S I C

RE N
FO I N E
D I C N E )
E
M L ME Pres
D I C I
GA ented by:
(LE
ARTEMIO
B. BURCE I
(Registered
Criminologi
0915 – 306 - s t)
1226
Definition of terms
 Law- defined as a rule of conduct, just and
obligatory, laid down by legitimate authority
for the common observance and benefit.
 Medicine- A science and art of dealing with
prevention, cure and alleviation of disease.
It is that part of science and art of restoring
and preserving health.
 Legal- Refers to anything conformable to the
letters or rules of law as it is administered by
the court.
 Jurisprudence- A science of giving wise
interpretation of the Laws.
 Legal Medicine = is that branch of medicine which
deals with the application of medical knowledge
to the purposes of law and in the administration of
justice.
 Forensic Medicine = use of medical science to
elucidate legal problems in general without specific
reference or application to a particular case.
= it encompasses a variety of fields in forensic
science such as pathology, anthropology,
odontology, toxicology, entomology, and others.
 Medical Jurisprudence = a branch of law which
concerns with the aspects of law and legal concepts
to medical practice. It includes rights, duties, and
liabilities of physician, patient and health institution.
Science
= “Man’s explanation of everything in
the universe.”

Art or Philosophy
= “Man’s appreciation of everything in
the universe.”
 Pathology = the medical specialty that
deals with disease and the bodily changes
caused by disease.
 Forensic Pathology = another name for
forensic medicine.
 Forensic Chemistry = Is the application of
the principle of chemistry to law.
Medico-Legal Cases
 Injuries or deaths involving persons who have no
means of being identified.
 Persons pronounced as “dead on arrival”
 Death under the following circumstances:
 Death occurring within twenty-four (24 hrs) of
admission when the clinical cause of death is unknown
or indeterminate:
 Unexpected sudden death especially when the
deceased was in apparent good health;
 Death due to natural diseases but associated with
physical evidence suspicious of foul play;
 Death as a result of violence, accident, suicide or
poisoning; and
 Death due to improper or negligent act of another
persons.
 Physical injuries caused by:
 gunshot wound, stab wound etc.,
 vehicular accident;
 asphyxia
 electrocution, chemical or thermal insult;
 accident, attempted homicide or suicide;
and
 poisoning
 Cases of child abuse, domestic violence,
rape alcoholism and drug addiction.
 Cases involving the mental incompetency
of the patient.
Difference b/n Medical Jurist and
Ordinary Physician:
Difference Between Legal Medicine and
Medical Jurisprudence
LEGAL MEDICINE MEDICAL JURISPREDENCE
Branch of Medical Science Branch of law
Applied to law and Applied to practice of medicine
administration of justice
It originates from the It emanates from the act of congress,
development of medical executive orders, administrative circulars,
science customs, usages and decisions of
tribunals which have relation to the
practice of medicine.
Based on principles of subordination; that
is the duty of the physician to obey the
laws in as much as our government is
established on the principle of laws and
not of men and that no one is considered
above the law.
Important personalities in Legal
Medicine
 Imhotep = builder of the first pyramid and was
considered as the first or earliest recorded
medico-legal expert.
 Antistius = earliest known forensic pathologist
or public surgeon who performed the autopsy
of Julius Ceasar, reporting that out of the 23
stab wounds, only one penetrated the chest
cavity between the first and second rib which
the proximate cause of Caesar’s death.
 Paulus Zacchias = the Father of Forensic
Medicine
 Dr. Rafael Genard y Mas = the person who printed the first
medical textbook with some pertinent instruction entitled
“Manual de Medicina Domestica”.
 Dr. Sixto de los Angeles = the UP Department of Legal
Medicine & Ethics head who become the Chief of the Medico-
legal department of the Philippine General Hospital.
 Dr. Gregorio T. Lantin = C.A. 181 creates the Div. of
Investigation under the DOJ with a medico legal section as an
integral part of the division in which he become the first chief.
 Dr. Mariano Lara = chief, Medical Examiner City of Manila
Criminal Investigation Laboratory.
 Dr. Enrique V. delos Santos = Chief, Medico-legal Division of
the Bureau of Investigation (R.A. 157)
The Medico-legal System
 Medico-Legal Office System
 The system used in the Philippines, which is handled
by a medical jurist who is a registered physician duly
qualified to practice medicine in the Phils. The National
Bureau of Investigation and the Phil. National Police
have their own medical jurist who handles medico-legal
cases. His duty is to examine the victim or assailant, to
make report, and to appear in court as an expert
witness when summoned by the proper authorities.
 Medical Examiner System
 This is a system under the control of the
Chief medical Examiner that is a doctor
of medicine and appointed by the
mayor from the classified lists
compiled by the civil service by the
basis of competitive examination. The
office of the chief medical examiner is on
24 hours work with clerical staff always
present. His duty is to investigate the
cause of death especially violent death of
the victim.
Coroner System
The coroner system is headed by a country
coroner or borough coroner who may be a
barrister, solicitor or a legally qualified
practitioner of not less than five (5) years
standing in his profession and is elected by the
county council or borough council.
The coroner is an inquest officer whose duty
is to inquire into the circumstances of certain
medico-legal deaths within his jurisdiction.
Unlike the medico-legal officer or the medical
examiner whose qualifications, duties, and
powers are practically the same, the coroner
has investigative and judicial functions.
 Medical Evidence
Evidence is the means, sanctioned by the
Rules of the Court, of ascertaining in a judicial
proceeding the truth respecting a matter of fact
 Types of Medical Evidence:
I. Autoptic or Real Evidence:
This is an evidence made known or
addressed to the senses of the court. It is not
limited to that which is known through the sense
of vision but is extended to what the sense of
hearing, taste, smell, and touch is perceived.
 Limitations to the presentation of
Autoptic:
 Indencency and Impropriety – Presentation
of an evidence may be necessary to serve the
best interest of justice but notion of decency
and delicacy may cause inhibition of its
presentation.
 Repulsive Objects to those Offensive to
Sensibilities- Foul Smelling objects, persons
suffering from highly infectious and
communicable disease, or objects which when
touch may mean potential danger to the life
and health of the judge may not be presented.
B. Testimonial Evidence:
A physician may be commanded to
appear before a court to give his
testimony. While in the witness
stand, he is obligated to answer the
question propounded by the counsel
and presiding officer of the court. His
testimony must be given orally and
under oath or affirmation.
1. Ordinary Witness:
A physician: who testifies in court on
matters be perceived from his patient in
the course of physician-patient relationship
is considered as an ordinary witness.
2. Professional Witness
= a physician gives an incidence or
something he did perform or saw during
his medical attendance. Example:
alignment of fracture bone.
3. Expert Witness:
 A physician on account of his training and
experience can give his opinion on a set of
medical facts. He can deduce of infer
something, determine the cause of death or
render opinion pertinent to the issue and
medical in nature.
C. Experimental Evidence:
 A medical witness may be allowed by the court
to confirm his allegation or as a corroborated
proof to an opinion he previously stated.
 IV. Documentary Evidence:
 A document is an instrument on which is
recorded by means of letters, figures or marks
intended to be used for purpose of recording that
matter which may be evidentially used.
 The term applies to writings, to words printed,
lithographed or photographed; to seals, plates or
stones on which inscriptions are cut or
engraved; to photographs and pictures; to maps
or plans.
 A written evidence presented to the court by
the expert witness about the subject matter in
dispute
Medical Documentary Evidence Forms:

 A. Medical Certification or Report

1. Physical Examination Report
2. Autopsy Report
3. Exhumation report
4. Death Certificate
5. Death Certificate
 B. Medical Opinion Report – a physician
on account of his training and expertise
can give his own opinion on a set of
medical facts.

