13.

702 MECHATRONICS
MODULE - I

Prepared by:
KARTHIK R N
Assistant Professor
Department of ME
ACE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
SYLLABUS
Module – I
Introduction to Mechatronics: Structure of Mechatronics system. Sensors -
Characteristics - Temperature, flow, pressure sensors.

Displacement, position and proximity sensing by magnetic, optical, ultrasonic,

inductive, capacitive and eddy current methods.

Encoders: incremental and absolute, gray coded encoder. Resolvers and synchros.

Piezoelectric sensors. Acoustic Emission sensors. Principle and types of vibration

sensors.
WHAT IS MECHATRONICS ?
• Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin and can be defined as the
application of electronics and computer technology to control the motions of
mechanical systems.

Mechatronics

Mechanism Electronics
• It is a multi-disciplinary approach in
designing product and manufacturing
system.

• It involves application of electrical,

mechanical, control and computer
engineering to develop products,
processes and systems with greater
flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of
reprogramming.

• It concurrently includes all these

disciplines.
• Mechatronics is the synergistic combination of Mechanical engineering,
Electronic engineering, Computer engineering, Control engineering, and
Systems Design engineering in order to design, and manufacture more
economical, useful and reliable product(s).

• The portmanteau "mechatronics" was coined by Tetsuro Mori, the senior

engineer of the Japanese company Yaskawa in 1969.

• An industrial robot is a prime example of a mechatronic system; it includes

aspects of electronics, mechanics, and computing to do its day-to-day jobs.

• Mechatronics can also be termed as replacement of mechanics with

electronics or enhance mechanics with electronics. For example, in modern
automobiles, mechanical fuel injection systems are now replaced with
electronic fuel injection systems. This replacement made the automobiles
more efficient and less pollutant.
• With the help of microelectronics and sensor technology, mechatronics systems
are providing high levels of precision and reliability. It is now possible to move
(in x – y plane) the work table of a modern production machine tool in a step of
0.1 mm.

• By employment of reprogrammable microcontrollers/microcomputers, it is now

easy to add new functions and capabilities to a product or a system. Today’s
domestic washing machines are “intelligent” and four-wheel passenger
automobiles are equipped with safety installations such as air-bags, parking
(proximity) sensors, anti-theft electronic keys etc
ELEMENTS OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS
• The typical elements in a mechatronic system are depicted below”
1. Sensors & Actuators
• They are mostly mechanical systems

• Sensors detect the state of the system parameter, inputs and outputs. The
various type of sensors used in mechatronic systems are linear and rotational
sensors, acceleration sensors, force sensors, pressure sensors, temperature
sensors, flow sensors, proximity sensors etc.

• Actuators produce motion or causes some motion. The various actuators

include pneumatic and hydraulic actuators, electro-mechanical actuators,
electrical motors (AC, DC, stepper, Servomotors etc), piezoelectric actuators
etc.
2. Signals and Conditioning
• The mechatronic systems deals with two types of signals viz: input and output

• Input Devices receive signals from sensors or interfacing devices and then
send it to the control circuits for conditioning or processing. The various input
signal conditioning devices used are Amplifiers, A/D convertors, Discrete
circuits etc.

• Output Devices receives output signals from the system through interfacing
devices and then displays the output. The various output signal conditioning
devices used are D/A convertors, Display Decoders (DD), Power transistors,
Power op-amps etc.

3. Digital Control Architecture

• They control the overall system operations. The various digital logic systems
used are: Microcontrollers, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC), Sequencing
and Timing controls
4. Data Acquisition Systems
• Data Acquisition System acquires the output signals from sensors in the form
of voltage, frequency, resistance etc and inputs the data into to a
Microprocessor/ Computer software to control the data acquisition through
Data Acquisition Control board.

• The various data acquisition systems used are data loggers, computer with
plug-in boards etc.

5. Computer and Display devices

• Computers are used to store the data for its processing using a suitable
software.

• Display devices give a visual feedback to the user. The various visual devices
include LEDs, CRT, LCD, digital displays etc.
TYPES OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEMS
• Japan Society for Promotion of Machine Industry (JSPMI) classified mechatronic
products into following four categories.

CLASS I

• Primarily mechanical products with electronics incorporated to enhance

functionality.
• Eg. NC machine tools and variable speed drives in manufacturing machines.

CLASS II

• Traditional mechanical systems with significantly updated internal devices

incorporating electronics. The external user interfaces are unaltered.
• Eg. Modern sewing machine and Automated manufacturing systems.
CLASS III

• Systems that retain the functionality of the traditional mechanical system, but
the internal mechanisms are replaced by electronics.
• Eg. digital watch, automatic camera.

