Kidney Stones

Kim Applebee
Alex Kaullen
Definition
 Kidney Stones are small, hard deposits of mineral
and acid salts on the inner surfaces of the kidneys
 Alternative names include:
 Renal Lithiasis

 Renal Calculi

 Nephrolithiasis (Kidney Stone Disease)

 Stones are classified by their location in the urinary

system and their composition of crystals.
Statistics
 Incidence Rate:
 More than 1 million cases annually in US
 1 in 272 or 3.6 per 1000 Americans develop
stones annually.
 80% of stones under 2mm in size
 90% of stones pass through the urinary
system spontaneously
 Generally stone smaller than 6mm are passable
 (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases; NIDDK)
(National Kidney and Urologic Disease Information Clearinghouse; NKUDIC)
Kidney Stone Formation
 Causes:
 Highly concentrated urine, urine stasis
 Imbalance of pH in urine
 Acidic: Uric and Crystine Stones
 Alkaline: Calcium Stones
 Gout
 Hyperparathyroidism
 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
 UTI
 Medications
 Lasix, Topamax, Crixivan
[Link]
Types of Stones
 Calcium Oxalate
 Most common
 Calcium Phosphate
 Struvite
 More common in woman than men.
 Commonly a result of UTI.
 Uric Acid
 Caused by high protein diet and gout.
 Cystine
 Fairly uncommon; generally linked to a hereditary disorder.
Case Study
 It is a hot summer day, and you are an RN in the emergency
department (ED).  S.R., an 18-year-old woman, comes to the ED
with severe flank and abdominal pain and N/V. S.R. looks very
tired, her skin is warm to touch, and she is perspiring. She paces
about the room doubled-over and is clutching her abdomen. 
S.R.  tells you that the pain started early this morning and has
been pretty steady for the past  hours. She gives a history of
working outside as a landscaper and takes little time for water
breaks. Her past medical history (PMH) includes 3 kidney stone
attacks, all during late summer. Exam findings are that her
abdomen is soft and w/o tenderness, but her left flank is
extremely tender to touch, palpation, and percussion. You place
S.R. in one of the examination rooms and take the following VS
118/98, 90, 20, 99 F. UA shows RBC of 50 to 100 on voided
specimen, WBC 0.
What key factors are important
to consider?
Signs and Symptoms
 Additional S/S:
 What are the key findings?  Presence of UTI
 Severe flank pain  Fever or Chills
 Abdominal pain  Pain in groin, labia or testicles
 Nausea and vomiting  Cloudy or foul-smelling urine
 Fatigue  Dysuria
 Elevated temperature, BP, and  Persistent urge to void
respirations
 UA positive for RBC
 Objective Data: perspiration,
clutching of the abdomen,
doubled-over.
 Steady Pain
 Left flank tendernes

[Link]
What additional information
should you ask this patient?
Additional Information
 Family history
 Current medications
 Frequency of urination
 Do you experience pain while urinating?
 What is your typical diet?
 How did patient’s kidney stones resolve
themselves in the past?

[Link]
Identify this patient’s risk
factors.
Risk Factors
 What are her risk factors?  Additional risk factors:
 Past Medical History  Family or Personal Hx
 Hx of 3 kidney stone  Gender (male)
attacks  Age (20-55)
 Dehydration/Lack of Fluids  Race (Caucasian)
 Occupational exposure  Diet
 Labor Intensive  High sodium
 Outdoors  High protein
 Weather/Climate  Food high in oxalate 
 Hot, dry  Vit A/D, grapefruit juice        
 Sedentary Lifestyle
 Obesity
 High Blood Pressure

[Link]
Abnormal Lab Values
BUN

Creatinine

Urine Analysis

[Link]
[Link]
Diagnostic Studies
 Test and Diagnostics:
 Blood Analysis
 Urine Analysis
 CT Scan
 Abdominal x-ray
 Ultrasound
 Retrograde Pyelogram
 Cystoscopy
 Intravenous pyelography
[Link]
What questions do you need to
ask before a patient has an IV
pyelogram?
Answer:
 Do you have a history of renal failure?
 Contraindicated with renal failure
 Have you ever have a reaction to iodine?
 Contrast contains iodine
 Is there a possibility you could be pregnant?
 Are you currently taking any medications?
 Metformin may react with contrast
 Contrast contains iodine

 Check BUN and Creatinine levels prior to IVP

Nursing Diagnosis:
Acute pain r/t obstruction from renal calculi as
manifested by patient being doubled-over,
pacing around the room, and patient
verbalizing pain upon assessment.

