GENERAL PROPERTIES

OF
WAVES
Chapter 7
Waves
Wave motion
A wave transmits energy from one place to another.
For example, energy can be carried by a water wave
generated by a boat out at sea to the shore, or by a
sound wave from the loudspeaker to an audience’s ears.

The most common waves found in daily life are

water waves, sound waves and electromagnetic
waves.
Wave Energy

• Waves that transfer energy are known

as progressive waves
• Waves that do not transfer energy are
known as stationary waves
There are two types of waves:
Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave
Transverse
A transverse wave is a wave in which the vibrations of
wave
the particles are perpendicular to the direction of
travel of the wave.
Transverse wave can illustrate by vibrating ropes and
springs as shows below.
In order to produce transverse wave by using rope, one end of the
rope should be attached and from the other end the rope must move
up and down as shown below.
So the vibration of the rope is perpendicular to the direction of wave
travels.
Transverse
wave
Amplitude
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the wave
from its rest position.
 
Wavelength (λ)
The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two successive
crests or troughs. Or the distance of one complete wave.
Wave displacement

Displacement is the distance of a particle of the wave from its

equilibrium position at any particular time. Amplitude ( a ) is
the maximum displacement of a particle of the wave from its
equilibrium position. Period ( T ) is the time for one complete
oscillation of the wave.
Longitudinal wave
A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the
vibrations of the particles are parallel to the
direction of travel of the wave.
Longitudinal wave can illustrate by vibrating springs as
shows below.
Compression
Compression is the region where the particles are close together
and has high pressure.

Rarefaction
Rarefaction is the region where the particles are further apart and
has low pressure.
Transvers wave & Longitudinal wave

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Frequency and speed of the wave
Frequency
The frequency of a wave is the number of complete waves
produce in one second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).
Frequency can be calculated by using the formula:
Speed of the wave
The speed of a wave is the distance travelled by any point
on the wave in one second.
The speed of the wave can be calculated by using the
wave equation:
Speed = frequency × wavelength, V = f λ
Phase or Phase difference
• The phase difference tells us how much a point or a wave is in front or behind
another
• This can be found from the relative positive of the crests or troughs of two
different waves of the same frequency
• When the crests or troughs are aligned, the waves are in phase
• When the crest of one wave aligns with the trough of another, they are in
antiphase
• The diagram below shows the green wave leads the purple wave by ¼ λ
Phase or Phase difference
Describing Waves – Phase difference
The phase difference is the difference in the phase angle of the two
waves. Path difference is the difference in the path traversed by the
two waves. The relation between phase difference and path
difference is direct. They are directly proportional to each other.
Phase difference

(296) Phase of a wave | A Level Physics - YouTube

Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope
• A Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument used to
display, measure and analyse waveforms of electrical circuits
• An A.C. current on an oscilloscope is represented as a transverse
wave. Therefore you can determine its frequency and amplitude
• The x-axis is the time and the y-axis is the voltage (or y-gain)
Oscilloscope

[Link]
Oscilloscope (additional source)

(294) How to use an oscilloscope with an A/C source - YouTube

The Wave Equation
• The wave equation links the speed, frequency and
wavelength of a wave
• This is relevant for both transverse and longitudinal waves
Speed of the wave
Example Question
Diagram below shows how the displacement of water
wave varies with time. The wavelength of the wave is 8.0
cm.

(a) State the amplitude of the wave.

Ans: 2 mm

(b) Calculate the frequency of the wave.

Ans: = 2Hz

(c) Calculate the speed of the wave.

Ans: V = f λ = 2 × 8 = 16 cm/s
Example Question
A radio station broadcasts on a wavelength of 250m. The
speed of radio waves is 3 × 108 m/s. calculates the
frequency of the wave.
Ans: V = f λ
f = V/ λ = 3 × 108/250 = 1200 000 Hz
or 1200 kHz.
The Wave Equation

The wave equation tells us that for a wave of constant

speed:
As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases
As the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases
What is intensity of a wave
The intensity of a wave is defined as the rate of energy transmitted (i.e.
power) per unit area at right angles to the wave velocity. Intensity is
measured in watts per square metre (W m-2).

Intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude:

For a particular wave:

What is the intensity of a wave

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑊 . 𝑘. 𝑡 . , 𝑃=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

A
K.E
K.E
If K.E
Power A2
I P

I A2
Wave intensity and area
The Doppler effect

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The Doppler effect

Doppler Effect refers to the change in wave frequency

during the relative motion between a wave source and its
observer.
• The whistle of a train or the siren of an ambulance
appears to decrease in frequency (sounds lower in pitch)
as it moves further away from you.
• This frequency change due to the relative motion between
a source of sound or light and an observer is known as the
doppler effect (or doppler shift).
• When the observer (e.g. yourself) and the source of sound
(e.g. ambulance siren) are both stationary, the waves are
at the same frequency for both the observer and the
source.
Stationary source and observer

When the source starts to move towards the observer, the

wavelength of the waves is shortened. The sound therefore appears
at a higher frequency to the observer
Moving source and stationary observer

• Notice how the waves are closer together between the source and the
observer compared to point P and the source
• This also works if the source is moving away from the observer. If the
observer was at point P instead, they would hear the sound at a lower
frequency due to the wavelength of the waves broadening
• The frequency is increased when the source is moving towards the
observer
• The frequency is decreased when the source is moving away from the
observer
The Doppler effect

When a source of sound waves moves relative to a stationary

observer, the observed frequency can be calculated using the
equation below:

The wave velocity for sound waves is 340 ms-1

The ± depends on whether the source is moving towards or away
from the observer
If the source is moving towards, the denominator is v – vs
If the source is moving away, the denominator is v + vs
The Doppler effect

1. When the source is moving away from the observer

The observed wavelength (o) is now

given by
The observed frequency (fo) is given by:

Source frequency fs
Source wavelength s
The Doppler effect

2. When the source is moving towards the observer

The observed wavelength is now given

by
The observed frequency is given by:

Source frequency fs
observed frequency fo
The Doppler effect

Where the plus sign applies to a receding source and the

minus sign to an approaching source.

Important!
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation, in classical physics, the flow of energy at the universal
speed of light through free space or through a material medium in the form of the
electric and magnetic fields that make up electromagnetic waves such as radio
waves, visible light, and gamma rays.
• Radio waves – these were discovered
by Heinrich Hertz when he was
investigating electrical sparks
• Infrared and ultraviolet waves – these
lie beyond either end of the visible
spectrum
• X-rays – these were discovered by
Wilhelm Röntgen and were produced
when a beam of electrons collided with
a metal target such as tungsten
• γ-rays – these were discovered by Henri
Becquerel when he was investigating
radioactive substances.
Electromagnetic radiation
James Clerk Maxwell showed that the speed c of electromagnetic radiation in a
vacuum (free space) was independent of the frequency of the waves. In other
words, all types of electromagnetic wave travel at the same speed in a vacuum. In
the SI system of units, c has the value:
c = 299 792 458 m s−1 or 3.0 . 108 m s−1.
The wavelength λ and frequency f of the radiation are related by the equation:
c = fλ

Some facts about electromagnetic waves:

• When light travels from a vacuum into a material medium such as glass, its
speed decreases but its frequency remains the same, and so we conclude that
its wavelength must decrease.
• The wavelengths of electromagnetic waves depend on the medium through
which they are travelling.
• Light waves show the Doppler effect in the same way that sound waves do.
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic radiation

(296) Understanding Electromagnetic Radiation! | ICT #5 - YouTube

How an MRI works?
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um

How MRI machines work?

[Link]

How does a CT scan work?

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How do X-rays work?

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How X rays are produced?

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ologies
Polarization
 A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as unpolarized
light. Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom, or by a candle flame
is unpolarized light.
 The process of transforming unpolarized light into the polarized light is known as
polarization.
 Transverse waves can be polarised, this means:
o Vibrations are restricted to one direction
o These vibrations are still perpendicular to the direction of
propagation/energy transfer

Polarized waves are light waves in which

the vibrations occur in a single
plane. Plane polarized light consists of
waves in which the direction of vibration is
the same for all waves. In the image
above, you can see that a Plane polarized
light vibrates on only one plane. 
Plane Polarization

Diagram showing an unpolarised and polarised wave travelling through polarisers

Polarization (in details)

(296) What is polarisation and Malus' Law? - YouTube

Malus’ law of polarization
Malus’s law is used to find the intensity of light after passing through a
number of polarising filters.
A polariser will only transmit light that is polarised parallel to its
transmission axis. This is seen in Malus’s law by the angle θ:
Malus’ law of polarization
The change in intensity against the angle of transmission axis is shown in
the graph below
Malus’ law of polarization

(296) Malus' law - YouTube

Brewster's angle
Brewster's angle is an angle of incidence at which light with a particular
polarization is perfectly transmitted through a transparent dielectric surface, with
no reflection. When unpolarized light is incident at this angle, the light that is
reflected from the surface is therefore perfectly polarized

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Chapter 8
Superposition
Superposition of waves
The principle of superposition of waves
Obtaining the resultant of two waves, which meet at a point by adding up the
displacements at each point is called the principle of superposition of waves.

