ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
- Deals with the separation, identification,
quantification, and statistical treatment of the
components of matter
• Two Areas of Analytical Chemistry
• Qualitative Analysis
- Deals with the identification of materials in a given
sample
(establishes the presence of a given substance)
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
• - Deals with the separation, identification,
quantification,
and statistical treatment of the components of
matter
• Quantitative Analysis
- Deals with the quantity (amount) of material
(establishes the amount of a substance in a sample)
- Some analytical methods offer both types of
information (GC/MS)
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical Methods
- Gravimetry (based on weight)
- Titrimetry (based on volume)
- Electrochemical (measurement of potential, current, charge, etc)
- Spectral (the use of electromagnetic radiation)
- Chromatography (separation of materials)
- Chemometrics (statistical treatment of data)
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
General Steps in Chemical Analysis
- Formulating the question
(to be answered through chemical measurements)
- Selecting techniques
(find appropriate analytical procedures)
- Sampling
(select representative material to be analyzed)
- Sample preparation
(convert representative material into a suitable form for analysis)
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
General Steps in Chemical Analysis
- Analysis
(measure the concentration of analyte in several identical portions)
(multiple samples: identically prepared from another source)
(replicate samples: splits of sample from the same source)
- Reporting and interpretation
(provide a complete report of results)
- Conclusion
(draw conclusions that are consistent with data from results)
MEASUREMENT
Measurement
- Is the determination of the dimensions, capacity, quantity,
or extent of something
- Is a quantitative observation and consists of two parts:
a number and a scale (called a unit)
Examples
mass, volume, temperature, pressure, length, height, time
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
Two measurement systems:
English System of Units (commercial measurements):
pound, quart, inch, foot, gallon
Metric System of Units (scientific measurements)
SI units (Systeme International d’Unites)
liter, meter, gram
More convenient to use
FUNDAMENTAL SI UNITS
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Meter m
Time Second s (sec)
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
Electric current Ampere A
Luminous intensity Candela cd
DERIVED SI UNITS
Physical Quantity Name of Unit Abbreviation
Force Newton N (m-kg/s2)
Pressure Pascal Pa (N/m2; kg/(m-s2)
Energy Joule J (N-m; m2-kg/s2)
Power Watt W (J/s; m2-kg/s3)
Frequency Hertz Hz (1/s)
The Mole: The mole is the SI unit for the
amount of chemical species. The mole is
associated with a chemical formula and
Avogadro’s number (6.022 x 1023) of particles.
The molar mass (M) of a substance is the
mass in grams of one mole of the substance.
Molar masses are calculated by summing the
atomic masses of all the elements appearing
in a chemical formula.
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
Calculate the number of molecules present in 0.075 g of urea,
(NH2)2CO
Given mass of urea:
- convert to moles of urea using molar mass
- convert to molecules of urea using Avogadro’s number
CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS
How many grams of carbon are present in a 0.125 g of vitamin C,
C6H8O6
Given mass of vitamin C:
- convert to moles of vitamin C using molar mass
- convert to moles of C (1 mole C6H8O6 contains 6 moles C)
- convert moles carbon to g carbon using atomic mass
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
(STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS)
Given:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
- 1 molecule of C3H8 reacts with 5 molecules of O2 to
produce 3 molecules of CO2 and 4 molecules of H2O
- 1 mole of C3H8 reacts with 5 moles of O2 to produce
3 moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
(STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS)
Given:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
What mass of oxygen will react with 96.1 g of propane?
- make sure the equation is balanced
- calculate moles of propane from given mass and molar mass
- determine moles of oxygen from mole ratio (stoichiometry)
- calculate mass of oxygen
= 349 g O2
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
(STOICHIOMETRIC CALCULATIONS)
Given:
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
What mass of CO2 will be produced from 96.1 g of propane?
- make sure the equation is balanced
- calculate moles of propane from given mass and molar mass
- determine moles of CO2 from mole ratio (stoichiometry)
- calculate mass of CO2
= 288 g CO2
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
- The amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or
solution
Molarity (M)
- The number of moles of solute per liter of solution
moles solute
Molarity
volume of solution L
- A solution of 1.00 M (read as 1.00 molar) contains 1.00 mole of
solute per liter of solution
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
- The amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or
solution
Normality (N)
- The number of gram equivalents of solute per liter of solution
gram equivalent of solute
Normality
volume of solution L
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Calculate the molarity of a solution made by dissolving 2.56 g of
NaCl in enough water to make 2.00 L of solution
- Calculate moles of NaCl using grams and molar mass
- Convert volume of solution to liters
- Calculate molarity using moles and liters
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
After dissolving 1.56 g of NaOH in a certain volume of water,
the resulting solution had a concentration of 1.60 M. Calculate the
volume of the resulting NaOH solution
- Convert grams NaOH to moles using molar mass
- Calculate volume (L) using moles and molarity
PERCENT COMPOSITION
mass of solute
Mass Percent (wt%) x 100%
total mass of solution
PERCENT COMPOSITION
A sugar solution is made by dissolving 5.8 g of sugar in
82.5 g of water. Calculate the percent by mass concentration
of sugar.