CLASS IV

• Products designed with mechanical and electronic technologies through

synergistic integration.
• Eg. Photocopiers, intelligent washers and dryers, rice cookers and automatic
ovens.
Advantages of mechatronic systems

 Cost effective and good quality products.

 High degree of flexibility to modify or redesign
 Very good performance characteristics.
 Wide area of application
 Greater productivity in case of manufacturing organization.
 Possibility of remote controlling as well as centralized monitoring and control.
 Greater extend of machine utilization.

Disadvantages of mechatronic systems

 High initial cost.

 Multi disciplinary engineering background required for design & implementation.
 Highly skilled labors.
 Complications in identification and rectification of problems.
EXAMPLES OF MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS

Computer disk drive

Clothes washer
Computers Car
s

Tools

Stealth
MEMS Bomber

High Speed Trains

Consumer
Electronics Basic Mechatronics
Transportation Applications
Systems Uses Segway
•Tilt and pressure sensors
•Microcontroller
•Motors
•Onboard power source

Advantages
Simple and intuitive personal
transportation device

6/18/20 Basic Mechatronics 16

Smart Robotics Application
BigDog

System Can
•Carry 340 lb Advantages
•Run 4 mph Robot with rough-terrain mobility that
•Climb, run, and walk could carry equipment to remote
•Move location.
6/18/20 over rough Basic Mechatronics 17
terrain
Medical Applications

Used by patients with slow or erratic

heart rates. The pacemaker will set a
normal heart rate when it sees an irregular
heart rhythm.
Pace
Maker

Implantable
Defibrillation
Monitors the heart. If heart
fibrillates or stops completely it
will shock the heart at high voltage
6/18/20 to restore a normal heart rhythm. 18
Basic Mechatronics
Sanitation Applications
System Uses
•Proximity sensors
•Control circuitry
•Electromechanical valves
•Independent power source

Advantages
•Reduces spread of germs by making device
hands free
•Reduces wasted water by automatically turning
off when not in use
6/18/20 Basic Mechatronics 19
Sports Applications
Running
Shoes

Advantages
•Automatically changes cushioning
in shoe for different running styles
and conditions for improved
comfort
6/18/20 Basic Mechatronics 20
Smart Home Applications
Smoke Detector System

6/18/20 Basic Mechatronics 21

SENSORS

“A device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.”

SENSORS V/s TRANSDUCERS
SENSORS ARE TRANSDUCERS !

• The term ‘sensor’ is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the
quantity being measured.
• In case of an electrical resistance temperature element, the quantity being
measured is temperature while the sensor transforms the temperature input
into change in resistance.

• The term ‘Transducer’ are elements, which when subjected to some physical
change experiences a related change
• However a measuring system may use transducers in addition to sensor to
convert signals in one form to another form
SENSOR SPECIFICATIONS
• Sensors or measurement systems are not perfect systems.

• Mechatronics design engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a

transducer or measurement system to properly assess its performance.

• There are a number of performance related parameters of a sensors or

measurement system as a whole.

• These parameters are called as sensor specifications.

• Sensor specifications inform the user to the about deviations from the ideal
behavior of the sensors.

• Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducer system.

SL NO. STATIC CHARACTERISTICS DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
1 Range and Span Response time
2 Error Time Constant
3 Accuracy Rise Time
4 Sensitivity Settling Time
5 Hysteresis error
6 Nonlinearity error
7 Repeatability /Reproducibility
8 Stability
9 Dead band/time
10 Resolution
11 Output Impedance
CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
A. Displacement, position and proximity D. Fluid pressure
sensors • Diaphragm pressure gauge
• Potentiometer • Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
• Strain-gauged element • Piezoelectric sensors
• Capacitive element • Tactile sensor
E. Liquid flow
• Differential transformers
• Orifice plate
• Eddy current proximity sensors • Turbine meter
• Inductive proximity switch F. Liquid level
• Optical encoders • Floats
• Pneumatic sensors • Differential pressure
• Proximity switches (magnetic)
G. Temperature
• Hall effect sensors
• Bimetallic strips
B. Velocity and motion • Resistance temperature detectors
• Incremental encoder • Thermistors
• Tachogenerator • Thermo-diodes and transistors
• Pyroelectric sensors • Thermocouples
C. Force
H. Light sensors
• Strain gauge load cell
• Photo diodes
• Photo resistors
• Photo transistor
1. TEMPERATURE SENSORS
• Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical system in terms of :
- expansion or contraction of solids, liquids or gases;
- change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors
- and thermoelectric emf.

• Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors are

widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding,
metal cutting etc.
i. BIMETALLIC STRIPS
• Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or
heat in a manufacturing process or system.

• It contains two different metal strips bonded together, each having a different
coefficients of expansion.

• On heating the strips bend into curved strips with the metal with higher
coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve.

• As the strips bend, the soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet
and further touches.

• Then the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way
bimetallic strips help to protect the desired application from heating above the
pre-set value of temperature.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING OF BIMETALLIC STIPS
ii. RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)
• RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to
change in its temperature.
• On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship
as shown below:
• The correlation is given by : Rt = R0 (1 + αT)

Rt is the resistance at temperature T (⁰C)

R0 is the temperature at 0⁰C

α is the constant for the metal termed as

temperature coefficient of resistance.

The sensor is usually made to have a resistance

of 100 Ω at 0 °C
• It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone bridge.
• The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a
sheath.
• A small amount of current is continuously passing though the coil.
• As the temperature changes the resistance of the coil changes which is
detected at the Wheatstone bridge.
• RTDs are used in the form of thin films, wire wound or coil.
• They are generally made of metals such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper
alloys.
• Platinum wire held by a high-temperature glass adhesive in a ceramic tube is
used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace.
• Its applications are:
• Air conditioning and refrigeration servicing
• Food Processing
• Stoves and grills
• Textile production
• Plastics processing
• Petrochemical processing
• Micro electronics
• Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes and tanks
• Exhaust gas temperature measurement
iii. THERMISTOR
• Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing
temperature.

• The material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a

sintered metal oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel) or doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium
titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds.

• As the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of

electrons able to move about increases which results in more current in the
material and reduced resistance.

• They exhibit nonlinear response characteristics.

• Thermistors are rugged and small in dimensions. They are available in the form
of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip.

• It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5 mm coated with ceramic or

glass material.

• The bead is connected to an electric circuit through two leads.

• To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel
tube.
Applications of Thermistors
• To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
• To monitor the temperature of an incubator
• Thermistors are used in modern digital thermostats
• To monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging
• To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3D printers
• To maintain correct temperature in the food handling and processing industry
equipments
• To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee
makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc.
iv. THERMOCOUPLE
• Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals
heated, it produces an electric potential related to temperature.

• As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires composed of dissimilar metals
are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there is a
continuous current which flows in the circuit.

• The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of junction
temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by,
• Generally, Chromel (90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel (95% nickel, 2%
manganese, 2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a
thermocouple.
Selection of Thermocouple

The following criteria are used in selecting a thermocouple:

 Temperature range.
 Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath material.
 Abrasion and vibration resistance.
 Compatible with existing equipment.
Applications of Thermocouples

• To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel making process

• Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical production
and petroleum refineries
• Testing of heating appliance safety
• Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces and kilns
• Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engine exhausts
• Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process
in the steel, iron and aluminium industry
2. LIQUID FLOW SENSORS
• Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli’s principle of fluid
flow through a constriction.

• The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured.

• The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at

the two ends of the constriction.

• There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.
i. ORIFICE PLATE
• It is a “Differential Pressure flow meter”
• It has a disc with a hole at its center, through which the fluid flows.
• The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter of
the tube at upstream and a point equal to the half the diameter at
downstream.
• Orifice plate is inexpensive and simple in construction with no moving parts.
• It exhibits nonlinear behaviour and does not work with slurries. It has accuracy
of ± 1.5%.
ii. TURBINE METER
• Turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ± 0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor
mounted centrally in a pipe and a magnetic pick up coil along which the flow is
to be measured.

• The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the magnetic pick up coil counts the
number of magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of magnetic field by
the rotor blades.

• The angular velocity is proportional to the number of pulses and fluid flow is
proportional to angular velocity.
iii. CORIOLIS FLOW METER
• If a skater is spinning with arms outstretched and then pulls in his or her arms,
they spin faster. As a consequence we can think of there being a torque acting
on the skater's body to result in the increased angular velocity.

• This torque is considered to arise from a tangential force called the Coriolis
force. When we move an object in a rotating system, it seems to be pushed
sideways. For a body of mass M moving with constant linear radial velocity v and
subject to an angular velocity w the Coriolis force is 2.M.w.v.

• The Coriolis flow meter consists basically of a C-shaped pipe through which the
fluid flows. The pipe, and fluid in the pipe, is given an angular acceleration by
being set into vibration, this being done by means of a magnet mounted in a coil
on the end of a tuning fork-like leaf spring.