 C. Deposition – is a written record of

evidence given orally and transcribed
(reduced to) in writing in the form of
questions by the interrogation and the
answers of his deponent and signed by the
latter.
 D. Physical Evidence:
 These are articles and materials
which are found in connection with
the investigation and which aid in
establishing the identity of the
perpetrator or the circumstances
under which the crime was
committed, or in general assist in the
prosecution of a criminal.
 Types of Physical Evidences
necessary to convict the offender:
 Corpus Delicti Evidence- Objects or
substance which may be a part of the
body of the crime.
 Associative Evidence- These are
physical evidences which link a suspect
to the crime.
 Tracing Evidence- These are physical
evidences which may assist the
investigator in locating the suspect.
EVIDENCE NECESSARY FOR
CONVICTION:
 Direct Evidence – an evidence which
proves the fact in dispute without the aid
of any interference or presumption.
 Circumstantial Evidence – It is a proof of
fact or facts from which, taken singly or
collectively maybe informed as necessary
of probable consequence.
 Prima Facie Evidence – it is that evidence
which suffixes for the proof of a particular
fact until contradicted by other evidence.
 Corroborative Evidence – it is an additional
evidence of a different kind and character ,
tending to prove the same facts in issue.

 Cumulative Evidence – an additional

evidence of the same kind and character,
tending to prove same point or fact in
dispute.

 Expert evidence – it is the testimony of the

a person, possessing a knowledge in
regard to particular subject not usually
acquired by other person.
 Relevant - evidence having any value
reason as tending to prove any matter
probable in an action.

 Material evidence – evidence refers to the

direction to prove a fact in issue as
determine by the rules of substantive law.

 Competent Evidence – it is an evidence

which is not excluded by law.
 MEDICO-LEGAL ASPECTS OF
IDENTIFICATION

 = Law of Multiplicity of Evidence (is true in

the case of identification.)
 “The greater the number of similarities or
dissimilarities, the greater is the probability
for the conclusion to be correct”.
 = The value of the different points of
identification varies in the formulation of
conclusion.
 The longer the interval between the death
and the examination of the remains for
purposes of identification, the greater is
the need for experts in establishing
identity.
 = It is necessary for the team to act in the
shortest possible time specially in cases of
mass disaster.
 = There is no rigid rule to be observed in
the procedure of identification of persons.
IDENTIFICATION:

 = is the recognition of an
individual as determine by
characteristics which
distinguish that individual from
all other.
Points to consider when unknown
dead body is found:

1. Place, date, time when the body was

found
2. Approximate age , built and height
3. Probable cause of death and time of
death
4. Complete description of body including
tattoo marks.
Importance of Identification of Persons:
 In Criminal case, the identity of the
offender and that of the victim must be
established, otherwise it will be a ground
for the dismissal of the charge or acquittal
of the accused.

 Identification of missing person or

presumed dead will facilitate settlement of
the estate, retirement, insurance and other
social benefits. It vests on the heirs the right
over the properties of the identified person.
 Identification resolves the anxiety of the
next-of-kin, other relatives and friends as
to the whereabouts of a missing person or
victim of calamity or crime.

 Identification may be needed in some

transaction, like cashing of check,
entering a premise, delivery of parcels or
registered mail in post office, sale of
property, release of dead bodies to
relatives, parties to a contract, etc.
 Methods of Identification:
 By comparison – with the used of standard
specimen, evidence under question can be
compared in order to effect identification.

 By exclusion = is two or more persons have to

be identified and all but one is not yet identified,
then the one whose identity has not been
established may be known by the process of
elimination.
Ordinary methods of
Identification
 I. Points of Identification applicable to the
living only:
 Characteristic that may easily be changed:
 Growth of chair, beard or mustache
 Clothing
 Frequent place of Visit
 Grade of profession
 Body ornamentation
Characteristic that may not easily be
changed:
1. Mental memory
2. Speech
3.Gait a manner of walking or moving on
food (Webster dic.)
 Ataxic Gait- a gait which the foot is
raised high, thrown forward and brought
down suddenly.
 Cerebellar gait- a gait associated with
staggering movement.
 Cow’s Gait- a swaying movement due to
knock-knee.
 Paretic gait- a gait in which the steps are
short, the feet dragged, the legs held more
or less widely apart.
 Spastic gait- a gait in which the legs are
held together and moves in stiff manner,
and the toes to drag and catch.
 Waddling gait- a gait resembling duck
 Frog gait- a hoping gait in infantile
paralysis.
 Gait line = the straight line connecting the
center of the succeeding steps. It is more
or less in zigzag fashion especially when
the legs are far apart while walking

 Foot line = the longitudinal line drawn on

each foot mark.
4. Mannerisms- These are the characteristic
movement of the body peculiar to a person.
 Way of sitting
 Movement of the hands
 Movement of the body
 Movement of the facial muscles
 Expression of the mouth while articulating
 Manner of learning
5. Hands and feet
6. Facies
7. Left or right handedness
8. Degree of nutrition (thin, medium built or stout)
9. Changes in the eye
 II. Points of identification applicable to both
living and dead before onset of
decomposition:

a. Occupational Marks
b. Race- In the living, race may be
presumed on:
1. Color of the skin
- Caucasians- fair
- Malayans- brown
- Negroes- Black
2. Feature of face:
 Caucasian- prominent sharp nose
 Malayan- flat nose with round face
 Mongolian- almond eyes such
and prominent cheek bones.
 Negroes- thick spreading lips

3 . Shape of Skull
 Red Indians- Flat head
 Malayan- Round head
 5.Stature (height) – a person ceases to
increase in height at the age of 25 years. As the
person grows older the height decreases due to
the fusion of the intervertebral discs.

Methods of approximating the height of a

person:
 a.)   measure the distance between the
height of a person    fingers of both hands
with the arms extended laterally    and it
will be equal to the height of the person.
 b.)Two time the length of one arm plus 12
inches for the clavicle and 1.5inches for
the sternum is the  approximate height.
 Two times the length from the vertex of
the skull to the pubic symphyses.
 The distance from the sternal netch and
the pubic symphyses is about one-hand
of the height.
 e.)   The distance from the base of the
skull to the coccyx is about 44% of the
height.
 4 ) TEETH
 The following points must be
considered in the study of the teeth
for identification process:

 Determine whether it is temporary or

permanent set;
 Number of teeth present;
 Number of teeth lost, including evidence of
length of time lost;
 Nature of the teeth present, whether
reverse, crooked, mal-aligned or straight;
Presence of supernumerary teeth;
Odontoid gum; and
Extraction, dental fitting, permanent
bridge work, fitting of crown and filling
cavities.
Condition of those present, whether
carious, colored, presence of cavities,
erosion, filling and cleanliness;
• The most convenient way of identifying a person
by means of the teeth is the use of dental
diagram or chart
Julia Campbell
Porcelain
Jacket Crown
Fused to
Metal
 5- Tattoo marks
Importance of Tattoo marks

a. It may help in the identification of the

person
b. It may indicate memorable events in his life
c. It may indicate the coil stratum to which the
person belongs
d. It implies previous commitment in prison or
membership in a gang.
 Methods of Tattoo Removal:

a. Excision = involves an injection of a local

anesthetic to numb the area after which the
tattoo is removed surgically. The edges are then
brought together and sutured.
b. Dermabrasion = a small portion of the
tattoo is sprayed with a solution that freezes the
area. The tattoo is then “sanded” with rotary
abrasive instrument causing the skin to peel.
Because some bleeding is likely to occur, a
dressing is immediately applied to the area.
c. Laser = Laser surgery is considered to be one
of the best methods of tattoo removal. If
necessary, a cream to numb the skin can be
applied prior to the treatment. Pulse of light from
the laser are directed unto the tattoo breaking up
the tattoo pigment. Over the next several weeks
the body’s scavenger cells remove the treated
pigmented areas. More than one treatment is
usually necessary to remove all of the tattoo.
LASER METHOD
 Salabrasion = a centuries old procedure
using local anesthetic applied around the
tattoo area after which a solution of ordinary
tap water dipped in table salt is applied and an
abrading apparatus such as the one used in
dermabrasion or even a simpler device is used
such as a wooden block wrapped in gauze.