• Consider position A. Here the displacement of

both waves is zero, and so the resultant must also
be zero.
• At position B, both waves have positive
displacement.
• The resultant displacement is found by adding
these together. At position C, the displacement of
one wave is positive while the other is negative.
• The resultant displacement lies between the two
displacements. In fact, the resultant displacement
is the algebraic sum of the displacements of
waves A and B; that is, their sum, taking account
of their signs (positive or negative).
Constructive and destructive interference

When two waves with the same

frequency and amplitude arrive at a
point, they superpose either:
• In phase, causing constructive
interference. The peaks and
troughs line up on both waves.
The resultant wave has double
the amplitude
• or, in anti-phase,
causing destructive
interference. The peaks on one
wave line up with the troughs of
the other. The resultant wave has
no amplitude.

Waves in superposition can undergo

constructive or destructive interference
Wave reflection

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Stationary Waves
• Stationary waves, or standing waves, are produced by the superposition of two
waves of the same frequency and amplitude travelling in opposite directions
• This is usually achieved by a travelling wave and its reflection. The
superposition produces a wave pattern where the peaks and troughs do not
move

Formation of a stationary wave on a stretched spring fixed at one end

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Stationary Waves
Stretched strings

•As the frequency of the oscillator changes, standing waves with different numbers of
minima (nodes) and maxima (antinodes) form

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e-Patterns/Standing-Wave-Patterns-Interactive
Stationary Waves in air columns
• The formation of stationary waves inside an air column can be produced by sound
waves
• This is how musical instruments, such as organs, flute work
• This can be demonstrated by placing a fine powder inside the air column and a
loudspeaker at the open end
• At certain frequencies, the powder forms evenly spaced heaps along the tube, showing
where there is zero disturbance as a result of the nodes of the stationary wave
• In order to produce a stationary wave, there must be a minima (node) at one end and a
maxima (antinode) at the end with the loudspeaker

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Formation of Stationary
•A stationary wave isWaves
made up of nodes and antinodes
• Nodes are where there is no vibration
• Antinodes are where the vibrations are at their maximum amplitude
•The nodes and antinodes do not move along the string. Nodes are fixed and antinodes only
move in the vertical direction
•Between nodes, all points on the stationary are in phase
•The image below shows the nodes and antinodes on a snapshot of a stationary wave at a
point in time

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•L is the length of the string /watch?v=-k2TuJfNQ9s&t=
•1 wavelength λ is only a portion of the length of the string 6s
Measuring Wavelength
Stationary waves have different wave patterns depending on the frequency of the vibration
and the situation in which they are created

Two fixed ends

•When a stationary wave, such as a vibrating
string, is fixed at both ends, the simplest wave
pattern is a single loop made up of two nodes
and an antinode
•This is called the fundamental mode of
vibration or the first harmonic
•The particular frequencies (i.e. resonant
frequencies) of standing waves possible in the
string depend on its length L and its speed v
•As you increase the frequency, the higher
harmonics begin to appear
•The frequencies can be calculated from the
string length and wave equation
•The nth harmonic has n antinodes and n + 1
nodes
[Link] Diagram showing the first three modes of vibration of a
ctives/Waves-and-Sound/Standing-Wave-Patterns/
Standing-Wave-Patterns-Interactive stretched string with corresponding frequencies
Measuring Wavelength
One or two open ends in air
•column
When a stationary wave is formed in an air column with one or two open ends, we see
slightly different wave patterns in each

Diagram showing modes of vibration in pipes with one end closed and the other open or both ends open

• In Image 1: only one end of the air column is open, so, the fundamental mode is now
made up of a quarter of a wavelength with one node and one antinode
• Every harmonic after that adds on an extra node or antinode
• In Image 2: the column is open on both ends, so, the fundamental mode is made up one
node and two antinodes
Measuring Wavelength
A column length L for a wave with wavelength λ and resonant frequency f for stationary
waves to appear is as follows:
Diffraction of waves
What is Diffraction?
•Diffraction is the spreading out of waves when they
pass an obstruction
• This obstruction is typically a narrow slit (an
aperture)
•The extent of diffraction depends on the width of the
gap compared with the wavelength of the waves
• Diffraction is the most prominent when the
width of the slit is approximately equal to the
wavelength
Diffraction: when a wave passes through a
narrow gap, it spreads out