• Oscillations of the spring then set the C-tube into oscillation, the result is an
angular velocity that alternates in direction.
• At some instant the Coriolis force acting on the fluid in the upper limb is in one
direction and in the lower limb in the opposite direction, this being because the
velocity of the fluid is in opposite directions in the upper and lower limbs.

• The resulting Coriolis forces on the fluid in the two limbs are thus in opposite
directions and cause the limbs of the C to become displaced. When the direction of
the angular velocity is reversed then the forces reverse in direction and the limbs
become displaced in the opposite direction.

• These displacements are proportional to the mass flow rate of fluid through the
tube. The displacements are monitored by means of optical sensors.

• The flow meter can be used for liquids or gases and has an accuracy of ±0.5%. It is
unaffected by changes in temperature or pressure.
3. PRESSURE SENSOR
• Chemical, petroleum, power industry often need to monitor fluid pressure.

• Various types of instruments such as diaphragms, capsules, and bellows are

used to monitor the fluid pressure.

• Specially designed strain gauges doped in diaphragms are generally used to

measure the inlet manifold pressure in applications such as automobiles.
i. STRAIN GAUGES ON A DIAPHRAGM

• Application of pressurized fluid displaces the diaphragm.

• This displacement is measured by the stain gauges in terms of radial

and/or lateral strains.

• These strain gauges are connected to form the arms of a Wheatstone

bridge.
ii. CAPSULE or BELLOWS
• Capsule is formed by combining two corrugated diaphragms. It has enhanced
sensitivity in comparison with that of diaphragms.

• A stack of capsules is called as ‘Bellows’.

• Bellows with a LVDT sensor measures the fluid pressure in terms of change in
resultant voltage across the secondary coils of LVDT.

A bellow with a LVDT

iii. BOURDON TUBE
• The Bourdon tube is an almost rectangular or elliptical cross-section tube made
from materials such as stainless steel or phosphor bronze.
• With a C-shaped tube, when the pressure inside the tube increases the closed
end of the C opens out, thus the displacement of the closed end becomes a
measure of the pressure.
• A C-shaped Bourdon tube can be used to rotate, via gearing, a shaft and cause a
pointer to move across a scale. Such instruments are robust and typically used
for pressures in the range 10 kPa to 100 MPa with an accuracy of about ±1%
• Another form of Bourdon instrument uses a helical-shaped tube.
• When the pressure inside the tube increases, the closed end of the tube rotates
and thus the rotation becomes a measure of the pressure.
• A helical-shaped Bourdon tube can be used to move the slider of a
potentiometer and so give an electrical output related to the pressure.
• Helical tubes are more expensive but have greater sensitivity.
• Typically they are used for pressures up to about 50 MPa with an accuracy of
about ±1%
4. FORCE SENSORS – STRAIN GAUGE LOAD CELL
• Strain gauge based sensors work on the principle of change in electrical
resistance.

• When, a mechanical element subjects to a tension or a compression the electric

resistance of the material changes, this is used to measure the force acted upon
the element.

• It comprises of cylindrical tube to which strain gauges are attached.

• A load applied on the top collar of the cylinder compress the strain gauge
element which changes its electrical resistance.

• Generally strain gauges are used to measure forces up to 10 MN.

• The non-linearity and repeatability errors of this transducer are ±0.03% and
±0.02% respectively.
5. DISPLACEMENT, POSITION AND PROXIMITY
SENSORS
• They are device which give on-off outputs.

Displacement sensors indicates the amount by which an object has moved.

Position sensors determines the position of an object with respect to a reference

(point/position).

Proximity sensors are form of position sensors which determines whether an

object has moved to the critical distance of the sensor.
• Displacement & Position sensors are basically classified as:

1. Contact sensors: Object comes in mechanical contact with the sensor.

Contact type sensors used for linear measurement consists of a sensing
shaft in direct contact with the object to be measured. The displacement of the
shaft can be used to change electrical voltage or resistance or capacitance or
inductance of the circuit with the aid of a sensor.

2. Non – Contacting sensors: No physical contact between the measured object

and sensor.
Non – contacting sensors might involve the presence in the vicinity of the
measured object causing a change in air pressure in sensor or change in its
Factors affecting the Selection of Displacement/Position/Proximity sensor:

 Cost.
 The resolution required.
 The accuracy required.
 The material of the object: Some sensors will only work with ferromagnetic
materials while some may work with only insulators.
 The size of displacement – fraction of a millimeter or millimeters or even
metres; How close the object should be before detection.
 Whether the displacement is either angular or linear.
i. CAPACITIVE SENSOR
• Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to
measure the linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of
millimeters.
• It comprises of three plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the
lower pair another. The linear displacement might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separation
changes
b. area of overlap changes due to the displacement.