 6- Deformities
 7- Birth marks
 8- Injuries leaving permanent result
 9- Moles
10-Scars = They are composed of fibrous tissues
which take the place of the original tissues which
have been injured or destroyed. They are devoid
of specialized tissue so they do not contain
pigment layers, sweat or sebaceous glands.
 Recent scars of two to three weeks old are
vascular with red or pink color.
 Contracted bloodless scars with white and
glistering surfaces are usually more than six
months old;
 Scars resulting from superficial wounds and
from wounds healing by first intention develop
earlier.
SOME SCARS MAY SHOW
CHARACTERISTICS APPEARANCE
SUCH AS:
 Surgical Operation = regular form
and location with stitch marks.
 Burns and sealds = scars are large,
irregular in shape and may be kelloid.
 Gunshot wounds = disc like with
depressed center. They may be adherent
to the underlying tissues.
 Tuberculous sinus = irregular in shape,
furrowed, with edges hardened and
uneven.
 Gumma = depressed scar following loss of
tissue
 Venesection = located at bend of elbow,
dorsum of feet, or at the temporal region.
 Lupus = bluish –white scar
 Wetcupping = short parallel scars on the
lower part of the back and loin.
 11- Tribal marks
          A common practice of some tribes in Africa
is to place some marks on the exposed parts of
the body.
 12- Sexual organs
Circumcision may help in identification. The
uterus and breast may indicate previous
pregnancy. The best evidence of sexuality is the
presence of Testes in Male and Ovaries in the
Female.
 13- Blood examination ( ABO grouping and MN
typing)
Extrinsic Factors in Identification:
 Identification of ornamental wearing
apparel
 Personal Belongings
 Clothing’s
 Dust
 Identification by close friend
 Criminal Records
 Photograph
Methods of Identification

 Portrait Parle -(Personal description)

“speaking likeness”. Is a verbal, accurate
and picturesque description of the person
identified.
 Photography
Anthropometry (Bertillion System)

A system of identification based on

the measurements of the various bony
structure of the human body came to be
known when it was introduced in the
police department in Paris, France in
1882 by Alphonse Bertillon.
Bases of the Bertillion’s method of
identification

 Human skeleton does not change after

20 years.
 It is impossible for two human beings to
have bones alike.
 Measurement easily taken with the aid
of simple instrument.
WEST CASE

 In 1903, Will West arrived at the US

Penetentiary at the Leavenworth, Kansas. While
West was being processed in through
identification, a staff member said that there was
already a photograph and Bertillon
measurement for him on the file. But a
comparison on fingerprints showed that despite
identical appearances and nearly identical
Bertillon measurements, the identification card
on file belonged to a William West, who had
been in Leavenworth since 1901.
 Fingerprint Identification

 Handwriting Identification

 Blood Grouping and Blood Typing

 DNA Testing (Deoxyribonucleic acid) (A-

adenine, C- cytosine, T- thymine, and G-
guanine Sequence)
 LIGHT AS A FACTOR IN IDENTIFICATION

 Clearest moonlight or starlight

= experiments have shown that the best
known person cannot be recognized under
the clearest moonlight at a distance
greater than 16 to 17 yards and by
Starlight any further than 10 to 13 yards.
Broad Daylight

= a person can hardly recognized another

person at a distance further than 100
yards if the person has never been seen
before; but person who are almost
stranger may be recognized at a distance
of 25 yards.
 Flash of Firearm

 = Although by experiment letters of two

inches high can be read with the aid of the
flash of a caliber.22 firearm at a distance of
two (2) feet it is hardly possible for a
witness to see the assailant in case of a
holdup or a murder because:

 Usually the assailant is hidden

 The assault is unexpected and the
intention of the person or witness is at its
minimum.
 4. The flash of Lighting
= produces sufficient light from the
identification of individual provided that the
person’s eye is focused towards the
individual he wishes to identify during the
flash.

 5.  In case of artificial light. The identification

is relative to the kind and intensity of the light.
IDENTIFICATION OF THE
SKELETON

Following points can be determine:

 Whether the remains are of human

origin or not.
 oval or round shape of the skull
 less prominent lower jaw and nasal
bone
 Whether the remains come from a single
individual or not
 complete layout of the bones on a table in their
exact locations in the human body is
necessary.
 Any plurality denotes that the remains belong to
more than one (1) person.
Determination of the Sex:
Determination of the Sex of the skeleton the
following bones must be studied:
 Pelvis –
= male - narrow and less wide
= female – wide and rounder
 Skull –
= male – less curve
= female – more curve
 Sternum
 Femur
 Humerous
DETERMINATION OF AGE
Legal Importance of Age Determination

1. For Identification
2. To Determine Criminal Liability

Circumstances which exempt from criminal

liability (Art 12, RPC):
1. Person under 9 years of age
2. Person over 9 years of age and under 15
1. Age of absolute irresponsibility – under 9 years.
2. Age of conditional responsibility – between 9 and
15 years old.
3. Age of full responsibility:
a. over 18 years old to 70 years old.
B. over 9 years and under 15 years old who acted
with discernment
3. For Right of Suffrage or in the exercise of other
political rights
4. For the exercise of civil rights
5. Determination of the capacity to contract
marriage
6. Age is a factor by which the crime of rape is
committed
7. The crime of infanticide can only be committed
when the child killed is less than three days old.
8. Seduction is committed on a woman over
twelve and under eighteen years of age
 Determination of Age of the Fetus:
 For fetus less than 25 cm. Long
 Find the square root of the length in
centimeters and the result is the age of the
fetus in month.
 For fetus 25 cm. Long or more
 Divide the length of the fetus in centimeters
by 5, and the result will be the age in
months.
 (Age as referred in this rule is lunar
month, not calendar month. One lunar
month is equivalent to 28 days)
Determination of Age of Childhood
and Adulthood

 For determination of age in childhood,

the best guide is the eruption of
deciduous or temporary teeth which
starts to erupt at 6 months and completed
at 2 years.
 While the eruption of permanent teeth in
adulthood starts at 6th year and
completed at 17 – 18 years.
 Examination of the product of
conception:

 1 month - The Ovum is about 1.0 cm with

limb buds only present.

 2 months - The ovum has a length of 2.5cm

with an embryo about 1.0cm long with
head, ears and hands well formed.
 3 months - The length is 9.0 cm. With nails
beginning to appear and the Placenta can be
differentiated.

 4 months - The length is 16.0 cm. And the

sex can be differentiated, with the fingers
beginning to open and hair beginning to
appear on the head.
 5 months - Fetus processes hair on the head
and Lanugo over body surfaces. Nails are distinct.
Skin shows sebaceous secretion. Dental gum
appears at the mandible.

 6 months- Fetus weighs 2.5 kg. Lanugo and

vernix present in the skin are dark and wrinkled.
Meconium is present in the small intestine and at
the beginning of the large intestine. Brain shows
convolutions. The testis is found in the abdominal
cavity. Hair of eyebrow and eye-lashes begin to
appear.
 7 months- The body is dark red and
plump, with hair on the scalp. The testis
begins to descend towards the scrotum.

