Module 3
Signal Encoding Techniques
Signal Encoding Techniques
Modulation : Modulation is the process
encoding source data onto a carrier signal
with frequency fc.
The input signal m(t) may be analog or digital
and is called the modulating signal or baseband
signal
The result of modulating the carrier signal is
called the Modulated signal s(t).
Digital data, Digital Signal
Digital Data, Digital Signal
Encoding :
Encoding scheme is simply the mapping from
data bits to signal elements.
Digital signal
Digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous
voltage pulses.
Each pulse is a signal element
Binary data encoded into signal elements
Figure 4.2 Signal element versus data element
4.7
Data rate and Baud rate
The baud or signal rate can be
expressed as:
S = c x N x 1/r bauds
where N is data rate
c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
r is the ratio between data element &
signal element
4.8
Example 4.1
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is
100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate if c is
between 0 and 1?
Solution
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud
rate is then
4.9
Some Terms
Unipolar : If the signal elements all have
the same algebraic sign, that is, all
positive or negative, then the signal is
unipolar.
Polar : In polar signalling, one logic
state is represented by a positive voltage
level, and the other by a negative voltage
level.
data rate : The data signalling rate, or just
data rate, of a signal is the rate, in bits
per second, that data are transmitted.
modulation rate: The modulation rate,
in contrast, is the rate at which the signal
level is changed.
mark and space : refer to the binary digits
1 and 0,
Interpreting Signals
Receiver must know with accuracy when
the signal begins and ends.
Factors affecting signal interpretation of
the receiver
signal to noise ratio
data rate
bandwidth
encoding scheme
Comparison of Encoding
Schemes
Signal spectrum:
Clocking:
the beginning and ending of each bit position.
Synchronization and Asynchroziation
Errordetection
Signal interference and noise immunity
Cost and complexity
Non –Return-to-zero
In this scheme positive voltage defines bit 1
and the zero voltage defines bit 0.
It is called Non-return-to- Zero because the
signal does not return to zero at the middle of
the bit .
Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
more often, negative voltage for bit 1 and
positive for bit 0.
Non-return to Zero Inverted
Non-return to zero inverted on ones
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
no transition denotes binary 0
example of differential encoding since have
data represented by changes rather than levels
Note
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines
the value of the bit.
In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of
inversion determines the value of the bit.
Manchester Encoding
has transition in middle of each bit period
the signal changes not between the bits but during the bit.
high to low represents zero
low to high represents one
Differential Manchester
Encoding
always a transition occurs in the middle of the bit
interval.
If it is bit 0 transition occurs at start of bit period
also and for bit 1 no transition at start of bit
period.
NRZ Pros & Cons
Pros
easy to engineer
make good use of bandwidth
Cons
dc component
lack of synchronization capability
used for magnetic recording
not often used for signal transmission
Bipolar schemes (or)
Multilevel binary encoding:
In this scheme, there are three voltage levels:
positive , negative, and zero.
Methods under this category
1. Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI) encoding
2. Pseudoternary endocing
Alternate Mark Inversion(AMI)
three levels are used: positive, negative, and zero
Bit 0 represented by no line signal (Zero
voltage).
Bit 1 represented by positive or negative
pulse.
Bit 1 pulses alternate in polarity.
Pseudoternary encoding
A variation of AMI encoding is called
pseudoternary.
bit 1 is encoded as a Zero voltage
Bit 0 is encoded as alternating positive
and negative voltages.
Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)
B8ZS works in a similar way to AMI
IN AMI, there is a problem with synchronisation being
lost when there is a stream of binary 0s being sent.
B8ZS attempts to tackle this problem by making artificial
signal changes.
B8ZS is a common method used in the US to avoid the
synchronisation problem of long strings of binary 0s
Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)
AMI encoding is amended with the
following rules:
1. If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was positive, then the
eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000+-0-+.
2. If an octet of all zeros occurs and the last voltage
pulse preceding this octet was negative, then the
eight zeros of the octet are encoded as 000-+0+-.
'+' = Positive Voltage Pulse
'-' = Negative Voltage Pulse
'0' = No Voltage Pulse
Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution
(B8ZS)
DATA | 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1
B8ZS | 0 + 0 - + 0 0 0 + - 0 - + - 0 0 + 0 0 0 0 –
'+' = Positive Voltage Pulse
'-' = Negative Voltage Pulse
'0' = No Voltage Pulse
Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution
(B8ZS)
V=bipolar violation
B=valid bipolar signal
High Density Bipolar-3 Zeros (HDB3)
HDB3 is the European equivalent of
B8ZS.
It works in a similar way to B8ZS but
replaces string of 4 zeroes rather than 8.