• The schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement

measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2 is given below:
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,
C = (εr εo A) / d
• where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo
permittivity of free space, A area of overlap between two plates and d the plate
separation.

• As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the
movement of the element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured,
separation in between the plate changes. This can be given as,
C1 = (εr εo A) / (d + x)
C2 = (εr εo A) / (d – x)
• When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone’s bridge, then the resulting out-
of-balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.

• It has Non linearity and hysterisis of around 0.01%.

Capacitive elements can also be used as proximity sensor.
• The approach of the object towards the sensor plate is used for induction of
change in plate separation. This changes the capacitance which is used to detect
the object.
• It consists of a single capacitor plate probe with other plate being formed by the
object (metal & earthed).
• As the object approaches, the sepration of the capacitor changes and becomes
detectable when the object is close to the probe.
Applications of capacitive element sensors
 Feed hopper level monitoring

 Small vessel pump control

 Grease level monitoring

 Level control of liquids

 Metrology applications
1. To measure shape errors in the part being produced
2. To analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools such
as surface grinders, lathes, milling machines, and air bearing spindles by
measuring errors in the machine tools themselves.

 Assembly line testing

1. To test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other design features
2. To detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.
ii. EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSOR
• Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive
materials.
• They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit.

• When an alternating current is passed through this coil, an alternative magnetic

field is generated.
• If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents
are induced in the object due to the magnetic field.
• These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the
magnetic field responsible for their generation.
• As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating
current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined level of
change in current.
• Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly
reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors

• Automation requiring precise location
• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating
element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
iii. INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH

• {Inductive Position/Displacement sensor – LVDT}

• Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects.

• An inductive proximity sensor has four components; the coil, oscillator,

detection circuit and output circuit.
• An alternating current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field.
• When, a metal object comes closer to the end of the coil, inductance of the
coil changes.
• This is continuously monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when a
preset value of inductance change is occurred.

Applications of inductive proximity switches

• Industrial automation: counting of products during production or transfer
• Security: detection of metal objects, arms, land mines
iv. PROXIMITY SWITCHES
• There are a number forms of switches which can be activated by presence of an
object so as to give output from a proximity sensor (on or off).

MICROSWITCH
• It is a small electrical switch requiring physical contact and an operating force to
close the contacts.
• For determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt, it can be actuated
by the weight of the item on the belt depressing the belt and the spring-loaded
platform under it. This closes the switch. Different ways of actuating switches
are :
v. OPTICAL SENSOR
• Photosensitive devices can be used to detect the presence of an opaque object
by:
- breaking a beam of light or IR radiation falling on such sensors
- or by detecting the light reflected back by the object
vi. MAGNETIC PROXIMITY SENSOR
REED SWITCH (MAGNETIC)
• It is a non-contact switch sensor, which
consists of two overlapping, but not
touching, strips of a spring magnetic
material sealed in a glass or plastic
envelope.

• When a magnet or current carrying coil is

brought close to the switch, the strips
become magnetised and attract each other.
The contacts then close.

• Typically a magnet closes the contacts

when it is about 1 mm from the switch.
Hall effect sensor
• Hall effect sensors work on the
principle that when a beam of charge
particles passes through a magnetic
field, forces act on the particles and
the current beam is deflected from its
straight line path.

• Thus one side of the disc will become

negatively charged and the other side
will be of positive charge.

• This charge separation generates a

potential difference which is the
measure of distance of magnetic field
from the disc carrying current.
• The charge separation continues until the forces on the charged particles from
the electric field balances the forces produced by the magnetic field.
• The produced voltage difference is given by :

Where B – Magnetic flux density at right angles to the plate; I – current flowing
through the plate; t – plate thickness; KH – Hall coefficient constant .

• These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the
detection of position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal
conditioning circuits while operating up to 100 kHz.

• Their non-contact nature of operation, good immunity to environment

contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions make them quite
popular in industrial automation.
• The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level
in a container.

• The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at its top.

• An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted in the casing.

• When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to the disc and a
potential difference generates.

•This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to come inside the container.
6. OPTICAL ENCODERS
• An encoder is a device that provides a digital output as a result of an angular or
linear displacement.

• These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts.

• Position encoders can be grouped into two categories:

incremental encoders, which detect changes in displacement from some
datum position,
and absolute encoders, which give the actual position
INCREMENTAL ENCODER
• It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. A
beam of light is made to pass through the slots, which are detected by suitable
light sensor.