 8 months - Fetus has rosy skin, and nails

reach the end of the finger-tips. Convolutions of
the brain are more distinct. Second piece of
sternum ossified Papillary membrane
disappears.
 9 months- Brain convolutions reach the
gray matter. The scrotum is occupied by
the testis. The body surface is now pale.
Sebaceous secretion is formed at the
flexures of joints. Nails fully formed and
developed.
Growth and Development:

 3rd – 4th mos. = development of friction

ridges.
 4th mos. = Growth of hair in the head
 5th mos. = nails are distinct
 6th mos = eyebrow and eyelashes begin
to appear.
 Most active from 5 to 7 years and 13 to
16 years old.
 Growth ceases at 25 years old
 Pubic hair = 13 years for female; 14 y/o
male (CLE-0414)
 Mustache & Beard = 16 to 18 years old
 Breast = 13 to 14 years old
 Voices = 16 to 18 years old
 Pubic Hair = may turn gray at 30 years old
 Menstruation = 12 years (in tropical) (CLE-
1014)
Tooth Eruption Periods:

TEMPORARY: 0.5 – 2 y/o (m & f);

PERMANENT: 6 – 18 y/o (m & f).
32 tooth- adult
Number of Bones:
CHILD: 200 pieces (m & f);
ADULT: 206 pieces (m & f);
Source of the additional six (6) bones: 3
pairs of ossicles or tiny bones found in both
middle ears.
FETAL DEVELOPMENT:

 1st month: eyeballs & limb buds;

 2nd month: nose & jaw;
 3rd month: nails & genitalia;
 4th month: bodily hairs;
 5th month: gums;
 6th month: eyelashes;
 7th month: testicles (in males only);
 8th to 9th months: COMPLETE ALREADY!
Identification and Determination of
Blood
 Medico-legal importance in the study of
blood
1. For identification whether the stain is blood
is of human origin or not?
2. For blood cross-matching and blood
transfusion
3. For the determination of the different blood
diseases such as Leukemia, Hemophilia
and others
4. For disputed parentage – (Maternity and
Paternity Test)

Example:
The father and mother had both a blood
group O, however the offspring had a blood
group A. Therefore, the offspring is a
spurious child in the family and the father
can deny that the child is not belong to him.
5. Circumstances or corroborative evidence
against or in favor of the perpetrator of a
crime.
Example :
A car was examined because of blood
stained present on the bumper and the hood.
It was found out that the stain was of human
blood and belonging to the same group as of
that victim of vehicular accident.
The traffic investigator had a strong
suspicion that the car is one responsible in the
motor-vehicle accident that killed the victim.
6. Determination of the cause of death
= The amount of blood loss from the body
without being replaced may probably imply
that the cause of person’s death is
hemorrhage.
= The loss of reddish tinge in the blood
may also imply carbon monoxide poisoning
or other blood diseases as one cause of
death of a person.
7. Determination of the direction of the
escape of the victim or assailant
= the drips of the blood or blood stain in a
place may pinpoint the route of escape of
the victim or the assailant by the tapering
end of the blood spot which points towards
the direction of the source of blood.
= the shape of blood and blood stain as well
as the splashed down character when
spilled in the floor may indicate the direction
of the source.
8. Determination of the appropriate time the
crime was committed.
= from the study of the aging of the blood-
spilled and blood-stained material, the time
that the crime was committed may be
approximated as to whether it is recently
than or a few hours ago.

9. Determination of the place of the

commission of the crime.
IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD
AND BLOOD STAINS
Human Blood – is a reddish liquid portion of
the body within the blood vessels and
containing formed elements such as red
blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and
plasma.
“It is the life of the flesh” (Leviticus,
17:11)
Blood is a juice of rarest quality
(Goethe’s Faust)
Blood Plasma
 Is the liquid portion of the blood w/c
contains proteins, inorganic elements and
other substances.
Blood Serum = light-yellow fluid w/c
separates when blood coagulates,
containing fibrinogen.
Fibrinogen = a protein substance in the
blood which is transformed into fibrin in
the process of coagulation.
16 – 18 glasses = amount of blood that a
normal healthy Filipino have. (average
glass of 200 cc.)
6 glasses = loss of this amount means loss
of life
3 glasses = anemia
Pointers to consider in laboratory examinations of
blood in medico-legal cases:
1. Determination whether the stain is blood or not
2. If blood, determination whether of human
origin or not
3. If human, determination of the blood group
and blood type does it belong
4. Characteristics of stain and the stained
materials (age, color, clotting, approximate
amount, and nature and condition of the
stained materials.
Tests for the Blood
A. Physical Examinations

 Solubility tests = blood stained materials is

placed in a saline solution will give a bright red
color of the solution.
 Heat test = stained materials when soaked in a
saline solution and heated will have sediments or
precipitates.
 Luminescence test = stains on dark fabric with
mud, paint and other substance will emit bluish
white luminescence in a dark room when
sprayed with solution that would react to hematin
crystals.
B. Chemical Examination

1. Benzidine Test = blue green color

indicates the presence of blood.
= 1 – 300, 000 dilution sensitivity

2. Guiacum test = also known as Van

Deen’s, Day’s or Schombein’s Test
= blue color indicate blood
= 1 – 5000 dilution
3. Phenolpthalein Test – (Kastle-Meyer
test)
= pink color indicates blood
= sensitive up to 1 : 80, 000, 000 dilution

4. Leuco-malacites Green test

= bluish-green or peacock blue color
MICRO – CHEMICAL TEST
1. Teichmann’s Test = the use of haemin
crystals
2. Takayama’s test = hemoglobin crystals,
salmon-pink crystals is the result.
BIOLOGIC EXAMINATION:
3. Precipitin Test = biologic test for blood.
It determines the blood is of human
origin or not .
4. Blood Grouping = A, B, AB, O
Medico-Legal
Aspects of Death
 Life – is the sum total of all vital processes by
which the physical integrity of the body is
maintained.
 Death- is the state of complete persistent
cessation of the vital function of the body such
as the function of the heart, the lings and the
brain.
 A. Importance of Death Determination
 The civil personality of a natural person is
extinguished by death;

 The civil personality is extinguished by

death. The effect of death upon the rights
and obligations of the deceased is
determined by law, by contract and by will.
 The property of a person is transmitted to his
heirs at the time of death.
 The death of a partner is one of the
causes of dissolution of partnership
agreement.
 The death of either the principal or agent
is a mode of extinguishments of agency
 The criminal liability of a person is
extinguished by death.
 The civil case for claims which does not
survive is dismissed upon death of the
defendant.
KINDS OF DEATH
Clinical Death or Somatic Death

Is a type of death usually declare by members of

the immediate family of the diseased or by the
physician. Immediate signs of the in a person are;
Sudden cessation of the upward and downward
movement of the chest in the process of respiration
(10-15 minutes), sudden pale color of the faces and
lips, pulse and heart beat stops, the jaw or head
drops down and flaccidity of muscles occur;
presence of dilated pupil as well as loss of corneal
and light reflexes. Clinical types of death can either
be: Sociologic, Psychic, Biologic or Physiologic.
CLINICAL TYPES OF DEATH

 A. Sociological Death = withdrawal and

separation from the patient by others producing a
sense of isolation and abandonment.
 B . Psychic death = patient regresses, give up or
surrenders, accepting death prematurely and
refuses to continue living.
 C. Biologic Death = absence of cognitive function
or awareness, although artificial support system
may maintain organs functioning.
 D. Physiologic Death = types of death where all
vital organs ceases to function.
Molecular or Cellular Death

Is the type of death characterized by

death of individual cells ( one at a
time ) after the somatic death. The
nerve cells and brain cells die earlier at
about 5 minutes due to loss of food and
oxygen while the muscles live longer
until the onset of the rigor mortis which
about two to three hours after death.
(CLE-1014)
Apparent Death/ State of
Suspended Animation
A transient (temporary) loss of
consciousness of temporary
cessation of the vital function of the
body on account of disease, external
stimulus other forms of influence.
SIGNS OF DEATH
Cessation of Respiration

Cessation of respiration in order to be

considered as a sign of death must be
continuous and persistent. A person
can hold his breath for a period of not
longer than 3 – ½ minutes. In case of
electrical shock, respiration may cease
for sometime but maybe restored by
continuous artificial respiration.
Irregular Types of Respiration

 A. Cheyne-Strokes respiration –
interval is about fifteen to thirty seconds
 In drowning and electric shock
 In new born infants
 In the voluntary act of respiratory
suspension.
 Methods of Detecting Cessation of
Respiration:

 Expose the chest and abdomen and observe

the movement during inspiration and
expiration.

