Cervical Cancer & HPV

Walter Yaw Agyeman MbChb

Airport Clinic Limited

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HPV & Cervical Cancer
• HPV recognized as the underlying cause of
cervical cancer since 1996

– NIH Consensus Conference on Cervical Cancer, 1996

– World Health Organization/European Research

Organization on Genital Infection and Neoplasia, 1996

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Human Papillomavirus (HPV)
• Long known to cause warts
• Found in many cancers too

• Over 100 types identified

• Most benign, but 15-20 can
cause cancers
• Very common
– 20,000,000 current cases in US
– 6,200,000 new cases annually
– 80% of women have HPV by age 50
– 50% of college students are infected
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Common HPV Types and their effects

HPV Types Lead to:

HPV 6, 11, Benign cervical changes

Low-Risk
40, 42, 43, 44, Genital warts
54, 61, 70, 72, 81

Precancer cervical changes

High-Risk HPV 16, 18,
Cervical cancer
31, 33, 35, 39,
Anal and other cancers
45, 51, 52, 56,
58, 59, 68, 73, 82

1. Cox. Baillière’s Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1995;9:1. 11

2. Munoz et al. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:518.
Human Papillomavirus
 Cancer of cervix 100%
 Cancer of anus 90%
 Cancer of vulva, vagina 40%
 Cancer of penis 40%
 Cancer of throat 12%
 Cancer of mouth 3%
 Cancer of esophagus .

 Cancer of skin .
 Cancer of X,Y,Z…. .

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Parkin DM et al. CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55:74-108.
INFECTION IS SEXUALLY
TRANSMITTED

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AND IT IS COMMON

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Natural History of HPV Infections
• Sexually transmitted
• Usually no symptoms
• No treatment for HPV infection before symptoms
• Immune system clears most cases; some persist

• HPV present in >99% of cervical cancers

• High risk types (16, 18) associated with cancer
• Low risk types (6, 11) are associated with genital warts
• All can cause abnormal Pap tests

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Human Papillomavirus. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 61. 2005; 105: 905-18.
Risk factors for HPV Infection

•Smoking
•HIV infection
•Other immune system defect
•Pregnancy
•Oral contraceptive use

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Ferris et al. Modern Colposcopy. 2004.
HPV and Cervical Cancer Rates
by Age
30 30

Cancer incidence per 100,000

25 25
HPV Prevalence (%)

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54
Age (Years)

1. Sellors et al. CMAJ. 2000;163:503. 17

2. Ries et al. Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Cancer Stats NCI, 1973-1997. 2000.
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HPV Infections: Summary
• Most people are infected by HPV at some time
• Immune system usually clears HPV, but not always
• Persistent low-risk HPV can lead to genital warts
• Persistent high-risk HPV can lead to pre-cancer

Long persistence of HPV can

lead to cancer

HPV
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Preventing Cervical Cancer
• Screening for precancerous changes (and
treatment if problems found)

• Vaccination against HPV

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History of the Conventional
Pap Smear

• Developed by Dr. George N.

Papanicolaou in 1940’s
• Most common cancer screening
test
• Key part of annual gynecologic
examination
• Has greatly reduced cervical
cancer mortality in U.S.

Ferris et al. Modern Colposcopy. 2004: 2-4, 49.

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Photo accessed from http://www.cytology-iac.org/Cytopaths/1998/cytoFall98.htm
Screening with the
Conventional Pap Smear
• Widely available
• Inexpensive
• But not perfect
– Screening test – not diagnostic
– 7-10% of women need further evaluation
– Low sensitivity – need regular repeats

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Cervical Cytology Screening. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 45. 2003; 102:417-27.
New Liquid Pap Tests

• More accurate test

– Thin, uniform layer of cells
– Screening errors reduced by half
• Screening needed less often
• Can test for HPV with same
specimen if abnormal cells
found
• Expensive

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Linder J. et al. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1998; 122: 139-144.
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Cervical Cancer Screening Guidelines
• First screen 3 years after first intercourse
or by age 21
• Screen annually with regular Paps or every
2 years with liquid-based tests
• After three normal tests, can go to every
three years
• Stop at 65-70 years with history of
negative tests
• Still need annual check-ups
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Cervical Cytology Screening. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 45. 2003; 102:417-27.
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NEW! The HPV Vaccine

Gardasil ® (Merck)
• Protects against types 16, 18, 6, 11
• FDA approved for use in females 9-26 years of age
• Prevents HPV infection; doesn’t treat existing infection
• Virus-like particles (VLP)
• Highly effective
• Safe, few serious adverse side effects
• Requires 3 injections
• Expensive ($360 + administrative fees)

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Smith, RA et al. Cancer. 2003;53(1): 27-43.
HPV Vaccine
ACOG Recommendations
VACCINATE all females 9-26 years old,
regardless of sexual activity
• Less potential benefit with increasing age & number of sexual partners

Special populations – vaccine less effective

• Previous abnormal Pap tests or genital warts
• Immunocompromised

Continue screening with Pap tests!

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Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 344. 2006; 108: 699-705.
HPV Vaccine
ACOG Recommendations

NOT CURRENTLY RECOMMENDED

(Awaiting more evidence)
Continue screening with Pap tests!
• Women over age 26
• Pregnant women
– If vaccine started before pregnancy, give remaining
dose(s) post-partum
• Breastfeeding women
• Men

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Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 344. 2006; 108: 699-705.
HPV Vaccine
Important Considerations
Continue screening with Pap tests!
• Vaccine is most effective before first sexual
intercourse – less effective in sexually active women
• HPV testing before vaccine not recommended
• Vaccine is not a treatment for current HPV infection,
genital warts, or pre-cancer

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Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 344. 2006; 108: 699-705.
HPV Vaccine FAQ
• Vaccine will not cause HPV
– Virus-like particle vaccine (not live virus)
• HPV vaccines appear to be very safe
– Few major adverse events, but limited data
• Most side effects are minor
– Injection site reaction
• Potentially effective in preventing cervical cancer (and other
HPV-related cancers)
– BUT not all cancer-causing HPV types are covered by the vaccine

Continue screening with Pap tests!