• These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element like shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted.
•
• The inner track has just one hole which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the
disc. The holes on the middle track offset from the holes of the outer track by
one-half of the width of the hole.

• The offset provides the direction of rotation to be determined. When the disc
rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the
inner; in counter clockwise direction they lag behind.

• The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc. With 100 holes
in one revolution, the resolution would be, 360⁰/100 = 3.6⁰.
ABSOLUTE ENCODER
• With the incremental encoder, the number of pulses counted gives the angular
displacement, a displacement of say 50 giving the same number of pulses
whatever angular position the shaft starts its rotation from.

• However, the absolute encoder gives an output in the form of a binary number of
several digits, each such number representing a particular angular position.

• The rotating disc has three concentric circles of slots and three sensors to detect
the light pulses.

• The slots are arranged in such a way that the sequential output from the sensors
is a number in the binary code, each such number corresponding to a particular
angular position
• Typical encoders tend to have up to 10 or 12 tracks. The number of bits in the
binary number will be equal to the number of tracks.

• Thus with 10 tracks there will be 10 bits and so the number of positions that can
be detected is 210 i.e. 1024, a resolution of 360/1024 = 0.35o.

• Advantage over incremental encoder => The absolute position is recovered upon
power-down without requiring a home cycle or any shaft rotation.
• The normal binary form is not used here since changing from one binary
number to another can result in more than one bit changing.

• Through some misalignment, if one of the bits changes fractionally before the
others then an intermediate number is momentarily indicated leading to false
2
counting. 3
Black sectors are ‘ON’
4 1

2 3
1
Binary Coding
Sector Contact 1 Contact 2 Contact 3 Angle
5
1 off off off 0° to 45° 8
2 off off on 45° to 90°
3 off on off 90° to 135°
6 7
4 off on on 135° to 180°
5 on off off 180° to 225° 2 bits change
6 on off on 225° to 270°
7 on on off 270° to 315°
8 on on on 315° to 360
From sector 4 to sector 5, it shows that contact 2 and contact 3 changes from ON to
OFF. However in a practical device, the contacts are never perfectly aligned. They
will not switch at the same time but at different time, i.e. only 1 bit changes at a
time

For example: If contact 1 switches first, followed by contact 3 and then contact 2,
for example, the actual sequence of codes will be:

Sector 4: off-on-on (starting position)

on-on-on (first, contact 1 switches on) Sector 8
on-on-off (next, contact 3 switches off) Sector 7
Sector 5: on-off-off (finally, contact 2 switches off)

This behavior is undesirable and could cause the system to fail. To overcome the
above limitation, a gray code is being used
ABSOLUTEGRAY CODING ENCODER
 A system of binary counting, in which two adjacent codes differ in only one
position even from sector 4 to sector 5.

 The sequence of incorrect codes shown in the previous illustration cannot happen
here.
Black sectors are ‘ON’ 2
3

3-bit Binary-Reflected Gray code (BRGC) 4

1
2 3
1
Sector Contact Contact 2 Contact 3 Angle
1
1 off off off 0° to 45° 8
5
2 off off on 45° to 90°
3 off on on 90° to 135°
4 off on off 135° to 180°
6 7
5 on on off 180° to 225°
1 bit change from 1 sector
6 on on on 225° to 270°
to another
7 on off on 270° to 315°
8 on off off 315° to 360°
 The incremental encoder and the absolute encoder can be used with linear
displacements if the linear displacement is first converted to a rotary motion by
means of a tracking wheel.
7. RESOLVERS AND SYNCHROS
• Resolvers and Synchros are electromechanical devices that convert mechanical motion
into an electronic signal. However, unlike an encoder, a they transmit an analog signal
rather than digital.

• Machine-tool and robotics manufacturers have increasingly turned to resolvers and

synchros to provide accurate angular and rotational information.

• They excel in factory applications requiring small size, long-term reliability, absolute
position measurement, high accuracy and low-noise operation.

• Both synchros and resolvers employ single-winding rotors that revolve inside fixed
stators.

• In the case of a simple synchro, the stator has three windings oriented 120 O apart and
electrically connected in a Y-connection.

• Resolvers differ from synchros in that their stators have only two windings oriented at
90O.
RESOLVERS:
• Resolvers also work on the principle of mutual inductance variation and are widely
used for measurement of rotary motion.

• A resolver consists of a rotor containing a primary coil and two stator windings
(with equal number of turns) placed perpendicular to each other. The rotor is
directly attached to the object whose rotation is being measured.