 Examine the person with the aid of

stethoscope which is placed at  the base of
the anterior aspects of the neck and hear
sound of the current of air passing through
the trachea during each phase of respiration.
 Examination with a Mirror
 Examination with a Feather or Cotton
Fibers
 Examination with a glass of water

 Winslow’s test – there is stoppage of

respiration if there is no movement of the
reflected image on the water on the chest
of the person lying on his back.
 B. Cessation of Heart and Circulation
 There must be an entire and continuous
cessation of the heart action and flow of blood in
the whole vascular system,. A temporary
suspension of the heart action is still compatible
with life. The length of time the heart may cease
to function and life is still maintained depends
upon the length of time it is readily reestablished
and upon the oxygenation of blood at the time of
the suspension. As a general rule, if there is no
heart action for a period of five minutes death is
regarded as certain.
 Methods of Detecting the Cessation of
heart Action and circulation:

A. Examination of the heart:

- Palpation of the pulse and heart beat.
Auscultation with the aid of stethoscope
or placing the ear at the region of the
heart.
- Observation of the point of maximum
impulse.
Electrocardiography or ECG.
Flouroscopic Examination
 B. Examination of the Peripheral
Circulation:

 Magnus’ Test – ligature is tied around the

finger, blood zone at the site of application
and livid area dental to the ligature.
 Opening of Small Artery
 Icard’s test = subcutaneous injection of the
flourescin eye. The skin will exhibit
yellowish green discoloration of the living
skin
 Pressure on the fingernails
 Diaphanous Test = reddish color of
the web of finger when the hand is
placed against a sharp light.
 Application of heat on the Skin
 Palpation of the radial pulse
 Dropping of Melted Wax
 C. Cooling of the body (ALGOR
MORTIS)
After death the metabolic process
inside the body ceases. No more heat is
produced but the body loses slowly its
temperature by evaporation or by
conduction to the surrounding
atmosphere. The progressive fall of the
body temperature is one of the most
prominent signs of death.
 Gradual decreasing of the body
temperature until such time it assumes the
temperature of the environment which is
faster during the first two (2) hours after
death and slower during the next 6 to 9 hours
and equal to the environmental temperature
beyond 12 hours (CLE 1014)
 The fall of temperature of 15 to 20
degrees Fahrenheit is considered s a certain
sign of death.
 Post Mortem Caloricity = is the rise of
temperature of the body after death due to
rapid and early putrefactive changes or
some internal changes. It is usually
observed in the first two hours of death.
Occur in the following condition:
a. Cholera
b. Tetanus
c. Small pox
d. Peritonitis
 D. Insensibility of the body and loss
of power to move.
No kind of stimulus is capable to letting
the body have voluntary movement.
E. Changes in the Eyes
 a.  Loss of Corneal and light reflexes
 b.  Haziness of the cornea
 c. Flaccidity of the eyeball
 d. Finding inside the eye.
(Opthalmoscopic finding)
F. Changes in skin
 Change of color
 Loss of the elasticity of the skin
 Opacity of the skin
 Absence of reaction to injury
CHANGES OF THE BODY AFTER DEATH
1. Primary Flaccidity ( period of the muscle
irritability)
muscles are relaxed and capable of contracting
when stimulated
 pupil are dilated, incontinence of urination and
defection.
 Lasts 3- 6 hours after death.
2. Stage of Post Mortem Rigidity (Rigor Mortis)
 3-6 hours after death and may last 24 to 36
hours
 body becomes rigid due to contraction of the
muscles
RIGOR MORTIS = stiffening of the muscle
 Conditions Simulating Rigor Mortis
1. Heat Stiffening
 body is exposed to temperature above 77 degree
Celsius
 Pugilistic attitude
 More or less permanent
2. Cold Stiffening
 due to solidification of fat when the body is
exposed to freezing temperature.
3. Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous rigor.
 rigidity of the muscles which occurs at the moment
of death due to nervous tension, exhaustion
and injury to the nervous system. (occurs
Immediately after death).
 DISTINCTION BETWEEN RIGOR MORTIS
AND CADAVERIC SPASM
 
Rigor Mortis Cadaveric spasm
 Time of Appearance 3- 6 hours after death Immediately after
death
 Occurance Natural - May or may not appear
 Medico-legal
significance Time of death Cause of death
 Muscle Involved All the muscles Certain muscle,
asymmetric
3. Stages of Secondary Flaccidity or
secondary relaxation
 due to the dissolution of the muscles
protein
 onset of putrefaction
 the body become limp again and the
muscles are no longer capable of
responding to mechanical or electrical
stimulus.
 Noted about 48 hours after death
CHANGES IN THE BLOOD
a. Coagulation of the blood

 The stasis of the blood due to the

cessation of circulation enhances the
coagulation of blood inside the blood
vessel. Blood clotting is accelerated in
cases of death by infectious fevers and
delayed in cases of asphyxia, poisoning
by opium, hydrocyanic acid or carbon
monoxide poisoning.
 Blood may remain fluid inside the blood
vessel after death for 6 to 8 hours.
 Distinction Between Ante-Mortem from
Post-Mortem Clot:
 Ante-Mortem Clot
 Firm in consistency
 Surface of the blood vessel raw after the clots are
removed.
 Clots homogenous in construction so it cannot be
stripped into layers.
 Clot with uniform color.
 Post-mortem Clot
  Soft in consistency.
 Surface of the blood vessels smooth and healthy after
the clots are removed.
 Clots can be stripped off in layers.
 Clot with distinct layer.
 b. POST - MORTEM LIVIDITY

= It is the discoloration of the body after death when the

blood tends to pool in the blood vessels for the most
dependent portion of the body.
= The blood remains fluid in the body after for 6-8 hours and
gradually clot until it is fully developed at about 12 hrs. The
appearance of Post Mortem lividity usually stars about 20-30
minutes after death, thus, it can also be a means in
approximating the time of death of the person. But is more
useful in determining the position of the body after death.
POST MORTEM LIVIDITY
 The discoloration of the bloody may varies
in color. Usually it is dull-red or Reddish-
purple with some bluish-black petechiae
due to rupture of small engorged capillaries.
In carbon monoxide and cyanide poisoning
as well as exposure to cold temperature, the
color is pink while lead color asphyxia.
Although the color will become darker and
permanent as it completes.
 Stages of Lividity or Livor Mortis
1. Hypostactic Lividity
It is the lividity when the discoloration is
due to the blood pooled in the most
dependent areas of the body.
2. Diffusion Lividity
It is a fixed or permanent discoloration
when the blood clotted, inside the blood
vessels or has diffused to different parts of
the body.
Importance of Cadaveric Lividity
 It is one of the signs of death
 It may determine the position of the body
after death or whether it was changes after
its appearance in the body.
 The color of the lividity may indicate the
cause of death
 e.g. Asphyxia – dark
 CO poisoning – bright pink
 It gives us an idea as to the time of
death.
 Points to be considered which may infer the
position of the body at the time of death:

 Posture of the body when found

 The body may become rigid in the position in
which he died. Post-mortem lividity may
develop in the assumed position.
 Post-mortem hypostasis
 Hypostatic lividity will be found in areas of the
body in contact with the surface where the body
lies.
Cadaveric Spasm OR
Spontaneous Rigidity
 In violent death, the attitude of the body may
infer position on account of the spasm of the
muscles. e.g. In drowning the victim may be
holding the seaweeds.
 It is the instant stiffening of a certain group
of muscle which occurs immediately at the
moment of death, although its cause is
unknown, it is associated with violent death
due to extreme nervous tension, and injury to
the central nervous system.
Cadaveric Spasm
POST- MORTEM DECOMPOSITION