Example 1 of HDB3 encoding
The pattern of bits
"10000110"
encoded in HDB3 is
"+000V-+0“
Example 2 of HDB3 encoding
The pattern of bits
"1010000011000011000000"
encoded in HDB3 is
"+0-+00 +0-+ -0 0-+-+00+00"
B8ZS and HDB3
Encoding Schemes
Digital data , Analog signal
(Digital-to-analog conversion)
Digital data , Analog signal
(Digital-to-analog conversion)
5.34
Digital Data, Analog Signal
(Digital-to-Analog Conversion)
Digital data needs to be carried on an analog
signal.
A carrier signal (frequency fc) performs the
function of transporting the digital data in an
analog waveform.
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of
changing one of the characteristics of an analog
signal(carrier) based on the information in digital
data.
Digital data , Analog Signal
Encoding techniques
1. Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
2. Frequency shift keying (FSK)
3. Phase shift keying (PSK)
4. Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM)
5.36
Digital data, Analog signal
The analog carrier signal is manipulated
to uniquely identify the digital data being
carried.
5.37
Amplitude Shift Keying
(ASK)
Also called binary ASK
ASK is implemented by changing the
amplitude of a carrier signal to reflect
amplitude levels in the digital signal.
For example: a digital “1” could not affect the
signal, whereas a digital “0” would, by making
it zero.
5.38
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Figure 5.4 Implementation of binary ASK
5.40
Bandwidth of ASK
The bandwidth B of ASK is proportional
to the signal rate S.
B = (1+d)S
“d” is due to modulation, lies between 0
and 1.
5.41
Frequency Shift Keying
Also called binary Frequency shift
keying (binary FSK)
In FSK, the frequency of the carrier
signal is varied to represent data.
The digital data stream changes the
frequency of the carrier signal, fc.
5.42
Bit 1 could be represented by f1=fc +f.
Bit 0 could be represented by f2=fc-f.
Frequency Shift Keying
Multiple FSK
each signalling element represents more
than one bit
more than two frequencies used
more bandwidth efficient
more prone to error
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
In phase shift keying (PSK), the phase of a
carrier is changed according to the digital
signal.
phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
The simplest method uses two phases
0 degrees and 180 degrees.
If the logic state changes (i.e. from logic high to
logic low) the phase of the carrier is shifted by
180 degrees.
If the logic state does not change, the phase of
the carrier remains the same. ( 0 degrees
change)
Also called Binary PSK.
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Quadrature PSK
get
more efficient use if each signal
element represents more than one bit
eg. shifts of /2 (90o)
each element represents two bits
split input data stream in two & modulate onto
carrier & phase shifted carrier
can
use 8 phase angles & more than one
amplitude
9600bps modem uses 12 angles, four of
which have two amplitudes
Modulation Techniques
QPSK and OQPSK
Modulators
Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes
bandwidth
ASK/PSK bandwidth directly relates to bit rate
multilevel PSK gives significant improvements
in presence of noise:
bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB
superior to ASK and FSK
for MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between
bandwidth efficiency and error performance
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
combination of ASK and PSK
logical extension of QPSK
send two different signals simultaneously on
same carrier frequency
use two copies of carrier, one shifted 90°
each carrier is ASK modulated
two independent signals over same medium
demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Modulator
QAM Variants
two level ASK
each of two streams in one of two states
four state system
essentially QPSK
four level ASK
combined stream in one of 16 states
have 64 and 256 state systems
improved data rate for given bandwidth
but increased potential error rate
Analog Data, Digital Signal
digitization is conversion of analog data
into digital data which can then:
be transmitted using NRZ-L
be transmitted using code other than NRZ-L
be converted to analog signal
analog to digital conversion done using a
codec
pulse code modulation
delta modulation
Digitizing Analog Data
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
sampling theorem:
“If a signal is sampled at regular intervals at a
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples contain all information
in original signal”
eg. 4000Hz voice data, requires 8000 sample
per sec
strictly have analog samples
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
so assign each a digital value
PCM Example
PCM Block Diagram
Non-Linear Coding
Companding
Delta Modulation
analog input is approximated by a
staircase function
can move up or down one level () at each
sample interval
has binary behavior
since function only moves up or down at each
sample interval
hence can encode each sample as single bit
1 for up or 0 for down
Delta Modulation Example
Delta Modulation Operation
PCM verses Delta Modulation
DM has simplicity compared to PCM
but has worse SNR
issue of bandwidth used
eg. for good voice reproduction with PCM
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps
data compression can improve on this
still growing demand for digital signals
use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
PCM preferred to DM for analog signals
Analog Data, Analog Signals
modulate carrier frequency with analog data
why modulate analog signals?
higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
permits frequency division multiplexing (chapter 8)
types of modulation
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
Analog
Modulation
Techniques
Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation
Summary
looked at signal encoding techniques
digital data, digital signal
analog data, digital signal
digital data, analog signal
analog data, analog signal
References
Chapter4, Data Communications and
Networking – B.A. Forouzan
Chapter
5, Data and Computer
communications – William Stallings