• If a.c. excitation of r.m.s voltage Vref is applied, then the induced voltages at two
stator coils are given by: V01 = K x Vref x cosθ and V02 = K x Vref x sinθ ; where K is a
constant.

• By measuring these two voltages the angular position can be uniquely

determined, provided (0 < θ < 90).

• Phase sensitive detection is needed if we want to measure for angles in all the
four quadrants.
• Most resolvers are specified to work over 2 V to 40 V RMS and at frequencies from
400 Hz to 10 kHz.

• Angular accuracies range from 5 arc-minutes to 0.5 arc-minutes.

SYNCHROS:
 Because synchros have three stator coils in a 120º orientation, they are more
difficult than resolvers to manufacture and are therefore more costly.

 Synchros find use in certain military and avionic retrofit applications.

 In operation, synchros and resolvers resemble rotating transformers. The rotor

winding is excited by an AC reference voltage, at frequencies up to a few kHz.

 The magnitude of the voltage induced across any pair of stator terminals will
be the vector sum of the voltages across the two connected coils.

 For example, if the rotor of a synchro is excited with a reference voltage, =

K.Vref , across its terminals R1 and R2, then the stator's terminal will see
voltages in the form: S1 to S3 = K.Vref sinθ S3 to S2 = K.Vref sin (θ + 120º) S2 to
S1 = K.Vref sin (θ + 240º), where θ is the shaft angle.
8. PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
• It uses piezoelectric effect to measure pressure, acceleration, strain,
displacement or force.

• When a pressure force or acceleration is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, an

electrical charge is developed across the crystal proportional to the force
applied.

• The electric charge produced is due to flow of electrons when crystal is

elastically deformed, which can be measured as an indication of pressure
developed in the crystal.

• The piezoelectric sensors are attached with the diaphragm pressure sensing
element to measure the pressure.

• Commonly used piezoelectric materials are: quartz crystal, PZT ceramic, gallium
phosphate and lithium sulphate.
• The net electrical charge produced in the crystal is proportional to its
deformation due to applied force and material stiffness.

• The net charge produced in the crystal is given by:

q = k.x = S.P
x – deformation of crystal; k – stiffness of the material; P – applied pressure or
force; S – charge sensitivity;

• They are active in nature, rugged construction, small size, high response time

• They are sensitive to temperature variations.

• They can withstand both tensile and compressive forces

9. ACOUSTIC EMISSION SENSOR
• Acoustic emission (AE) is the phenomenon of radiation of acoustic (elastic)
waves in solids that occurs when a material undergoes irreversible changes in its
internal structure like crack formation or plastic deformation due to aging,
temperature gradients or external mechanical forces.

• In particular, AE is occurring during the processes of mechanical loading of

materials and structures accompanied by structural changes that generate local
sources of elastic waves.

• The sensor has two piezoelectric transducers at each end: One at the transmitting
end and one at the receiving end where the wave is converted into electric
signal.

• An oscillating electric field generates acoustic waves, which are propagated

through the surface of the material.
• Any changes to the characteristics of the propagation path affects the velocity or
amplitude of the wave.

• Changes in velocity can be monitored by measuring the frequency of the sensor

and can be correlated to the corresponding physical quantity being measured.

ACOUSTIC EMISSION TECHNIQUE

• Microphone : An acoustic sensor for air waves in the audible range.
• Hydrophone : An acoustic sensor for liquid waves.
• Both the above mentioned sensors have a moving diaphragm which converts
their motion into an electric signal.

Advantages of AE sensors
• Can observe the progress of plastic deformation and microscopic collapse in
real time. 
• Can locate a flaw by using several AE sensors. 
• Can diagnose facilities while they are in operation

Applications of AE sensors
• AE sensors can pick up warning signals from manufactured products that
human senses cannot detect. 
• AE sensors have a wide range of applications, from quality control inspections
of manufactured goods, to safety inspections of large structures.
10. VIBRATION SENSORS
• The term vibration relates with the displacement, velocity and acceleration. So
vibrations can be measured by using the transducers which are sensitive to
displacement, velocity or acceleration.

• A vibration is measured by its frequency and amplitude. Every vibrating

body/element has mass and frequency of vibration is a function of this mass.
Thus amplitude of vibration is a function of this mass.
• From above equations, we can infer that displacement, velocity and acceleration
are related to each other.

• Generally vibration measuring instruments are referred to as “seismic

instruments” as they mainly consists of mass, spring, dashpots etc.

• The output of above instruments will be in the form of electric signals

proportional to the quantity being measured

BASIC CLASSIFICATION OF VIBRATION SENSORS

1. Non – contacting Displacement Transducer
2. Electro - dynamic Velocity Transducer
3. Accelerometer
i. ELECTRODYNAMIC VELOCITY SENSOR
ii. ACCELEROMETERS
• Accelerometer sense speed changes by measuring the force produced by the
change in velocity of a known mass (seismic mass).