 1.) Autolysis or autodigestive changes after death

 = after death, proteolytic glycolytic and lipolytic
ferments of glandular tissues continue to act which
lead to the autodigestion of organs. This is facilitated
by weak acid and higher temperature.
 = This is also seen in the maceration of the dead fetus
inside the uterus. The stomach may be perforated,
glandular tissues become soft after death due to auto
digestion and the action of autolytic enzymes.
 =decomposition by enzymes
 2.) Putrefaction
 - It is the breaking down of the complex
protein into simpler components associated with
the evolution of foul smelling gases and
accompanied by the change of color of the body.
 -decomposition by bacteria
 noted after 48 hours after death
 first appears as a greenish discoloration
 generalized swelling and reddish
discoloration along the lines of the superficial
veins occur: called Marbling.
 Principal changes undergone by the soft
tissues of the body during putrefaction:
 a. Changes in the Color of the Tissue
 A few hours after death, there is hemolysis
of the blood within the blood vessel and as a
result of which hemoglobin is liberated. The
hemoglobin diffuses through the walls of the
blood vessels and stains the surrounding
tissues thereby imparting a reddish-brown
color.
 Tissue color gradually changed to greenish-
yellow, greenish brown or greenish black
color due to chemical changes in hemoglobin.
 b. Evolution of gases in the Tissues
 Carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen,
sulphurated hydrogen, phosphoreted hydrogen,
and methane gases are formed. The offensive
odor is due to these gases and also due to a
small quantity of mercaptans.
 The formation of gases causes the
distention of the abdomen and bloating of the
whole body. Gases formed in the subcutaneous
tissues and in the face and neck cause swelling
of the whole body. Small gas bubbles are found in
solid visceral organs and give rise to the “foamy”
appearance of the organs.
 Effects of the pressure of gases of
Putrefaction:
1. Displacement of the Blood
2. Bloating of the Body
3. Fluid Coming Out of Both Nostrils and Mouth
4. Extrusion of the Fetus in a Gravid Uterus
5. Floating of the Body
 c. Liquefaction of the Soft Tissues
As decomposition progresses, the soft tissues of
the body undergo softening and liquefaction. The
eyeballs, brain, stomach, intestine, liver and
spleen putrefy rapidly while highly muscular organs
and tissues relatively putrefy late.
Factors Affecting rate of Purification
 I. Internal Factors
a. Age
b. Cause of Death
c. Condition of the body
 II. External Factors
a. Air and Moisture
b. Condition and type of Soil
c. Presence of Water
d. Effect of Clothing
e. Effect of Coffin
f. Depth of Burial
g. Mass Grave
Special forms of Putrefaction
 Mummification- a condition at which the body
fluids is removed before decomposition sets in
resulting to shrunkening and preservation of the
dead body. Mummification can be either natural of
artificial (embalming).
 Natural for the forces of nature such as sunlight,
warm climate and hot dry soil influence the dead
body.
 Artificial when the preservation is done with the
introduction of some chemical like formalin,
alcohol, phenol, mercury, arsenic and glycerine
and covering the skin with the Vaseling or plaster
of paris before decomposition sets in.
 Saponification (Adipocere formation)
 = is the formation of a soft, friable and
brownish- white greasy substance in the
soft fatty tissues of the body after death.
 = This substance is called adipocere that
is formed by hydrogenation of the body
fats. It can be possibly be seen in the
buttocks, trunk, limbs, breast and cheeks.
It prevents or delays the putrefaction of the
body.
 Maceration - It is a condition of the dead body,
usually the fetus, characterized by the softening
and discoloration of the tissues as well as
formation of blisters in the skin due to the action
of autolytic or proteolytic enzymes in the absence
of utero is important in the consideration of legal
live-birth which shows evidence of maceration by
the following manifestations:
 1)Reddish green to reddish-brown
discoloration of skin;
 2) Softness and limpness of the body; and
 3) Blebs formation and separation of the
epidermis from the underlying tissues.
 Classification of Death

I. Medico-legal classification of Death:

 Natural Death- Due to disease or ailment in
the body.
Ex. SUND-Sudden Unexpected Nocturnal
Death = frequently observed among males
from 18 to 35 years old and very common
among low income group.
 Violent Death- Due to injuries of some outside
force.
 Accident Death- due to misadventure or outside
our will (Art 12, Par 4, RPC)
 Negligent Death – death due to reckless
imprudence, negligence, lack of foresight and
lack of skill.
 Infanticidal Death – due to killing of infant less
than three days old.
 Parricidal Death- any person killing his father,
mother or child whether ligetimate or illegitimate,
or any of his ascendants or descendants or his
spouse shall be guilty of parricide. (Art 247, RPC)
 Homicidal Death- killing of a person
with intent but without justification.
(Art. 249, RPC)

 Suicidal Death- It is the death due to

killing or destruction of one’s self. A
person who commits suicide but not
consummated is not penalized by law
but a person who assists another
person to commit suicide is punishable
by law. (Art. 253, RPC)
Murder– the unlawful killing of another
person committed with any of the following
attendant circumstances:
A. With treachery, taking advantage of superior
strength, with the aid of armed men or
employing means to weaken the defense, or
of means or person to insure or afford
impunity.
B. In consideration of price, reward or promise.
C. With evident premeditation.
D. With extreme cruelty by deliberately
augmenting the suffering of the victim.
Euthanasia ( mercy Killing )

 = it is a willful acceleration of death of a

person in order to lessen his sufferings.
There are instances wherein a person
suffering from a hopeless incurable
disease, ailment or condition will be placed
to death to lessen his sufferings and for
financial reason as agreed by the physician
an relatives concerned. In some countries
mercy killing is against the law for reason
that everyone has the right to live.
 II. Pathological Classification
 Death of Syncope (loss of consciousness, fall of
blood pressure, Cardiac Standstill, cerebral
metabolism, hyperventilation, cardiac disease,
Tussive Syncope Hysterical syncope
 Death of Asphyxia (Respiratory Obstruction and
Circulatory Arrest, Inhalation of obnoxious gases
fumes, drowning and electric shock, Compression of
the neck and strangulation, Compression of the
chest and asphyxia in brain injury)
 Death of Coma (Is a profound stupor in sickness or
after severe injury)
 DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
 - a condition resulting from a lack of oxygen
in the air or from an obstructing mechanism
to respiration.
 -the general term applied to all forms of
violent death which results primary from the
interference with the process of respiration
or the condition in which the supply of
oxygen to the blood or to the tissues or both
has been reduced below normal level.
 TYPES OF ASPHYXIA
1) ANOXIC DEATH associated with the failure of
the arterial blood to become normally saturated
with oxygen.
2) ANEMIC ANOXIC DEATH due to a deceased
capacity of the blood to carry oxygen.
3) STAGNANT ANOXIC DEATH brought about
by the failure of circulation.
4) HISTOTOXIC ANOXIC DEATH due to the
failure of the cellular oxidative process, although
the oxygen is delivered to the tissues, it cannot
be utilized properly.
 TYPES OF MECHANICAL ASPHYXIA

 1) STRANGULATION (THROTTLING) = may be with the use of

hands or a ligature (such as rope)
 2) SMOTHERING OR SUFFOCATION = occurs when entrance
of air through the nose and mouth is blocked or severely
restricted.

 3) HANGING = the neck is tied while the body is suspended

common from suicide.

 4) CHOKING = there is blocking of the internal airway by a

foreign object inside or outside of the victim’s body.

