be able to:
Form opinions based on facts
Present ideas convincingly
Raise legitimate, contrary
views in an appropriate
manner
The Importance of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is important in all aspects of your
academic life, especially in research and other writing
assignments. You need to be critical when you analyze the
ideas and information you have gathered for your
academic work. When you engage in critical thinking, you
are able to weigh and evaluate various information. By
separating those that are useful from those that are not,
those that support your belief from those that do not, you
become more discerning. Being discerning means being
able to let go of preconceived notions and valuing
viewpoints that are contrary to what you believe.
How do you develop critical thinking? One
way to be more critical is to avoid
personal and cultural biases. When your
mind has been conditioned to think a
certain way, you are no longer open to
new ideas, making you close-minded and
vulnerable to faulty thinking, which could
lead to weak arguments. Being mindful of
your emotions may be your best guard
against weak arguments.
Distinguishing Fact from Opinion
Critical thinking in the context of academic writing
demands being able to distinguish facts from opinion.
Facts are statements involving ideas and information
that can be verified, while opinions involve one's
personal beliefs. In academic writing, you are allowed
to express opinions you feel strongly about, provided
you support your conviction with enough evidence.
For example, if you are writing a paper
about the mental health of senior high
school students and you believe that too
many academic requirements have a
negative influence on students mental
health, you should be ready to provide
evidence in the form of testimony from
students, as well as data from guidance
counselors and teachers.
Identifying Statements of Fact
Statements of fact are verifiable statements based on
an objective viewpoint and sourced from credible
websites and learning resources. Statements of fact are
written in a straightforward manner, often in the
declarative mode. Stated in an objective manner, a fact
cannot be altered by personal feelings and judgement.
When making statements of fact:
Do your research.
Get your information from as many sources as
possible and compare.
Retain that which is credible and useful and delete
those that are not.
Be able to cite your source/s of information.
Be mindful of your tone.
Identifying Statements of Opinion
Statements of opinion reflect the person's perspective
and judgment about issues of a subjective nature.
Because people have different opinions, even the least
controversial issue can generate multiple viewpoints,
based on people's interpretation. Some topics such as
same-sex marriage, religion, political parties are more
contentious than others, and people regard these
issues based on their beliefs.
When making statements of opinion:
Ask yourself if your opinion is the result of someone
else's influence; if so, be able to defend it.
Be able to express your opinion clearly.
Be mindful of the tone you use in your writing.
Be able to support your opinion with credible facts,
statistics and reliable argument.
Certain words and
expressions convey opinion.
Here are some examples:
In my opinion, ..
I feel that...
I believe that...
If you ask me...
I guess...
Based on what I know,
I would estimate that.
Identifying Incorrect Information
In academic writing, erroneous information is taboo.
Unfortunately, these kinds of statements still find their
way into academic writing, especially if the writer is not
quick to see these errors. Often the errors consist of
erroneous information as a result of careless writing,
lazy editing, or sheer ignorance. The more
unacceptable error consists of flaws on the basis of
faulty judgment or out of insincere motives such as
attempts to sidetrack people and manipulate them, as
what happens during political rallies. This kind of
manipulation is also present in certain forms of
advertisement in print, radio and TV advertisements.
In our "media-saturated world" you need to be on the
lookout for erroneous information. It would be wise not
to believe everything you hear, read, and see. Be ready
to get at the bottom of things, to investigate if
necessary. In this age where pictures can be digitally
enhanced and news can be tweaked and passed off as
real, it would be wise to do some fact-checking to be
sure about the authenticity of information.
Two Kinds of Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning (General to specific)
When you argue using deductive reasoning, your
argument proceeds from a general assumption to more
specific statements of fact, evidence, or other ideas.
Deductive reasoning may be compared to a top-down
argument wherein, if the general principle is true, the
conclusion is also true. A classic example in philosophy
is the syllogism: "All men are mortal. Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal."
When you use a theory to come up with a conclusion or
to explain a specific phenomenon, you also use
deductive reasoning. However, if the premise is not
wholly accurate, the conclusion could lead to a faulty
conclusion. For instance, when you hear reports that
the US has relaxed its laws on migrants, you might be
led to believe that migrating to the US would be a
viable option. Your conclusion should not be based
solely on the premise, for there are a number of factors
to consider before migrating to any country.
Inductive Reasoning (Specific to general)
This kind of reasoning proceeds from a specific premise
to a general conclusion. Also known as the bottom-up
logic or cause and effect argument, the reasoning
involved in this argument is a set of specific situations
used as premise, ending with a definitive conclusion.