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Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 344. 2006; 108: 699-705.
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References
Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices. ACIP provisional recommendations for the use of quadrivalent HPV vaccine. August 14,
2006. Accessed from http://www.cdc.gov/nip/recs/provisional_recs/hpv.pdf.
American Cancer Society. Cancer facts and figures 2003. Atlanta (GA): ACS 2003. Available at
http://www.cancer.org/downloads/STT/CAFF2003PWSecured.pdf.
Apgar BS, et al. “The 2001 Bethesda System Terminology.” Am Fam Physician. 2003;68:1992–1998.
Cannistra SA, Niloff JM. “Cancer of the Uterine Cervix.” N Engl J Med. 1996;334:1030–1038.
Cates W Jr, and the American Social Health Association Panel. “Estimates of the incidence and prevalence of sexually transmitted
diseases in the United States.” Sex Transm Dis. 1999;26(suppl):S2–S7.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Rockville, Md: CDC National Prevention Information Network; 2004.
Cervical Cytology Screening. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 45. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol 2003;
102:417-27.
Cox. Baillière’s Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1995;9:1.
Ferris et al. Modern Colposcopy: Textbook and Atlas. 2nd ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt; 2004: 2-4, 49, 78-82.
Howley PM. In: Fields BN, Knipe DM, Howley PM, eds. Fields Virology. 4th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott-Raven; 2001:2197–2229.
Human Papillomavirus. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 61. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 105:
905-18.
Human Papillomavirus Vaccination. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 344. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet
Gynecol 2006; 108: 699-705.
Hutchinson ML. et al. “Homogeneous sampling accounts for the increased diagnostic accuracy using the ThinPrep Processor.” Am J Clin
Pathol. 1994; 101:215-219.
Jansen KU, Shaw AR. ”Human Papillomavirus Vaccines and prevention of cervical cancer.” Annu Rev Med. 2004;55:319–331.
Kodner CM, Nasraty S. “Management of genital warts.” Am Fam Physician. 2004;70:2335–2342.
Lacey CJN. “Therapy for genital human papillomavirus-related disease.” J Clin Virol. 2005;32(suppl):S82–S90.
Linder J. et al. “ThinPrep Papanicolaou testing to reduce false-negative cervical cytology.”Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1998; 122: 139-144.
Management of Abnormal Cervical Cytology and Histology. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 66. American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol 2005; 106: 645-64.
Maw RD, Reitano M, Roy M. “An international survey of patients with genital warts: perceptions regarding treatment and impact on
lifestyle.” Int J STD AIDS. 1998;9:571–578.

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References (Cont.)
McCrory DC, Matchar DB, Bastian L, et al. Evaluation of Cervical Cytology. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 5. AHCPR
Publication No. 99-E010. Rockville, MD: Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. February 1999.
Moscicki, A.B. et al. “Updating the natural history of HPV and anogenital cancer.” Vaccine. 2006; 24S3; 42-51.
Munoz et al. “Epidemiologic classification of human papillomavirus types associated with cervical cancer.” N Engl J Med.
2003;348:518.
Ostor, AG. “Natural history of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia: a critical review.” Int J Gynecol Pathol 1993; 12(2): 186-92.
Parkin DM, Bray F, Ferlay J, Pisani P. “Global cancer statistics 2002.” CA Cancer J Clin 2005; 55:74-108.
Ries et al. Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Cancer Stats NCI, 1973-1997. 2000.
Saslow D et al. “American Cancer Society Guideline for the Early Detection of Cervical Neoplasia and Cancer.” CA Cancer J Clin.
2002;52:342-362.
Schiffman M, Castle PE. “Human papillomavirus: Epidemiology and public health.” Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2003;127:930–934.
Schiffman M ASCCP 2002 Biennial Orlando, Fl.
Sellors et al. “Prevalence and predictors of human papillomavirus infection in women in Ontario, Canada.” CMAJ. 2000;163:503-
8.
Smith, RA et al. “American Cancer Society Guidelines for the Early Detection of Cancer, 2003.” Cancer. 2003;53(1): 27-43.
Solomon D, Davey D, Kurman R, et al, for the Forum Group Members and the Bethesda 2001 Workshop. JAMA. 2002;287:2114–
2119.
Soper DE. In: Berek JS, ed. Novak’s Gynecology. 13th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002:453–470.
Spitzer M, Johnson C. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co; 2002:41–72.
Wiley DJ, Douglas J, Beutner K, et al “External genital warts: diagnosis, treatment and prevention.” Clin Infect Dis. 2002;35(suppl
2):S210–S224.
Winer RL et al. “Genital human papillomavirus infection: Incidence and risk factors in a cohort of female university students.” Am
J Epidemiol. 2003; 157:218-226.
Wright, T.C. et al. “2001 Consensus Guidelines for the Management of Women with Cervical Cytological Abnormalities.” JAMA.
2002; 287: 2120-2129.
USPSTF. 2003. Available at http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf/uspscerv.htm.

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Questions?

Program sponsored by
Middle Earth

Slide set developed with help from

Dr. Kim Noyes
Preventive Medicine Resident, School of Public Health

Information provided by the New York State Department of Health,

Cancer Services Program

Please take a few moments

to complete the evaluation!
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