 5.) CRUSH OR TRAUMATIC ASPHYXIA = brought about by the

mechanical compression of the chest by some heavy object
 6) DROWNING
Classification of Asphyxia:
1. Hanging = the neck is tied while the body is suspended
common from suicide.
2. Strangulations
a. By ligature = used of string or rod.
b. By manual strangulation or throttling.

Throttling = used of hand against the neck.

c. Special forms of strangulations:

(1) Palmar strangulations
(2) Garroting (metal collar/bowstring)
(3) Mugging or yoking (forearm)
(4) Compression of the neck with stick
3. Suffocation
a. smothering or closing of the
mouth and nostrils by solid objects.
b. Chocking or closing the air passage
by obstruction of its lumen.
4. Asphyxia by pressure on the chest
(traumatic crush asphyxia).
5. Asphyxia by irrespirable gases.
6. Asphyxia by submersion or drowning.
Emergency Treatment in Drowning
1. Schaefer’s Method = patient facing
downward. The operator kneels astride
the body and exerts pressure on the
lower ribs at the rate of 12 to 15 time a
minute.
2. Sylvester’s method = with the patient
lying on his back, and the operator
astriding over the body, swinging the
arms forward up and then pressing the
chest wall. This is repeated every 3 to 5
seconds.
Death as Punishment
 Death by Lethal Injection (adopted
under R.A. 8166)
 Death by Electrocution (used of about
2,00 to 5,000 voltages)
 Death by Gas chamber (adopted in the
USA)
 Death by hanging
 Death by Musketry (applied to drug
violator during Martial law)
 AUTOPSY
 a comprehensive (complete, thorough)
study of a dead body performed by trained
physician using recognized dissection
procedures and techniques, primary to
determine the true cause of death
 indicates that, in addition to an external
examination, the body is opened and
internal examination is conducted.
 POST MORTEM EXAMINATION
 refers to an external examination
(superficial) of a dead body without incision
being made, although blood and other fluids
may be collected for examination.
 KINDS OF AUTOPSIES
1).HOSPITAL OR NON-OFFICIAL done on a
human body with the consent of the deceased
person’s relatives for the purpose of:
 determining the cause of death
 providing correlation of clinical diagnosis and
clinical symptoms
 determining the effectiveness of therapy
 studying the natural course of disease process
 educating students and physicians.
2) MEDICO LEGAL OR OFFICIAL = an
examination performed on a dead body purpose of:
 determining the cause, manner or mode and
time of death
 recovering, identifying and preserving
evidentiary material
 providing correlation of facts and circumstances
related to death
 providing a factual, objective medical report for
law enforcement, prosecution and defense
agencies
 separating death due to disease from death due
to external cause for protection of the innocent.
 NEGATIVE AUTOPSY
 an autopsy which failed to establish cause of
death after all efforts have been exhausted
 an autopsy which after a meticulous
examination with the aid of other examination
does not yield any definite cause of death.
 NEGLIGENT AUTOPSY
 an autopsy wherein no cause of death is found
on account of imprudence, negligence, lack of
skill and lack of foresight of the examiner.
 Method of Disposal of the Dead Body

 Embalming- Artificial Mummification

 Burial- Inhumation or Interment
= Is a method of placing the dead body in the
grave.
Funeral- it is the procession of the dead body
followed by grieving relatives, friends and other
persons to the place of burial in accordance with
the religion, custom and traditions.
= Persons in-charge; The Spouse(if married),
The descendant of the nearest degree and
brother and sisters.
 Cremation- Is the burning of the dead body
into ashes or pulverization of the body into
ashes by the application of heat or flames.
Requirement: permit for cremation, Exact
identification of the deceased and exact cause
of death has been ascertained.
 Disposal of the dead body to the Sea.
 Use of the Dead body for Scientific
Purpose.
CREMATION
Exhumation:

 It is the raising or disinterring of the Dead

body or remains from the grave.
EXHUMATION (DESINTERRING)
- refers to the taking out of a body from its
tomb or gravesite
 can be done only upon a lawful order,
with permission from the Department of
Health.
 - remains of persons who died of non-
dangerous, non-communicate diseases may
be disinterred after three (3) years.
 - remains of persons who died of dangerous
communicable diseases may be disinterred
after five (5) years.
Physical Injury

 Injury- Is the scientific impairment of the

body structure or function caused by
outside force or agent.
 Physical Injury- is an injury of the body
caused by physical agents which is the
application of stimulus to the body
producing damage or injury to the
tissue.
 Wound- is a break or solution in the
continuity of the skin or tissues of the
body.

 Inflammation- Is a specific tissue

response to injury by the living or
inanimate agents, or to electrical,
chemical etc., characterized by vascular
dilatation, fluid exudation and
accumulation of leukocytes in the tissues.
B. As to the kind of Instrument used:

 1. Blunt Instrument – lacerated

 2. Sharp-edge instrument = incised
 3. Sharp-pointed instrument =
punctured
 4. Sharp-edge and Sharp-pointed =
stab wound
 5. Rough object = abrasions
incised

punctured

abrasion
stab wounds
lacerated
INCISED
PUNCTURED
STAB WOUND
LACERATED
ABRASIONS
GUN SHOT WOUND
Senging = burning of the skin.
Smudging = blackening of the bullet hole.
Tattooing = the peppering of the gun
powder burns.
Determination whether the gunshot
wound is suicidal, Homicide or
Accidental:
 Evidence to prove that the gunshot wound is
suicidal:
1. Parts of the body involved are accessible to
the hands of the victim.
2. There is usually one gunshot wound.
3. Presence of suicidal note.
4. Usually the distance is near or close range.
5 History of frustration
6 Drug dependency
Evidence that gunshot wound is
homicidal:
 1. Wound is located in any parts of the body
 2. The victim is usually at a certain distance
from the assailant.
 3. Signs of struggle or defense wound may
be present on the part of the victim.
 4. Wounding weapon usually not found at
the crime scene.
 5. There may be disturbance in the
surrounding.
Evidence that gunshot wound is
accidental:
1. There is usually one gunshot wound.
2. Wound is located in any parts of the
body.
3. Testimony of the witness.
CLASSIFICATION OF WOUND
A. As to Severity:
a. Mortal Wound – a wound that is fatal can
cause death.

b. Non-Mortal Wound – a non-fatal wound

unable to cause immediate death.
C. As to the manner of infliction:

 1. Hit – by the stroke of bolo, axe and

other blunt instruments.
 2. thrust or stab – by the stroke of
knife, dagger, ice pick, bayonet and
spear.
 3. Sliding or Rubbing
 4. Gunpowder explosion by Projectile
or sharpnel
 5. Tearing or Streching
D. As to the Depth of wound:
 1. Superficial Wound = involves the outer
layer of the skin. (e.g. scratch or abrasion)
 2. Deep wound = involves the outer as
well as the inner structure of the body.
 a. Penetrating wound = wound
wherein an instrument pierces a solid
organ or tissues. (e.g. stab wound piercing
the liver, spleen and kidney)
 b. Perforating Wound = wound where
there is communication between the outer
and inner potion of the hallow organs.
E. As to the relation of the site of application of
force and injury:

 Coup Injury- Injury at the side of application.

 Contre coup- injury found opposite the side of
application.
 Coup Contre Coup- injury both at the side
and opposite side of application.
 Locus Minoris Resistencia- Injury is found on
some area offering the least resistance to the
force applied.
 Extensive Injury- involves a greater area of
damage.
Special Types of Wound

 Patterned Wound = wound produced by the

shape of the instrument or object reflected
in the body. E.g. imprint of the radiator on
the chest, tire marks on the body.