• An accelerometer is a sensor that measures the physical acceleration

experienced by an object due to inertial forces or due to mechanical excitation.

• These devices can be made with a cantilevered mass and a strain gauge for force
measurement or can use capacitive measurement techniques.

• Piezoelectric devices are also used to measure acceleration. The seismic mass
produces a force on the piezoelectric element during acceleration which causes a
voltage to be developed across the element.
• The seismic mass is connected through the parallel spring and damper
arrangement to the housing frame. This frame is then connected to the vibration
source whose characteristics are to be measured.

• The mass tends to remain fixed in its spatial position so that the vibrational
motion is registered as a relative displacement between the mass and the housing
frame.

• This displacement is then sensed and indicated by an appropriate transducer, as

shown in the schematic diagram. Of course, the seismic mass does not remain
absolutely steady, but for selected frequency ranges it may afford a satisfactory
reference position.

• The seismic instrument may be used for either displacement or acceleration

measurements by proper selection of mass, spring, and damper combinations.

• In general, a large mass and soft spring are desirable for vibrational displacement
measurements, while a relatively small mass and stiff spring are used for
acceleration indications.
• To derive the motion equation of the system Newton’s second law is used, where
all real forces acting on the proof-mass are equal to the inertia force on the proof-
mass.

• Accordingly a dynamic problem can be treated as a problem of static equilibrium

and the equation of motion can be obtained by direct formulation of the
equations of equilibrium.

• This damped mass-spring system with applied force constitutes a classical

second order mechanical system. From the stationary observer‘s point of view,
the sum of all forces in the z direction is,
𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑−𝐹𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔−𝐹𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔=𝑚ẍ
𝑚ẍ +𝑘𝑥+𝑐ẋ= 𝐹

• Where , m = mass of the proof-mass x = relative movement of the proof-mass

with respect to frame c = damping coefficient k = spring constant F = force
applied
TYPES OF ACCELEROMETERS

a. ACCELEROMETERS USING POTENTIOMETER

• a seismic instrument may use a voltage-divider potentiometer for sensing the
relative displacement between the frame and the seismic mass.
• To provide the damping for the system, the case of the instrument might be
filled with a viscous liquid which would interact continuously with the frame and
themass.
• Because of the relatively large mass of the potentiometer, such systems have
rather low natural frequencies (less than about 100 Hz) and are limited to
acceleration measurements at frequencies less than about 50 Hz.
b. ACCELEROMETERS USING LVDT
• A Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) offers another convenient
means for measurement of the relative displacement between the seismic mass
and accelerometer housing.
• Such devices have somewhat higher natural frequencies than potentiometer
devices (270 to 300 Hz) but are still restricted to applications with low-
frequency-response requirements.
• The LVDT however, has a much lower resistance to motion, capable of much
better resolution and lighter in construction compared to the one using a
potentiometer.
c. ACCELEROMETERS USING STRAIN GAUGES
• A The electrical-resistance strain gage may also be used for a displacement-
sensing device in a seismic instrument. The seismic mass is mounted on a
cantilever beam. On each side of the beam a resistance strain gage is mounted
to sense the strain in the beam resulting from the vibrational displacement of
the mass.
• Damping for the system is provided by the viscous liquid, which fills the housing.
The outputs of the strain gages are connected to an appropriate bridge circuit,
which is used to indicate the relative displacement between the mass and
housing frame.
• The natural frequencies of such systems are fairly low and roughly comparable
to those for the LVDT systems.
• [The low natural frequencies result from the fact that the cantilever beam must
be sufficiently large to accommodate the mounting of the resistance strain
gages].
d. ACCELEROMETERS USING PIEZOELECTRIC SENSOR
• For high-frequency measurements the seismic instrument frequently employs a
piezoelectric sensor.
• The natural frequency of such instruments may be as high as 100 kHz, and the
entire instrument may be quite small and light in weight.
SENSOR SELECTION
The factors to be considered while selecting sensors are:

1. The nature of output required from the sensor.

2. The nature of measurement required.
3. The accuracy of the sensor.
4. The cost of the sensor.
5. The power requirement of the sensor.
6. The speed response of the sensor.
7. The linearity of the sensor.
8. The Reliability and Maintainability of the sensor.
9. Environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made.
10. Signal conditioning requirements.
11 . The nominal and range of values of the sensor.
12. Suitable output signals from the measurement.