•Diffraction is usually represented by a wavefront as shown by the vertical lines in the

diagram above
•The only property of a wave that changes when its diffracted is its amplitude
• This is because some energy is dissipated when a wave is diffracted through a
gap
•Diffraction can also occur when waves curve around an edge:
Diffraction of waves
All waves (such as sound and light) can be reflected and refracted. Another wave
phenomenon that applies to all waves is that they can be diffracted. Diffraction is
the spreading of a wave as it passes through a gap or around an edge.
Diffraction of sound and light
Diffraction effects are greatest when waves pass through a gap with a width
roughly equal to their wavelength.
For very small gap sizes (smaller than the wavelength of the wave), the vast
majority of the wave is blocked.
Natural diffraction
Diffractio
n
•Any type of wave can be diffracted i.e. sound,
light, water

When a wave goes past the edge of a barrier,

the waves can curve around it
Diffraction of radio and microwaves

The holes are smaller than the wavelength of

microwaves, which measure about 120 millimeters (or
12 centimeters). Therefore, the microwaves don't "see"
the holes. But visible light, which has much smaller
wavelengths, can easily pass through the holes. So we
can look through the holes and see the food cooking.
Diffraction of waves
Each point on the surface of the water in the gap is moving up and down.
Each of these moving points can be thought of as a source of new ripples
spreading out into the space beyond the barrier. The effect of an infinite
number of ripples, we can say that in some directions the ripples add
together while in other directions they cancel out.
Interference
•Interference occurs when
waves overlap and their resultant
displacement is the sum of the
displacement of each wave
•This result is based on the principle of
superposition and the resultant waves may
be smaller or larger than either of the two
individual waves
•Interference of two waves can either be:
• In phase, causing constructive
interference. The peaks and troughs
line up on both waves. The resultant
wave has double the amplitude
• In anti-phase, causing destructive
interference. The peaks on one
wave line up with the troughs of the
other. The resultant wave has no
amplitude
Interference
Interference effects can be observed with all types of waves, for example, light,
radio, acoustic, surface water waves, gravity waves, or matter waves.

Figure 14.14 Adding waves by the principle of superposition. Blue and green waves of the
same amplitude may give a constructive or b destructive interference, according to the phase
difference between them. c Waves of different amplitudes can also interfere constructively.
Interference of waves
Coherence

Two wave sources are coherent if their frequency and waveform are
identical. Coherence is an ideal property of waves that enables stationary
interference. (coherent means sticking together).

Coherent sources emit waves that have a constant phase difference. Note
that the two waves can only have a constant phase difference if their
frequency is the same and remains constant.
If sources are not coherent, then the interference pattern would be
constantly changing, far too fast for our eyes to detect.
For a non coherent light, a uniform band of light is seen, without any
definite bright and dark regions.
Coherence

Two wave to be coherent, their phase difference should remain constant

over time.

Coherent

Noncoherent
Two Source
Using Water Waves Interference
•Two-source interference in can be demonstrated in water using ripple tanks
•The diagram below shows diffracted circle shaped water waves from two point sources
eg. dropping two pebbles near to each other in a pond
•The two waves interfere causing areas of constructive and destructive interference
•The lines of maximum displacement occur when all the peaks and troughs line up with
those on another wave
Two Source
Using Water Waves Interference
•Two source interference for sound waves looks very similar to water waves
•Sound waves are longitudinal waves so are made up of compressions and rarefactions
•Constructive interference occurs when two compressions or two rarefactions line up
and the sound appears louder
•Destructive interference occurs when a compression lines up with a rarefaction and vice
versa. The sound is quieter
• This is the technology used in noise-cancelling headphones
Two Source
Using Microwaves Interference
•Two source interference for microwaves can be detected with a moveable microwave
detector
•Constructive interference: regions where the detector picks up a maximum amplitude
•Destructive interference: regions where the detector picks up no signal
Two Source
Using Light Waves Interference
For light rays, such as a laser light through two slits, an interference pattern forms on the
screen
•Constructive interference is shown as bright fringes on the screen
• The highest intensity is in the middle
•Destructive interference is shown as the dark fringes on the screen
• These have zero intensity
Two Source Interference Fringes
•For two-source interference fringes to be observed, the sources of the wave must be:
• Coherent (constant phase difference)
• Monochromatic (single wavelength)
•When two waves interfere, the resultant wave depends on the phase difference between the
two waves
•This is proportional to the path difference between the waves which can be written in terms
of the wavelength λ of the wave
•As seen from the diagram, the wave from slit S2 has to travel slightly further than that from
S1 to reach the same point on the screen. The difference in distance is the path difference