For example, you've personally experienced rude
treatment from a foreign national. From then on,
you've regarded all foreign nationals from that country
as rude.
Common Logical Fallacies
In academic writing, fallacies are frowned upon
because they are ill-substantiated statements. Unlike
incorrect information that can be easily corrected,
logical fallacies involve flawed arguments where the
premises have not been fully supported, leading to a
weak and faulty conclusion. Academic writing requires
careful writing using a language that is logical-that is,
free from bias and properly supported by solid facts
and well-researched evidence. A knowledge of the
common fallacies will help you avoid making flawed
arguments.
The following list is neither complete nor an
extensive philosophical discourse, but it will help
you recognize the common errors in reasoning.
Ad hominem - Literally, this fallacy means "to the person."
This is t equivalent of character assassination and attacks a
person's character instead of focusing on his /her
performance.
Example: I wonder why she was given that post. A girl who
used to be a member of a sexy girls group surely does not
have enough training to be a government official!
Appeal to flattery - This argument uses compliments
and praise (often insincere) to win the argument.
Example: I've always thought of myself as a true-
blooded Bicolano. The Bicolano’s have always been my
favorite constituents. This coming election, vote for me,
your fellow Bicolano.
Appeal to force - Also called argumentum ad
baculum, this argument uses force to win the
argument.
Example: If you don't sign up now, you could lose
your scholarship.
Appeal to pity - This argument capitalizes on the fact that
people easily fall prey to their emotion and sentimentality. In
the following example, the fundraisers could be
unscrupulous con artists out to fool unsuspecting victims.
Example: Donate now. Give to our Foundation because we
support the orphaned children of Marawi.
Bandwagon - This fallacy appeals to one's need to be part of
the group, to be "in" and stems from the assumption that
just because the majority approves of something, it must be
good for the individual, too.
Example: Majority of the Bicolano’s have signified support
for our candidate, so you must vote for him, too.
Begging the question - This fallacy uses circular
argument-arguing without sufficiently explaining why the
argument has to be accepted.
Example: Open pit mining is bad because mining is not
acceptable.
Either/or - This fallacy offers only two alternatives and
nothing else, leading to weak correlates.
Example: The antibiotics didn't work. It is either expired
or fake.
False cause - This fallacy arises when a misleading correlation
drawn between two events, ending in a questionable
conclusion.
Example: A large percentage of voters under 25 voted for the
president. In the event that he won in the 2016 elections, it is
safe to assume that he's popular with the under-25
population.
False analogy – This kind of fallacy happens when the
debater uses idea that have similarities but doesn’t
consider that the analogy has been overextended, and
no longer applies.
Example: The presidential campaign is so much like a
sales campaign.
Hasty generalization – This fallacy uses an isolated
experience as basis for a general statement.
Example: I've had spicy food for breakfast and lunch this
day. All the dishes in this town are spicy indeed.
Non sequitur - This argument literally means "it doesn't
follow" and contains a weak conclusion from a set of
premises.
Example: If we offer a 10% discount to all students who
dine in our restaurant, all students will choose to dine
here.
Oversimplification - This argument happens when the
correlation between events is hastily concluded without
sufficient reason or explanation and so much has been
attributed to the conclusion being the result of the cause.
Example: Meat contains carcinogens. Meat eaters will
ultimately have cancer.
Red herring - This fallacy is used by debaters when they try
to distract their opponent away from the real issue and onto
something irrelevant. It is also a common ploy committed by
the government to veer the public's attention away from
more pressing concerns by focusing on something less
pressing.
Example: (When a politician is asked about the recent sex
scandal against him) Oh that? It's just locker room talk. Have
you seen my latest advertisement on TV?
Slippery slope - This erroneous argument happens out of
fear that once an action has been taken, a series of
actions (often negative) will happen as a result of the
previous action.
Example: If we legalize the use of marijuana or cannabis,
then we can no longer control this illicit drug and every
single soul in this land will use it; maybe even their dogs
will.
Straw Man - When the debater caricaturizes or trivializes
another person's argument to refute it, the debater has
committed the straw ma fallacy.
Example: Your argument is so old school. The
millennial’s will not fall for it.
Assignment:
Refer to the sample article, “Halting Online Harassment.”
Formulate statements based on it.
Facts about Online Your Opinion about
Harassment Online Harassment