Goal: patient will state pain is at a manageable level

within 2 hours of admission.

What are Nursing Interventions?

Nursing Goal/Interventions:
 Administer pain medication as ordered by physician.

 Provide non-pharmaceutical techniques such as imagery and/or

meditation to relieve pain.

 Patient will determine manageable pain level.

 Patient will be asked about any concerns and/or fears that may be
associated with pain.

 Provide emotional support for the patient.

 Reassess patient’s pain levels within 1 hour after administration of

pain medications.
Nursing Diagnoses:
Deficient knowledge r/t fluid requirements and dietary
restrictions as manifested by reoccurring stones.
Goal: Patient will state methods to prevent future stones by the time
patient is D/C. A plan of care will also be created with the
patient before patient is D/C to prevent reoccurrence of kidney
stones.

Risk for infection r/t kidney stone obstruction of urinary tract

causing stasis of urine.
Goal: Patient’s urine will be yellow and clear upon D/C and patient
will not have a fever. UA with show no indication of UTI or
other infection.

What are Nursing Interventions?

Treatment
 Two Focuses of Treatment:
 Treatment of acute problems, such as pain, n/v, etc
 Identify cause and prevent kidney stones from reoccurring

 Acute Treatment:
 Pain Medication!!!
 Strain urine for stones
 Keep Hydrated
 Ambulation
 Diet Restrictions
 Emotional Support
 Invasive Procedure (may be necessary)

[Link]
Surgical Procedures
 Lithotripsy: used to break into smaller fragments
allowing it to pass through the urinary tract.
 Extracorporeal Shock-Wave (ESWL)
 Percutaneous Ultrasonic
 Electrohydraulic
 Laser
 Surgical Therapy
 Nephrolithotomy (Kidney)
 Pyelolithotomy (Renal Pelvis)
 Ureterolithotomy (Ureter)
 Basket Extraction
[Link]
Prevention
 Patient Education
 Hydration
 Drink 3 liters of fluid per day (14 cups)
 Water
 Lemonade (citrate decrease stone formation)
 Diet
 Low sodium
 Watch amounts of oxalate
 Low protein
 Exercise/Increase Activity
 Medication

[Link]
Professional Resources

 Renal Disease: A Manual of Patient Care by

Lynn Wenig Kagan, RN, PhD
 Differential Diagnosis: Renal and Electrolyte
Disorders by Saulo Klahr, MD
 MedLine Plus
 [Link]/medlineplus/[Link]
Journal Article #1
 Purpose: Determine effectiveness of an herbal supplement
made out of varuna and banana stems, “Herbmed,” on kidney
stones
 Study: 77 patients participated in a randomized, placebo,
double-blinded study that was conducted in India from July 2007
to February 2008. Two groups were formed: Group A with calculi
5-10mm and Group B with calculi >10mm.
 Results: Patients relieving the herbal supplement showed a
33% reduction in the size of their kidney stone.
 Conclusion: Herbmed is an herbal treatment that may have
promising effects in reducing kidney stone size and expulsion.
Journal Article #2
 Purpose: To determine the possible effects fructose has on the
formation of kidney stones.
 Study: The researchers looked at three different cohorts (older
woman, younger women, and men) over combined 48 years of
follow up. 4902 new symptomatic kidney stones were documented
among these three cohorts.
 Results: The results from the study showed that there is a positive
correlation between the intake of fructose and the development of
kidney stones.
 Conclusion: Fructose intake can increase insulin resistance which
lowers the pH in the urine and increases ones’ risk for the
development of uric acid kidney stone. Nurses need to adequately
assess the patient’s diet and educate patients on ways to prevent
stones.
Journal Article #3
 Purpose: The study looked specifically at anxiety associated with
treatment, surgery, for kidney stones.
 Study: The anxiety of 66 patients was assessed before and after
treatment, using three forms of measurement tools: palmar sweat
test, visual analogue scale, and Speilberger state anxiety
questionnaire. The two groups that were compared were open
surgery to minimally/non-invasive treatment.
 Results: The results from the study showed no significant change in
the questionnaire answers between the three indicators of anxiety.
But, there was a fair reduction in the analogue scores post-
operatively in-patients who had open surgery. These same patients
also had a lower palmar sweat response. But, pre-operatively
patients who going to have open surgery had higher analogue
scores.
 Conclusion: The two primary causes of anxiety were pain and
being under anesthesia. Open surgery treatment resulted in lower
levels of anxiety than non-invasive treatments.