 Defense Wound = produced by person’s

instinctive reaction for self protection. E.g.
contusion in the forearm produced by
parring the blow, incised wound.
F. Medico-legal Classification

1. Mutilation = the intentional act of cutting or

looping any part or parts of the living body.
2. Slight Physical Injury (1-9 days)
3. Less Serious Physical Injury (10-30days)
4. Serious Physical Injury – victim becomes ill
and incapacitated or needs medical
attendance for the period of more than 30
days, or the injury caused deformity.
Deformity:
 = permanent disfigurement of the body
producing physical ugliness. (E.g. loss of
hair, scars in the face)

Incapacity:

= the inability of the injured person to perform

his work where he is habitually engaged.
G. As to the type of the Wound

 Closed Wound: superficial Closed wound

and deep closed wound, petechiae,
contusion or bruise, hematoma or blood
cyst, sprain, fracture, discoloration,
Concussion, and Internal Hemorrage

 Open Wound: Incised, Lacerated,

Punctured, Stab Wound, Avulsion, and
Gunshot and shotgun Wound.
Petechiae
 -Are minute, pin point, circumscribed
extravasation of blood in the
subcutaneous tissues or underneath
the mucous membrane.
Contusion (Bruise)
 Wound in the substance of the true skin
and in the subcutaneous cellular
tissues characterized by swelling and
discoloration of tissue due to
extravasation of blood.
Hematoma - large extravation of
blood in a newly
formed cavity
secondary to trauma
characterized by
swelling,
discoloration and
effusion of blood
underneath the
tissues.
Sprain  The straining or
tearing of the articular
tendons, ligaments
and muscles
characterized by
swelling, discoloration
of tissues involve and
extreme pain.
Fracture

 -It is a break or
solution in the
continuity of the bone
tissues resulting from
violence. (it can be
either simple,
compound or
comminuted).
Dislocation

 -Is the displacement of the

articular surfaces of the
bones forming the joints
usually secondary to
trauma. (simple or
compound)
Cerebral Concussion

 Condition of the brain

resulting from a sudden
jarring or stunning of the brain
which follows a blow on the
head characterized by
headache or dazziness,
unconciousness or semi-
unconciousness, relaxed and
flaccid muscles, slow and
shallow respiration and rapid
but weak pulse.
Internal Hemorrhage
 It is the bleeding usually in the cavity or
organs inside the body. (intra-cranial,
Rupture of organ and Laceration of Organ).
Thermal Injuries or Death

I. Death or injury from Cold (Local Effect &

Systematic Effects)

II. Death or Injury from Heat (General or

Systemic effect and Local effect)
General: Cramps, Exhaustion and Stroke.
Cramps = involuntary spasmodic painful
contraction of muscles essentially due to
dehydration and excessive loss of
chlorides by sweating.
Exhaustion = due to heart failure primarily
caused by heat and precipitated by
muscular exertion and warm clothing.
Heat Stroke = usually occurs among
those working in ill-ventilated places with
dry high temperature or due to direct
exposure to the sun.
Local Effects of Heat:
 A. Scald = produced by the application to the body
liquid at or near boiling point, or in its gaseous state.
(tissue destruction by moist heat.)
 Thermal Burns = lesions which are caused by the
application of heat or chemical substances to the
external or internal surfaces of the body, the effect of
which is destruction of the tissues of the body. (1st
Degree (erythema or simple reddening without
destruction of tissue); 2nd (blister formation with
destruction of the outer layer of the skin); 3rd (dermal
layer is partially or completely destroyed – most
painful); 4th Whole layer) ; 5th (Deep fascia) & 6th
(bones))
SEXUAL OFFENSES AND
DEVIATION
VIRGINITY:
 Virginity = a condition of a female who
has not experienced sexual intercourse
and whose genital organs have not
been altered by carnal correction.
 virgin (or maiden) originally meant a
woman who has never had
sexual intercourse. It is derived from
the Latin virgo, which means "sexually
inexperienced woman".
Chastity:
 Chastity does not imply virginity.
Chastity derives from the Latin castitas,
meaning "cleanliness" or "purity“ — and
does not necessarily mean the
renunciation of all sexual relations, but
rather the temperate sexual behavior of
legitimately married spouses, for the
purpose of procreation, or the sexual
continence of the unmarried.
 Kinds of Virginity
 1. MORAL VIRGINITY = state of not
knowing the nature of sexual life and not
having experienced sexual relation.
 2. PHYSICAL VIRGINITY = a condition
whereby a woman is conscious of the
nature of the sexual life but not
experienced sexual intercourse. Applies to
women who have reached sexual maturity
but not experienced sexual intercourse.
 TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY
 = a condition wherein the hymen is intact, with
the edges distinct and regular, and the opening
is small to barely admit the tip of the smallest
finger of the examiner even if the thighs are
separated.
 FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY
 = A condition wherein the hymen is
unruptured but the orifice is wide and elastic
to admit two or more fingers of the examiner
with a lesser degree of resistance.
 3. DEMI-VIRGINITY
= a condition of a woman who permits
any form of sexual liberties as long as they
abstain from rupturing the hymen by
sexual act.
 4. VIRGO INTACTA
= applied to women who have had
previous sexual act but not yet given birth.
 DEFLORATION = the laceration or rupture
of the hymen as a result of sexual
intercourse.
Female Reproductive Organ
Sexual Deviations:
= unusual sexual offenses
 HOMOSEXUALITY = sexual desire
towards the same sex.

 INFANTOSEXUALITY = sexual desire

towards an immature person. Also
known as PEDOPHILIA.

 BESTOSEXUAL = sexual desire

towards animals; also known as
bestiality.
 AUTOSEXUALITY = self –gratification
; also known as masturbation or
onanism.

 GERONTOPHILIA = sexual desire

towards an older person.

 NECROPHILIA = a sexual perversion

characterized by erotic desire or actual
sexual intercourse with a corpse.
 INCEST = sexual relations between person
who, by reason of blood relationship cannot
legally marry.

 SATYRIASIS = excessive sexual urge of

men.

 NYMPHOMANIA = excessive sexual urge of

women.
 FELATTIO = the female agent receives the
penis of a man into her mouth and by friction
with the lips and tongue coupled with the act
of sucking initiates orgasm.

 CUNNILINGUS = sexual gratification is

attained by licking or sucking the external
female genitalia.

 ANILINGUS = a form of sexual perversion

wherein a person derives sexual excitement
by licking the anus of another person of
either sex.
 SADISM =(Active Algolagnia) = A form of
sexual perversion in which the infliction of
pain on another is necessary for sexual
enjoyment
 MASOCHISM (passive algolagnia) = A form
of sexual perversion in which the infliction of
pain by another is necessary for sexual
enjoyment.
 FETISHISM = a form of sexual perversion
wherein the real or fantasied presence of an
object or bodily part is necessary for sexual
stimulation and gratification.

 PYGMALIONISM = a sexual deviation
whereby a person has sexual desire for
statutes.
 FROTTAGE = a form of sexual gratification
characterized by the compulsive desire of
a person to rub his sex organ against some
part of the body of another.
 VOYEURISM = a form of sexual
perversion characterized by a compulsion
to peep to see persons undress or perform
other personal activities.
Pluralism = group of people participate
in sexual orgies on masses.
Mixoscopia = pleasure is attained by
watching couple in the act of sexual
intercourse.
Coprolalia = the need to use obscene
language to obtain sexual excitement.
Urolagnia = sexual excitement is
associated with the act of urination.
 Don Juanism = a form of sexual deviation
characterized by sexual promiscuity and make
seduction of many women as a career.
 Narcissism = a person has extreme admiration
and love of one’self.
 Indecent exposure or exhibitionism = willful
exposure in public places of one’s genitals in
the presence of another person, usually of
the opposite sex.
 Transvertism = perversion among males
who find sexual pleasure in wearing female
apparel
THANK YOU for listening!!!

See YOU ALL in OATHTAKING..

ARTEMIO B. BURCE I
Registered Criminologist
License no. 0107513
Contact #: 0915 – 306 - 1226