PERCENT COMPOSITION
volume of solute
Volume Percent (vol%) x 100%
total volume of solution
PERCENT COMPOSITION
Calculate the volume percent of solute if 345 mL of ethyl
alcohol is dissolved in enough water to produce 1257 mL
of solution
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Mole Fraction (χ)
- Fraction of moles of a component of solution
moles of component
total moles of all components
The sum of mole fractions of all components = 1
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS
Given that the total moles of an aqueous solution of NaCl and
other solutes is 1.75 mol. Calculate the mole fraction of NaCl
if the solution contains 4.56 g NaCl.
MOLALITY (m)
Moles of solute per kg of solvent
Unit: m or molal
moles solute
m
kg solvent
MOLALITY (m)
What is the molality of a solution that contains
2.50 g NaCl in 100.0 g water?
- Calculate moles NaCl
- Convert g water to kg water
- Divide to get molality
PARTS PER THOUSAND (PPT)
mass of substance
pp t x 10 3
mass of sample
1 ppt ≈ 1 mg/mL or 1 g/L
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
mass of substance
ppm x 10 6
mass of sample
1 ppm ≈ 1 µg/mL or 1 mg/L
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM)
If 0.250 L of aqueous solution with a density of
1.00 g/mL contains 13.7 μg of pesticide, express
the concentration of pesticide in ppm
13.7 μg
ppm 0.0548 ppm
250 mL
PARTS PER BILLION (PPB)
mass of substance
ppb x 10 9
mass of sample
1 ppb ≈ 1 ng/mL or 1 µg/L
PARTS PER MILLION (PPB)
If 0.250 L of aqueous solution with a density of
1.00 g/mL contains 13.7 μg of pesticide, express
the concentration of pesticide in ppb
13.7 μg
ppb 5.48 ppb
0.250 L
DILUTION
- Consider a stock solution of concentration
M1 and volume V1
- If water is added to dilute to a new concentration
M2 and volume V2
- moles before dilution = moles after dilution
- Implies that M1V1 = M2V2
DILUTION
Calculate the volume of 3.50 M HCl needed to prepare
500.0 mL of 0.100 M HCl
(3.50 M)(V1) = (0.100 M)(500.0 mL)
V1 = 14.3 mL
CONVERTING CONCENTRATION UNITS
- Molarity, Normality is temperature dependent
(changes with change in temperature)
- Volume increases with increase in temperature
hence molarity and normality decreases
On the other hand
- Molality
- Mass percent
- Mole fraction
are temperature independent
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Exact Numbers
- Values with no uncertainties
- There are no uncertainties when counting objects or people
(24 students, 4 chairs, 10 pencils)
- There are no uncertainties in simple fractions
(1/4, 1/7, 4/7, 4/5)
Inexact Numbers
- Associated with uncertainties
- Measurement has uncertainties (errors) associated with it
- It is impossible to make exact measurements
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Measurements contain 2 types of information
- Magnitude of the measurement
- Uncertainty of the measurement
- Only one uncertain or estimated digit should be reported
Significant Figures
digits known with certainty + one uncertain digit
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. Nonzero integers are always significant
2. Leading zeros are not significant
0.0045 (2 sig. figs.) 0.00007895 (4 sig. figs.)
The zeros simply indicate the position of the decimal point
3. Captive zeros (between nonzero digits) are always significant
1.0025 (5 sig figs.) 12000587 (8 sig figs)
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
4. Trailing zeros (at the right end of a number) are significant
only if the number contains a decimal point
2.3400 (5 sig figs) 23400 (3 sig figs)
5. Exact numbers (not obtained from measurements) are assumed
to have infinite number of significant figures
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Rounding off Numbers
1. In a series of calculations, carry the extra digits through
to the final result before rounding off to the required
significant figures
2. If the first digit to be removed is less than 5, the
preceding digit remains the same
(2.53 rounds to 2.5 and 1.24 rounds to 1.2)
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Rounding off Numbers
3. If the first digit to be removed is greater than 5, the
preceding digit increases by 1
(2.56 rounds to 2.6 and 1.27 rounds to 1.3)
4. If the digit to be removed is exactly 5
- The preceding number is increased by 1 if that
results in an even number
(2.55 rounds to 2.6 and 1.35000 rounds to 1.4)
- The preceding number remains the same if that
results in an odd number
(2.45 rounds to 2.4 and 1.25000 rounds to 1.2)
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
- The certainty of the calculated quantity is limited by the least
certain measurement, which determines the final number of
significant figures
Multiplication and Division
- The result contains the same number of significant figures as the
measurement with the least number of significant figures
2.0456 x 4.02 = 8.223312 = 8.22
3.20014 ÷ 1.2 = 2.6667833 = 2.7
RULES FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
- The certainty of the calculated quantity is limited by the least
certain measurement, which determines the final number of
significant figures
Addition and Subtraction
- The result contains the same number of decimal places as the
measurement with the least number of decimal places
2.045 7.548
3.2 3.52
0.234
4.028 = 4.03
5.479 = 5.5