Path difference of constructive and destructive interference is determined by wavelength

Two Source Interference Fringes
•For constructive interference (or maxima), the difference in wavelengths will be
an integer number of whole wavelengths
•For destructive interference (or minima) it will be an integer number of whole
wavelengths plus a half wavelength
• n is the order of the maxima/minima since there is usually more than one of these
produced by the interference pattern
•An example of the orders of maxima is shown below:

• n = 0 is taken from the middle, 

•n = 1 is one either side and so on

Interference pattern of light waves shown with orders of maxima

The Young double-slit experiment
•Young’s double slit experiment
demonstrates how light waves
produced an interference pattern
•The experiment is shown below
•When a monochromatic light source
is placed behind a single slit, the
light is diffracted producing two
light sources at the double slits A and
B
•Since both light sources originate
from the same primary source, they
are coherent and will therefore
create an observable interference
pattern
•Both diffracted light from the double slits create an interference pattern made up of
bright and dark fringes
•The wavelength of the light can be calculated from the interference pattern and
experiment set up. These are related using the double-slit equation
The Young double-slit experiment
•The interference pattern on a screen will show
as ‘fringes’ which are dark or bright bands
•Constructive interference is shown
through bright fringes with varying intensity
(most intense in the middle)
•Destructive interference is shown
from dark fringes where no light is seen
•A monochromatic light source makes these
fringes clearer and the distance between fringes
is very small due to the short wavelength of
visible light

Double slit interference equation with a, x and D

represented on a diagram
The Young double-slit experiment
• Thomas Young performed this
experiment in 1801. He used this
experiment to show the wave nature of
light.
• A beam of light is shone on a pair of
parallel slits placed at right angles to the
beam. Light diffracts and spreads
outwards from each slit into the space
beyond; the light from the two slits
overlaps on a screen.
• An interference pattern of light and dark
bands called ‘fringes’ is formed on the
screen.

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Constructive and destructive interference
Point A
This point is directly opposite the midpoint of the slits.
Two rays of light arrive at A, one from slit 1 and the
other from slit 2.
Point A is equidistant from the two slits, and so the two
rays of light have travelled the same distance.
The path difference between the two rays of light is
zero.
If we assume that they were in phase (in step) with
each other when they left the slits, then they will be in
phase when they arrive at A. Hence they will interfere
constructively, and we will observe a bright fringe at A.

Point B
This point is slightly to the side of point A, and is the midpoint of the first dark fringe. Again, two
rays of light arrive at B, one from each slit. The light from slit 1 has to travel slightly further than
the light from slit 2, and so the two rays are no longer in step. Since point B is at the midpoint
of the dark fringe, the two rays must be in antiphase (phase difference of 180°). The path
difference between the two rays of light must be half a wavelength and so the two rays
interfere destructively.
.
Constructive and destructive interference

Point C
This point is the midpoint of the next bright
fringe, with AB = BC. Again, ray 1 has
travelled further than ray 2; this time, it has
travelled an extra distance equal to a whole
wavelength λ. The path difference between the
rays of light is now a whole wavelength. The
two rays are in phase at the screen. They
interfere constructively and we see a bright
fringe.
Determining wavelength λ
Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of
identical, parallel, very closely spaced slits.
If a monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright
fringes is produced.

(9) Diffraction grating | Light waves | Physics | Khan Academy - YouTube

The equation : d sin θ = nλ
The angles at which the maxima of intensity (constructive interference) are produced
can be deduced by the diffraction grating equation
Wavelength of a wave
• The wavelength of light can be determined by rearranging the grating equation to
make the wavelength λ the subject
• The value of θ, the angle to the specific order of maximum measured from the
centre, can be calculated through trigonometry
• The distance from the grating to the screen is marked as D
• The distance between the centre and the order of maxima (e.g. n = 2 in the
diagram) on the screen is labelled as h – the fringe spacing
• Measure both these values with a ruler
• This makes a right-angled triangle with the angle θ as the ratio of the h/D = tanθ